Period 5: Revolutions (Chapters 16-19)

Africanization of Christianity

Europeans brought Christianity to Africa where the missionaries provided them with Western education. Christianity in Africa began to take a form where it incorporated African culture and ideas. The combination of Christian and African cultural practices and their modes of worship started happening in the Churches that were under African control. This was the 20th-century "African Reformation". (Chapter 18, Strayer 816-818)

Battle of Adowa

Fought between the Ethiopian empire and Italy in Ethiopia. Th Ethiopians were successful in keeping out the imperialistic invaders through smart military strategies. (p. 850-851)

Migration to Siberia

Freeing of serfs in 1861 caused over 13 million Russians and Ukrainians to move to Siberia. Siberians shrunk to only 10% of the population. Freedom, land, and trans-Siberian railroad were motivations for movement, and they caused Europeanization of Siberia. Russia aided this movement. (Strayer page 757)

Jose de San Martin

He was a creole sponsor of independence movements. Military leader. Required support of the people in order to prevail against Spanish forces. The answer to their dilemma was found in nativism, which cast all of those born in the Americas as Americanos. (Strayer Page 712)

Immigration to US

Over 32 million Europeans arrived in the United States between 1820 and 1930. They were motivated affordable land and new, industrial jobs. The amount of immigrants led to western expansion and culture similar to that of Europes. (Strayer pages 756-757)

"Declaration of the Rights of Man"

The commoners of France drew up this document to declare they are "free and equal", which launched the French Revolution (page 704).

Australia/New Zealand

These places were both taken over by the British in the nineteenth century and were more similar to the colonization of North America. (Strayer Chapter 18, pg. 795)

Crimean War

This event lasting from 1854 to 1856 resulted in serfs being freed in 1861. This happened due to the defeat from British and French forces. (Chapter 17 Page 764)

Henry Ford/ Model T

This industrialist created an _______ automobile in the twentieth century. It was his goal to "democratize the automobile" so he made it a reasonable price. He was considered a "cultural hero" and he was admired by many people for the effort and dedication he put into his work. (Chapter 17 Pages 760/761)

Self-Strengthening

- In response to both internal and external crises in the 1860's and 1870s, China underwent ______________, which were policies to reinvigorate a traditional China while borrowing cautiously from the West. - Specifically, these policies included an overhauled examination system designed to recruit qualified candidates for official positions, sought the "good men" who could cope with the massive reconstruction of China. A few industrial factories producing textiles and steel were established, coal mines were expanded, and a telegraph system was initiated. - ___________ as an overall program for China's modernization was inhibited by fears of conservative leaders that urban, industrial, or commercial development would erode the power and privileges of the landlord class. - The general failure of _________________ became apparent at the end of the century, when an antiforeign movement known as the Boxer uprising (1898-1901) erupted in China. Led by militia organizations calling themselves the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, the "Boxers" killed numerous Europeans and Chinese Christians and laid siege to the foreign embassies in Beijing. - In general, the _________ was a modest and limited effort on the part of the Chinese government, which did not prove to be very successful. (Strayer, Pages 842-844)

Tokugawa shogunate

- Military government in Japan created by the reunification of Japan in the 1500s - This government banned all guns and swords and restricted Foreign access to Japan after Christina Portuguese missionaries came - They were afraid that Christianity would undermine their authority - They took this a step further by banning missionary activity as well as Christianity in Japan - also didn't allow many other regions in, or their natives out - This seclusion brought a peaceful time in Japan called Pax____________ (one of the words) -- this lasted for 300 years - although in previous centuries with an uncentralized the daimyo (landowners) had the power, this new centralized authority took the power away - new crops lead to massive population boom during this time and trade benefitted from this too - overall economically this government was strong (Strayer: page 610-611, 613, 852-854, 855)

(Commissioner) Lin Zexu

1785-1850. From a poor family, a Chinese bureaucrat of notable integrity. He was in charge of fighting opium as a "Drug Czar". He tried to fight not through violence, but preventative measures (like confiscating opium and imprisoning dealers). His policies ultimately prompted British military action, and he fell from grace (Strayer 840-841)

Banana Republic

A Central American society very dependent on one cash crop or on capital from foreign powers (ch.17, pg. 772).

