People
Freud, Sigmund
(10) 1856-1939 Pioneering architect of psychoanalytic theory. Characteristics of theory include: problems are result of early experiences. adult personality is result of how we resolved conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage of development. (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) Humans motivated by sex. Personality shaped in first five years. (early experience only) TODAY: Psychoanalytic theorists emphasize sexual instances less than Freud and include cultural experiences as determinate of development/. Criticism of PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES Lack of scientific support too much emphasis on sex - Freud too much credit to unconscious mind negative image of children - Freud
Masten, Ann
(10) Resilience studied: what creates a Ted Kaczynski vs. Alice Walker? good intellectual function close to a caring parent connection to caring adults outside family Resilient children develop confidence in their abilities in spite of adversity.
Telen, Esther
(140) Dynamic Systems View has replaced older genetic determination view of motor skills. Theory explains how motor behaviors are assembled for perceiving & acting. Infant actively puts together a skill to achieve a goal within the constraints set by its body in the environment. 1. infant perceives something. 2. it motivates them to act 3. infant uses perception to fine tune movement and create new behavior. Motor skills are a solution to a problem. Example Research on Learning to walk concluded that while stepping is inborn, balance & bearing weight must be learned.
Brazelton, T. Berry
(142) Reflexes: observed how infants sucking changed as they grew older 85% engaged in sucking unrelated to feeding by age 1 most stopped but 40% continued until they started school NEW VIEW - reflexes not automatic or beyond infant's control ex. sucking - most infants take several weeks to adapt their own style
Adolph, Karen
(145)"Infants acquire new skills w/ help of caregiver in real world - not as result of age-related maturation. Learning to Walk learn what places are safe to walk locomotor experience w/ slope NOT age predicted adaptive response on slopes with experience both crawler/walker learns to judge steep slope safety IMPORTANT CONCLUSION - learning risks of crawling don't transfer to recognizing risks of walking. Importance of perceptual-motor coupling. (151) practice but not exact repetition important in learning to walk average toddler 40 football fields/day 15 falls/hr OBSERVATIONAL research infant ability to connect motor decisions to actual affordances. (ex. slope & teflon shoes) range of infant experience predicts developmental changes beyond body size & age. experience doesn't transfer well to other visually similar surfaces
Keen, Rachel
(149)Fine Motor Skills Tool use & problem solving in infants gives info about how infant plans to reach a goal.
Gibson, Eleanor & James
(150)GIBSON'S ECOLOGICAL VIEW- has guided most recent research. perception brings us into direct contact w/ world around us rather than having to reconstruct ideas of the world in our brain. Objects have AFFORDANCES - opportunities to interact that fit our capabilities. pot affords an adult w/ means to cook pot affords infant a drum Adults perceive affordances by sensing info in the environment. Affordances are learned by coupling perception & action in environment infant must learn slope affords not only faster locomotion down but also possibility of falling. PERCEPTION allows children to become more efficient discovering and using affordances.
Fantz, Robert
(151)ROBERT FRANZ (1963) Visual preference method (looking time where more tie = more preference) to research infants visual perception (161) infants look at different things for different lengths of time. Looking chamber allows observation @ 2 days infants prefer faces/patterns to flat color babies prefer patterns but faces most of all what part of face do infants find interesting
Johnson, Scott
(155) perception of occluded objects - ex. desk behind chair (not present 0-2mo.) Asks: How does perceptual completion develop? Learning, experience exploration via eye movement are key to development which emerges around 3 - 5 mo.
Gunnar, Megan
(156)
Walk, Richard
(156) Visual perception in infancy. depth perception (156) GIBSON & WALK (156) most 6-12mo olds would not crawl on glass cliff - critics say this is fear of heights not depth perception: inconclusive
Maurer, Daphne
(160) longitudinal study of infant cataracts The longer cataracts went unmerited the more likely infants would suffer permanent setbacks in developing normal vision. Study shows how deprivation & experience influence development especially during a CRITICAL DEVELOPMENT PERIOD.(supports ETHALOGICAL THEORY)
Kagan, Jerome
(17)
Erickson, Erik
(19) development is in psychological not sexual stages. Humans motivated by social affilation. Personality shaped over lifetime. (early & later experiences) Erickson's theory - Psychoanalytical theory 8 stages of development, each with a unique developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved. PAGE 28 1. trust vs mistrust in infancy 2. autonomy vs shame ages 1-3 if development of autonomy is overly restrained they will develop shame/doubt in self. 3. initiative vs. guilt - preschool if child feels anxious guilt will develop 4. Industry vs. inferiority - elementary years. may develop feelings of inferiority or incompetence. 5. Identity vs. identity confusion - adolescence. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation. early adulthood. 7. Generativity vs. stagnation. middle adulthood 8. Integrity vs. despair. late adult - how you reflect on your life. Criticism of PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES Lack of scientific support too much credit to unconscious mind
Piaget, Jean
(22) Cognitive Development Theory Children actively construct understanding of the world in 4 stages with two underlying processes 1)organizing experiences 2)adapting to environment. organization & adaptation underly all development Stage 1 - sensorimotor understanding comes from coordinating sensory experiences with physical action. 0-2 years Stage 2 - Preoperational - represent the world with drawings, words etc. 2-7 Stage 3 - Concrete operational (put two sticks together mentally, reason logically about concrete examples) 7 - 11ability to classify objects into different sets Stage 4 - Formal Operational - abstract, logical and idealistic reasoning ability. ability to imagine the steps to complete an algebra equation ability to imagine the ideal parent and compare this ideal to their parent imagining what they may be in the future ability to form & test a hypothesis Contributions of COGNITIVE THEORIES: positive view of development emphasis of active construction of understanding Criticisms of COGNITIVE THEORIES: skepticism of pureness of Piagetian stages too little attention paid to individual variations
Pavlov, Ivan
(24) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Development is learned A neutral stimulus acquires ability to produce same response as original stimulus. Dogs salivate at ringing of bell rather than eating food. ------------ BEHAVIORIAL & SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES behaviorism - holds that we can only study scientifically what can be observed & measured. Development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment. NO Stages - emphasis on continuity of development Development is learned behavior through positive & negative interactions with environment emphasis on nurture/environment early & later experiences influence development CONTRIBUTIONS BEHAVIORIAL & SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES Emphasis on scientific research and the importance of environmental experience reciprocal links between environmental, behavioral and person/cognitive factors(Social cognitive) CRITICISMS underemphasizes cognition (Skinner) not enough attention paid to developmental changes not enough attention given to biological foundations
Skinner, B.F.
(24) OPERANT CONDITIONING / behaviorist Emphasizes environment / key aspect is behavior rather than thoughts & feelings Development is learned Key aspect of development is behavior (not thoughts or feelings) Consequences of a behavior produce changes in probability of a behavior's occurrence. Rewards/reinforcement & punishment shape development ex. shyness is a learned behavior that can be unlearned with positive stimulus. ------- BEHAVIORIAL & SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES behaviorism - holds that we can only study scientifically what can be observed & measured. Development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment. NO Stages - emphasis on continuity of development Development is learned behavior through positive & negative interactions with environment emphasis on nurture/environment early & later experiences influence development
Siegler, Robert
(24) Robert Siegler - stresses need to learn good strategies for processing (learning to track themes improves ability to read) One Proponent of Information Processing Theory Arose when psychologists made analogies between computer hardware/brain & software/cognition Emphasizes continuity, early & later experience No stages defined Individuals develop a gradually increasing ability to process information enabling increasingly complex knowledge & skills. emphasizes an ability to manipulate, monitor and strategize about information? Robert Siegler - stresses need to learn good strategies for processing (learning to track themes improves ability to read) Contributions of COGNITIVE THEORIES: positive view of development emphasis of active construction of understanding Criticisms of COGNITIVE THEORIES: skepticism of pureness of Piagetian stages too little attention paid to individual variations
Watson, John