Cultivation System

A Dutch government policy in the mid-19th century for its Dutch East Indies colony which is now Indonesia.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

A French writer who strongly influenced the French Revolution. He believed in social contract and natural rights. (P. 705)

Spheres of Influence

A country or area in which another country has the power to affect developments although it has no formal authority. For example, the European powers and the United States carved up much of Asia, Africa, and Pacific Oceania into colonies or _________. (Chapter 19, pg. 849)

Qiu Jin

A daughter of a gentry family who fought greatly to rationalize the significant benefits of changing traditional gender roles when elites were debating what "self strengthening" policies should be implemented. (Strayer Ch 19, 843)

Hundred Days' Reform

A failed attempt at an education reboot by Gunangxu Emperor of Qing China. In the reform, the old education system was abolished and a new, western one came into place. New universities and a new forms of military was put into place as china continued to westernize. It was strongly disliked by many conservative aristocrats and the emperor was put into house arrest until his death. Its name comes from the fact that it lasted approximately 100 days.

"Dependent Development"

A form of indirect imperialism in which a region develops an economic reliance on other counties that are generally more industrialized. Often, the region requires the other country to buy its products and raw materials for its economic well-being. This was frequent in Latin American "banana republics" that relied on business with the United States. Also, Brazil relied on exporting rubber to the United Kingdom until Malaysia took over the business, causing an economic collapse in Brazil. Often, the country that is relied upon can manipulate economic conditions for its own benefit, something that the United States did in Latin America. (Strayer ch. 17, pg. 772)

Young Turks

A group of military and civilian elites who largely abandoned reference to Islam and emphasized the importance of a secular public life resembling Europeans' through modernization. They thought of themselves as a National Turkish State. They got into power during 1908 and secularized schools, courts, laws and made rights equal for all regardless of religion. They also made more opportunities for women. (Strayer, 849)

British Royal Society

A group of people from England that spread scientific knowledge by publishing writings about new discoveries.

Napoleon Bonaparte

A highly successful french general who seized power in 1799. He is credited with taming the French Revolution, and he also maintained many moderate elements such as civil equality, a secular law code, religious freedom, and promotion by merit. In a series of military campaigns he expanded French into becoming the continent's largest empire since the Romans. He ended feudalism. proclaimed equality of rights, and insisted on religious tolerance also codifying the laws and rationalizing government administration. (Chapter 16 pg 707-708)

Scientific Managment

A method of mass production involving administration based on principles of efficiency. (Strayer 760)

Duma

A national assembly and advisory council of Russian government. The first Duma was assembled by Tsar Nicholas II, after a worker's rebellion in 1905. After the Russian Revolution in 1917, members of the Duma held a supreme place in authority. (Ways of the World, Strayer, 765)

Taiping Uprising

A peasant upheaval, against all religions but christianity, with leading figure Hong Xiuquan. This upheavel started because of the culmination of China's internal crisis, which led to the aflame of the country between 1850-1864 (Strayer, 836).

Karl Marx/ Communist Manifesto

A philosopher who through his writings, displayed the devastating social results of capitalist industrialization. His writings were published in 1848. (Strayer Chapter 17, pg. 777-779)

Enclosed Land (Britain)

A tactic used by English landlords in their colonized lands where they pushed small farmers out of their land and used it to produce goods for the markets.

Swami Vivekananda

A thirty year old male Hindu Monk living in the United States with an excellent European education. This man made a large impression at the World's Parliament of Religion gathering. He spoke at this and expressed his modernized Vedanta outlook. He also criticized Christian missionaries which caused him to leave the conference popular but also widely criticized. Later he helped establish Vedanta Societies in the United States. His time in the States was also used to show the States that spiritual support from India could be beneficial. (Strayer 818-819)

Russo-Japanese War

A war between Russia and Japan in 1904-1905 that ended in Japanese victory establishing Japan as a formidable military opponent. This was also the first time an Asian state defeated a major European power. This war shows the rise of Japanese power and influence and some Poles, Finns and Jews used this defeat of Russia as an opening for their liberation. (pg. 859)

Robert Owen (socialism)

A wealthy British cotton textile manufacturer who aimed to create small industrial communities which would act as safe places for workers and their families. He supported an ideology which challenged capitalist society. (Strayer, Ch. 17, pg. 751)

Fukuzawa Yukichi

A widely read commentator who urged an end to concubinage and prostitution. He also advocated more education for girls and, called for gender equality in matters of marriage, divorce, and property rights. (Strayer Ch. 19, pg. 857)

Market based economies

An economy that is based on the independent (government free) interactions of the population. Government does not have a lot to do with the buying and selling of goods in this type of economy. (Chapter 17, pg. 746)

Luddites

An organized band of English workers for shops in the woolen and cotton industry who would destroy machines (many steam-powered) that threatened their jobs and chances to live a stable life. These protesters were accustomed to traditional lifestyle before the rise of machines/industrialization, and also felt that the idea of "craft" was being taken away from the textile industries. (Strayer, Ch. 17, pgs. 758-759)

Textile Mills

Britain's industrialization system liked the idea of girls and young women employed in _______, because they were often willing to accept lower wages, ________ owners believed them to be better suited for a monotonous task. (Strayer 750)

Great Jamaica Revolt

Demonstrated slaves were against brutality they were faced with, appalled British public and helped lead them to believe slavery is morally wrong, in addition to unwise politically and economically. Event which prompted Britain to abolish slavery throughout its empire. 1831-1832 (Strayer 715)

National Assembly

During the French Revolution a group of people in the Third Estate (commoners) declared themselves the National Assembly. That was a group of people that had complete authority to make laws for France. (P. 704)

Mexican Revolution 1910 (Porfirio Dias)

During the early twentieth century, the middle class reformers and lower class peasants overthrew the harsh dictatorship through protests and bloody violence. The country implemented a new constitution, provided redistribution of land, and placed restrictions on foreign ownership. (Strayer 771-772)

Zionist Movement

During the rise of nationalism which started in Europe and spread throughout the globe, a small group of the persecuted Jewish population in Europe went to try and make Palestine their homeland again at the end of the nineteenth century. This was called the __________________. (Strayer 720)

Feminism

Following the French Revolution many feminist voices challenged the patriarchy. Because the European Enlightenment had changed many traditions and the French Revolution raised new possibilities many women wanted more equality and liberty. (Chapter 16, Pages 723-727)

Laboring Classes/working class

Forming the majority of the population, this group of people were manual workers in factories, workshops, or mines. Initially, these people led difficult lives, with horrible living conditions following a mass movement towards cities for work. In particular, these people worked long hours at fixed wages under a strict supervision. However, this changed as the later formation of trade unions and political parties gave this group immense influence. Wages rose along with food quality and factory conditions, and this class eventually obtained a better life. (Strayer ch. 17, 749-751, 753)

King Louis XVI

French ruler who called together an ancient representative body known as the Estates General. He was desperate to raise taxes against the opposition of the privileged classes. He and his wife were executed, marking a new time of revolutionary violence. (Strayer chapter 16. Page 704-705)

Scramble for Africa

From 1875 to 1900, in which European powers fought against each other to take control of Africa for promising wealth. (pg. 794, 825)

Cecil Rhodes

He was a businessman and politician born in Britain who was a huge advocate for British imperialism due to the amount of wealth he gained from South African diamonds. He made the idea to build a railroad across Africa popular, showing how badly the Europeans wanted to conquer Africa. (pg. 827)

Nationalism

Idea that humankind was divided into separate nations, consisting of specific culture and territory deserving of independent political rule. Widespread idea made prominent by Atlantic Revolutions, independence movements were made in the name of new nations, and people had a stronger connection with the larger state or empire that governed them. (Strayer 719)

Hidalgo and Morelos

In Mexico, the move toward independence began in 1810 in a peasant insurrection, driven by hunger for land and by high food prices and led successively by two priests, _____ and ______. Alarmed by the social radicalism of the ______________ rebellion, creole landowners, with the support of the Church, raised an army and crushed the insurgency. Later that alliance of clergy and creole elites brought Mexico to a more socially controlled independence in 1821. (Chapter 16, pg 712)

apartheid

It was segregation based on race that was institutionalized in South Africa. It was a policy that attempted to separate blacks from whites in every way while keeping Africans' labor power in a white-controlled economy. In South Africa this turned into an extreme act of seclusion (989-991).

zaibatsu

Japan's industrialization in the early 20th century was organized around large firms called these (pg. 857); huge industrial enterprises that dominated the economy (pg. 906)

Boxer Uprising

Led by militia organizations calling themselves the Society of Righteous and Harmonious fists, they killed many Europeans and Chinese christians between 1899 and 1901, toward the end of the Qing dynasty. (Strayer, 843)

Wage labor/Labor migration

Millions of people under colonized rule sought work in European-owned plantations, mines, construction projects, and homes to work in this type of labor system. This labor system also induced much migration across Africa and Asia, and conditions for low-paid workers were generally poor. (P. 805-809)

Maxim Gun

One of the first machine guns invented. Made in Britian 1884 and used mainly in World War 1. Shows how European Enlightenment allowed Europe and especially Britiain to become a world power with military innovations.