(24) behaviorist: demonstrated same principle as Pavlov in humans using Albert and the white rat.pg 24 stimulus generalization Explains how we develop involuntary responses like fear --------- BEHAVIORIAL & SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES behaviorism - holds that we can only study scientifically what can be observed & measured. Development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment. NO Stages - emphasis on continuity of development Development is learned behavior through positive & negative interactions with environment emphasis on nurture/environment early & later experiences influence development CONTRIBUTIONS BEHAVIORIAL & SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES Emphasis on scientific research and the importance of environmental experience reciprocal links between environmental, behavioral and person/cognitive factors(Social cognitive) CRITICISMS underemphasizes cognition (Skinner) not enough attention paid to developmental changes not enough attention given to biological foundations
Rayner, Rosalie
(24)behaviorist: demonstrated same principle as Pavlov in humans using Albert and the white rat.pg 24 stimulus generalization Explains how we develop involuntary responses like fear
Lorenz, Konrad
(26)ETHOLOGICAL THEORY Behavior is influenced by biology, tied to evolution, and characterized by critical or sensitive periods. These are times when the presence or absence of certain experiences (such as bonding with a caregiver) have long-lasting consequences on an individuals life. Ethological Theory (Konrad Lorenz, John Bowlby) contributions: focus on biological & evolutionary aspects of dev use of careful observation in naturalistic environment
Bronfenbrenner, Urie
(27) Ecological theory Development reflects influence of five environmental systems: Microsystems - the environment in which you live Mesosystems - examples connections between family & school play a role. If parents reject a child it is hard for child to build a relationship with teachers Exosystems - ex. mother's experiences at work effect childs development Macrosystems - Culture in which child lies plays a role Chronosystems - Life transitions (with set patterns over time) like divorce Ecological Theory Contributions: - systematic look at macro/micro of environment - attention to what connects macro/micro systems - range of social contexts beyond family have influence Ecological Theory Criticisms not enough attention to biological factors
Bouchard, Thomas
(49) Directed Minnesota study of twins. points to importance of genetic basis for human development and needs for further research into genetic & environmental factors.
Buss, David
(51)Evolutionary psychologist influential in stimulating new interest in how evolution can help explain human behavior. Just as evolution helps explain physical features it influences decision making personality traits reproduction choices.
Gould, Stephen Jay
(52)Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology - maintains in most domains of human functioning, biology allows for a broad range of cultural possibilities.
Bandura, Albert
(52)Social Cognitive theory - behavior, environment and cognition are key factors in development. agrees w/ behaviorists development is learned & influenced by environment but cognition is also important. focus on observational learning, IMITATION OR MODELING - people cognitively represent behavior of others and then adopt it. examples: boy sees father yelling, begins to treat friends aggressively girl adopts dominant & sarcastic style of teacher by treating sibling same on Evolution - acknowledges importance of evolution on human adaptation, but rejects one-sided evolutionism for a bidirectional view. Emphasizes necessity of developing self-effacacy (belief that one can master a situation and produce a positive outcome) this is an example of the person aspect Child develops self effacy because parent had it. ------- CONTRIBUTIONS BEHAVIORIAL & SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES Emphasis on scientific research and the importance of environmental experience reciprocal links between environmental, behavioral and person/cognitive factors(Social cognitive) CRITICISMS underemphasizes cognition (Skinner) not enough attention paid to developmental changes not enough attention given to biological foundations ----------------- BEHAVIORIAL & SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES behaviorism - holds that we can only study scientifically what can be observed & measured. Development is observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment. NO Stages - emphasis on continuity of development Development is learned behavior through positive & negative interactions with environment emphasis on nurture/environment early & later experiences influence development
Moore, David
(54)The collaborative gene - wrote a book titled The Dependent Gene emphasizing that a gene does not act independently but is collaborative with many other genes and non genetic factors inside and outside the body. Genetic expression is effected by their environment.
Scarr, Sandra
(67) Behavior geneticist: Heredity-Environment correlation view genes influence the type of environment to which they are exposed. individuals inherit environments related to genetic propensities. Described 3 ways heredity/environment are correlated: Passive genotype environment correlations - children inherit genetic tendencies from parents and parents also provide an environment that matches their own genetic tendencies. evocative - childs genetic tendencies elicit stimulation from the environment that supports a particular trait. Genes evoke environmental support. Active - children actively seek out environmental niches that reflect their own interests and talents and are thus in accord with their genotype.