Trade Unions

Organized groups which were legalized in 1824 which would include workers (often factory workers) who aimed to achieve better wages and working conditions. They were initially feared by the upper class due to their strikes, motivations, and threats of violence. Over time, however, they became more and more accepted and respected. (Strayer, ch. 17, pg. 751)

Guano

Seabird excrement from the island off the coast of Peru. It made an excellent fertilizer along with nitrates and phosphates which enrich the soils and enable highly productive farming. (Ch.17, p.738)

Wanjiku of Kenya

She was born into the Gikuyu culture of East Africa, and she followed their customs and traditions such as ear piercing and female circumcision early in her life. Later on, she and her husband converted to Christianity and she gave up Gikuyu traditions, about twenty years after this she saw Kenya gain independence from the British and was delighted. (Strayer 810-811)

Creole Elites

Someone of Spanish descent, that was born in the colonies- NOT Spain. Creole: comes from Spanish word Criollo; which means "native" or "local". This group led the revolutions that expelled the Spanish in the 19th century, and Spanish American Revolutions- hence the Spanish American Wars of Independence in 1810-1826. Which initiated the Spanish American empire, to break into various independent republics. The supported the lower classes, due to the want for equality and rights. Allying with clergy for Mexico, in the process of gaining independence brought structure to Mexican society. The _________ initiated a more harmonious, socially controlled independence. They played a significant role in independence movement sponsorship support to Mexico. (Strayer Ch. 16 p. 712) (Prezi link: https://prezi.com/1z4dlr8klngz/creole-elites-in-spanish-america/)

Declaration of Independence

Statement written by Thomas Jefferson summarizing the American colonists' motivations for seeking freedom from Great Britain. It contained principles of equality​ that were practiced by the U.S. in order to become a democratic country. (Strayer chapter 16. Page 701/703)

"Egypt for Egyptians"

The British and French intervened in Egyptian affairs around the 1870s, prompting this movement, centered around Egyptian nationalism, as a response (Strayer 722).

Wollstonecraft: Vindication of the Rights of Women

The French Revolutions prompted this female writer to write an expression of feminist awareness (Chapter 16, Page 723)

Simon Bolivar

The Liberator or Spanish El Libertador. Venezuelan soldier and statesman who led the revolutions against Spanish rule in the Viceroyalty of New Granada. (Chapter 16, pg 712)

Haciendas

The Spanish term for plantations. In Latin America, to benefit the economy, the mixed-race of both genders in the lower class worked in mines and on these farms to produce food products and raw materials. (Strayer 768)

Haitian Revolution

The _________________ was a movement lit by the ideas and values of the French ____________ , and caused the different fractions, slaves, whites, and free people of color to war against each other in this country. When the ____________ ended the social hierarchy had been completely flipped with slaves becoming top on the social pyramid. While white people were either fleeing or being killed the new government redistributed the land among former slaves and free blacks, and also became a nation of small-scale farmers unlike how previously they operated huge plantations. (Chapter 16 pg 711-713)

Opium War

The conflict started when China's emperor and the Qing court banned British imports of a drug because of millions of addicts which caused severe economic problems and also because of a huge trade imbalance from the British. After the ban, the British Navy then brought a large naval expedition to counter China and eventually resulted in a British victory. (pg.838-839)

Second Wave Industrialization

The industrialization of countries after Britain, such as the United States and Russia. (Strayer 757-765)

Charles Darwin/ Social Darwinism

The man whose scientific findings led to the idea of survival of the fittest; and represented the improved understanding of the world after European Enlightenment. His ideas were turned into a social philosophy named ______ _________ which was used to justify European imperialism. (pg. 792)

Abolitionism

The movement towards the end of Slavery. (Strayer 715-719)

Unification of Germany and Italy

The multiple Atlantic revolutions which occurred in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries raised European nationalism which encouraged political changes around the globe. One of the major European political changes which resulted from this was the ___________________ which occurred in 1871 and was when "fragmented people" were brought "into new states." (Strayer 720)

Meiji Restoration

The political revolution in 1868 that brought the downfall of the Tokugawa shogunate. It restored power back under imperial rule to a boy named Meiji. As a result, the area went under major political, economic, and social change. It brought about the modernization and Westernization of Japan. (Chapter 19, pages 854-855)

Industrial Revolution/ Industrialization

The transformation of an economy from being mainly agricultural, to relying more on manufactured goods and the trade of these goods. (Chapter 17, pos. 746-747

Treaty of Nanjing

The war ended with ( ) in 1842 that largely on British terms, imposed numerous restrictions on Chinese sovereignty and opened five ports to European traders. Its provisions reflected the changed balance of global power that had emerged with Britain's Industrial Revolution. To the Chinese, that agreement represented the first of the "unequal treaties" that seriously eroded China's independence by the end of the century (Page 839).

Russian Revolution of 1917

The worker's revolution that ended the rule of the tsars in Russia and formed the USSR, or Soviet Union. The main catalyst was Russia's long history of rule by autocratic tsars, which the people grew to despise during the 20th century. Another catalyst was the pressure of World War I, which Russia was suffering heavy losses from. (Ways of the World, Strayer, 933)

Young Ottomans

The young Ottomans were a secret society that sought to bring change to the Ottoman political system. They wanted a more European style parliament that would not allow the sultan to have absolute power. They succeeded when Sultan Adb al-Hamid II allowed them to have an elected parliament, however reforms were soon suspended. (848).

Pancho Villa/Emiliano Zapata

These were leaders of revolting Mexicans who removed Porfirio Diaz from power during the Mexican Revolution from 1910 to 1920. 1 million people, making up about 10% of the Mexican population, died during the war. These people attempted to establish a new social and political system in Mexico with more equality for the people. Huge numbers of lower class workers and peasants joined with middle class reformers under the leadership of these people to reform Mexican society for the good of the majority of the population. These people were unable to establish lasting control over Mexico due to factional divisions and a focus on local issues. (Strayer ch. 17, pg. 771)

Caudillos

These were military strongmen who were active in independent countries in Latin America. They gained power by protecting order and property within these unstable and independent countries. Some became presidents or other powerful leaders within countries they protected. (Strayer Chapter 17, Page 767)

petit blancs, gens de couleur libres, grand blancs

These were some of the divisions of class in pre-revolution Haiti, meaning "poor whites", "free blacks/colored", and "elite whites", respectively. The three classes experienced antagonism, which eventually led to a slave revolt by both non-free slaves and free people of color. (Chapter 16, page 709)

Congo Free State/King Leopold II

This African state was privately led by__________ of Belgium who's private companies forced villagers to collect rubber. Millions were killed in this forced labor system's reign of terror until 1908 when the Belgian government reaffirmed control. (page 802-803)

Indian National Congress

This came out of the nationalism movement. It was started in India in 1855 due to some western-educated men starting to view India as a single nation instead of extremely diverse (Strayer 723).

Liverpool

This cities working class population grew from 77,000 to 400,000 in the first half of the nineteenth century. This was due to rapid urbanization, which is when a population increases vastly in a urban area. This city being one of the sites of massive urbanization because of the new industrialization in Britan. (strayer 749)

Ottoman Empire

This empire was the central Islamic power at the time, but its borders were shrinking and the empire was losing control over much of its previous land. It was no longer able to dominate over Europe, and it became known as "The Sick Man of Europe"

detribalization

This happened all throughout Africa during European colonization and imperialism. This is a forced action in which tribal members lose their characteristics, or when they are forced to adopt an urban way of life (chapter 18).

Defensive Modernization

This is a form of westernization that aims to reform and self-strengthen a nation. More specifically, the Ottomans recognized that they were declining so they started many programs of ________________ in the 19th century. When Sultan Selim III wanted to reorganize the army, he brought in European advisors and techniques. Western-style law codes, courts, education systems, and transportation systems were also introduced to the Ottoman empire. These reforms faced great opposition from many people because they challenged the fundamentally Islam characteristics of the Ottoman empire. (Strayer 846-847)

Toussaint L'Ouverture

This man was the Haitian Revolution's most well-known leader, seen as a liberator-hero. He led slave revolts as a military leader, and was able to defeat Napoleon's armies, allowing for the creation of free Haiti. (Chapter 16, page 709)

Maximilien Robespierre/ Committee of Public Safety

This person ruled in france after the French revolution during what is known as the Terror of 1793-1794. His group was responsible for guillotining people because they considered them enemies. Later he was guillotined himself for tyranny and dictatorship of France. (Ch. 16, pg 705)

Olympe de Gouge "Rights of Women"

This person was a french playwright and journalist who believed that women should have the equal rights to men. Women in France began to demand for more rights and better education. They began to start women clubs to campaign for rights. Many men felt threatened by this and were unwilling to give them more rights. (ch. 16, pg 706)