Plomin, Robert
(68)Heredity Environment correlation view in sibling studies : shared environment accounts for little of he variation in children's personality or interests. Also, heredity influences the non-shared environments of siblings through heredity/environment correlations.
Harris, Judith
(68)Strong criticism of her views exist. Parents matter far less than most people think. Genes and peers have far greater influence than parents.
Gottlieb, Gilbert
(69)Critical of heredity-environment correlation theory gives heredity too much a one-sided influence in determining development. Emphasizes the Epigenetic view development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment.
Vygotsky, Lev
23 Sociocultural Cognitive Development Theory Like Piaget kids actively construct knowledge unlike Piaget: - Added social interaction & culture as inseparable factors in cognitive development - Knowledge comes from interaction w/ others/ cooperative activity not from within. - Knowlege is situational & collaborative - No stages defined/ Continuity - Developing memory, attention and reasoning requires using inventions of society i.e.:language math etc. - Must interact w/ those more skilled. - must learn to use inventions of society language mathematical systems memory strategies ex: learning to count on a computer vs. learning to count with beads - Learning from social interaction from ore skilled adults/peers - Must learn the tools to adapt and succeed in their culture examples: Reading to a child teach them to read & that reading is important in their culture. Contributions of COGNITIVE THEORIES: positive view of development emphasis of active construction of understanding Criticisms of COGNITIVE THEORIES: skepticism of pureness of Piagetian stages too little attention paid to individual variations
El-Sheikh, Mona
Best sleep in a cool, dark, comfortable room.
Olds, David
Created most successful prenatal home visitation program - Nurse Family Partnership. Linked to improved use of prenatal care. Up to 50 home visits by trained nurses from prenatal to yr. 2. (87)
Dynamic Systems View
Esther Thelen's theory explaining how motor behaviors are assembled for perceiving & acting. Infant actively puts together a skill to achieve a goal within the constraints set by its body in the environment. 1. infant perceives something. 2. it motivates them to act 3. infant uses perception to fine tune movement and create new behavior. Motor skills are a solution to a problem.
Haith,
Lecture used eye movement to study what part of faces do babies prefer most. 1 mo old mainly looks at edges and hairline 2 mo old eye movement tracking shows increased focus on eye area along edges of hairline. did not like scrambled face.
Zelazo,
Lecture: Training for improved motor skills Significance of reflexes in newborns investigated stepping response in infants: showed smooth transition from reflexive behavior (stepping @ 1 week) to a controlled & learned response. (stepping @ 8 weeks)
Goldfield, Gene
Physical development Inborn vs. learned? Studied how baby's learned to use a bouncer - not innate knowledge baby discovers something they do with body (pushing w/ feet/legs) produces a result and they find this motivating. This is not in genetic makeup.
McGraw, Myrtle
Pioneer in researching baby physical development w/ videotaping baby sitting @ 3 mo., crawling @ 6 mo., walking @ 9 mo. She inspired others to study the question.
Johnson, Mark
Prefrontal cortex likely orchestrates functions of many other brain regions during development. (116)
Bell, Martha Ann
Researching brain development in infancy. EEG - electroencehalograms which measure brain's electrical activity can help tell about development in infancy.
Richards, John
Researching brain development in infancy. electroencehalograms which measure brain's electrical activity can help tell about development in infancy.
Nelson, Charles
Researching brain development in infancy. electroencehalograms which measure brain's electrical activity can help tell about development in infancy. ?Views that adolescents are capable of strong emotions but prefrontal cortex has not developed to the point they can control these emotions. (112)
James, WIlliam
Visual perception in INFANCY (154)WILLIAM JAMES was wrong when he called newborn perception "blooming, buzzing confusion." in fact newborn - can see about 1 foot away. 20/400
Carskadon, Mary
adolescent sleep patterns. believes adolescent biological clock secretes melatonin 1 hr later than younger adolescents. This played out in study in Edna, Minn. where later start time @ high school reduced illness, depression & discipline problems. Test scores have improved. (121)