Lenin/Bolsheviks

This political party and their leader were the prevailing political party in the 1917 Russian Revolution. This party was extremely radical and overthrew the old regime to start the first socialist society. (Strayer Chapter 17, Page 765)

Cash Crop Agriculture

This practice was often used in European imperialized settlements. It was the encouragement of the European settlers for the populace to mass produce product for export rather then consumption. This had mixed effects as the citizens benefited from increased international exposure which brought with it enticing trade deals and products. The bad effects included the heavy reliance of the population on the success and popularity of a single product, something that is volatile at best, lacking the stability that past agricultural communities has enjoyed. (Strayer 804-805)

Urbanization

This process is characterized by the movement of people towards cities to find new work opportunities, particularly in industrial factories. As a result of this movement, overcrowding and overpopulation led to many sanitary issues within the cities. Socially, the resulting environment was very stratified as well, with hierarchies forming within the actual workplaces and the rich and poor otherwise rarely interacting. (Strayer ch. 17, 749-750)

Atlantic Revolutions

This time period from 1750-1850 encompassed a century of revolutions based in the New World. The Columbian Exchange had accelerated cultural diffusion, leading to more radical ideas. They were all inspired by radical Enlightenment ideas to gain independence, leading ot these series of incidents. (Strayer 697-728)

Maji Maji

This was a rebellion against german rule in German East Africa

"Scientific Racism"

This was a tactic that arose in the late 1800s and was tied to phrenology. This was used by the Nazi Party and it "linked the size and shape of the skull to human behavior and personality" in a way that diminished people of other ethnic backgrounds (Strayer, 901).

Estates-General (First, Second, Third)

This was the French representative body made up of three legal orders of male representatives: the clergy, the nobility and the commoners. The first two estates was compromised of 2% of the population (page 704).

Indian Rebellion (1857-1858)

This was the result of anger caused by a general decrease of power of the local Indian people due to increased British colonial presence. People were being overtaxed and taken advantage of by the British. This was accompanied by the disrespect the Hindu and Muslim people felt as the British military disregarded their religious and cultural beliefs in favor of more Christian values. In the end, while it was stopped by the British, it "greatly widened the racial divide in colonial India" (Strayer, 799).

Revolt

To challenge an existing way of life, many times through force.

Commodore Matthew Perry

U.S. Navy officer who forced Japan out of isolation and into interactions, such as trade, with western countries

Tu Duc

Vietnamese emperor ruling from 1847-1883. He was known for opposition to innovation and foreigners (p. 797)

Samori Toure

Was the leader of the West African empire. It took the French 16 years (1882-1898) to conquer this newly created empire in which he led. Was the hero in this resistance. (Chapter 18, pg. 794)

Liberia/Ethiopia/Siam

When the United States took over Spain after the Spanish-American War of 1898, some of the 13,000 freed US slaves migrated to West Africa hoped for greater freedom became elites in _____, ________, and ____ (Thailand).Their military and diplomatic skills and willingness to stand up to Europeans and imperialism allowed them survived. These three lands avoid colonization, and _______ expanded its empire and even defeated Italy in 1896.

Reform Bill 1832

a law that was passed due to the discontent of the growing, liberal middle class of Britain. It broadened the right to vote to many men of the middle class but not to middle-class women. (Strayer Ch. 17, pg. 747)

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

a leader of the Haitian Revolution, who worked under Toussaint L'Ouverture in his military ventures as the lieutenant. He had been enslaved in the French Colony of Saint-DomingueWhich. So he took part in working with Toussaint L'Ouverture after the 1791 slave revolt, and later played a prominent role in eliminating the oppressive French rule. In 1804 Jean renamed the colony Haiti, and declared himself as emperor. Yet, despite the fact he was despised for his brutality, he is recognized and honored as one of Haiti's founding fathers. Today, he is acknowledged as a General, Governor, and Emperor. (Strayer Ch. 16, p. 709-711)

Revolution

the overthrow of a government or social order in favor of a new system

middle class

this group benefited greatly from industrialization, consisting of wealthy businessmen who assimilated with the aristocracy in the upper levels and doctors, lawyers, engineers, and similar professionals on the lower end. This social group was politically liberal and the central value of the culture was "respectability," a combination of status and virtue. Women were increasingly cast into a housewife position, while men engaged in paid employment; However, this shifted as industrialization continued. (Strayer Ch. 17, pgs. 747-749)