PHI exam 2

Instructions: Which option, (A) or (B), accounts for most of the relevant facts? The continents of South America and Africa look like they fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. Shorelines are continuously undergoing modification by erosion and deposition. Identical animal fossils have been found in South America and Africa. Some animals can swim long distances. Identical plant fossils of a fern with large seeds that could not be blown very far have been found in South America and Africa. There is no now-sunken remnant of a huge land bridge connecting South America and Africa. The Appalachian mountain belt in North America connects with mountain belts of similar age and structure in the British Isles and Scandinavia if one imagines the landmasses joined together. (A) The present-day continents were at one time joined together into one or two big chunks that have since broken apart and drifted. (B) The shapes of South America and Africa indicate cosmic yin-yangness; they are complementary, in balance.

(A) because it accounts for all the facts, whereas (B) does not account for such facts as the similarity of plans and animals found in South America and Africa.

Instructions: Which explanation creates more puzzles than it solves? Someone is unexpectedly in your third storey apartment. (A) The person found the key hidden under the mat and unlocked your door. (B) The person levitated to the third storey, and then dematerialized enough to pass through the screened balcony door.

(B) creates more puzzles: How did he/she levitate? How did he/she dematerialize?

Instructions: Which of the following, if true, would be counterevidence to the given evidence? The public school system is a monopoly, and we all know that monopolies don't produce good results because there's no competition, and without competition, the monopoly has no incentive to strive for quality or efficiency. That's why private schools are the way to go.

Countries whose students routinely outperform ours have public education systems.

Instructions: True or false: The following "numbers" are acceptable. The President won over 80 percent of the vote, showing overwhelming support by the people.

False

Instructions: True or false: The following argument is a case of misapplied general principle. From each according to his or her ability, to each according to his or her need. That's why we're justified in taxing those with high incomes more than those with low incomes, and then using that money to provide social programs for the latter.

False

Instructions: True or false: The following is a statement of causation. Most motor vehicle accidents occur when one is driving within a fifty-mile radius of home.

False

Instructions: True or false: The following is an argument for a plan or policy intended to achieve a certain goal. Pornography spreads a distorted view of women's nature that supports sexist attitudes and reinforces women's oppression and exploitation. (Helen Longino, "Pornography, Oppression, and Freedom: A Closer Look," in Laura Lederer, ed., Take Back the Night: Women on Pornography, 1980)

False

Instructions: True or false: The following is an example of the fallacy of division. If you use only the best-tasting ingredients, any casserole you bake will taste fantastic!

False

Instructions: Which is the indirect cause of the main effect of the following statement? Darker-skinned blacks generally have higher blood pressure than lighter-skinned blacks. One might conclude, therefore, that skin color is a direct determinant of blood pressure. However, ... darker skin color in the United States is associated with less access to scarce and valued resources of the society, which causes greater stress, which increases blood pressure. (Based on Troy Duster, "Race and Reification in Science," Science, February 18, 2005).

Less access to resources

Instructions: Which of Mill's methods is primarily being used in the following? Anuradha Patel, a pediatric anesthesiologist, tested whether playing with a Game Boy before surgery reduces anxiety. Some children had only their parents to help them cope with their anxiety. Others, also accompanied by their parents, were given an anti-anxiety drug called midazolam. And a third group, also accompanied by parents, was given a Game Boy about 30 minutes before anesthesia. (Based on "Between the Lines," editorial, U.S.1, June 1, 2005)

Method of difference

Instructions: Identify the necessary and/or sufficient conditions in the following statement. In order for cohesion to develop, one of two things must happen: the members of the group must have a common goal or they must share similar histories.

Necessary conditions: None / Sufficient conditions: Either having a common goal or having similar histories

Instructions: Are the following "numbers" acceptable? How un/acceptable are they? This headache pill is 3.7 times better!

No, not at all acceptable; e.g., we don't know what the pill is "better" than.

Instructions: Is the following an argument that contains a weak or false analogy? Politics is like football. That's why the briefcase that contains the secret codes that launch our nuclear weapons? The one that follows our President everywhere, day and night? It's called the "football." Politics is all about strategy, defense, offence, feints. It's us against them. And of course the only object of the game is winning. Really, nothing else matters. That's why, as your President, I will be as tough, as aggressive, as I can be.

No, this is not an argument. Yes, there is an analogy between politics and football.

Instructions: Is the following an argument and an overgeneralization? You never ever support me! No matter what I say or do, you always criticize!!

No, this is not an argument. Yes, this is an overgeneralization.

Instructions: Does the following have sufficient support for the claim being made? If not, what kind of additional support would we need? Who says Disney is bad for kids? Sexist role models? Racism? That's crazy! I watched Disney when I was a kid and I turned out alright.

No, we'd need the results of well-designed studies of children who watched Disney and those who didn't.

Instructions: True or false: The following argument mistakes correlation for causation. The mind is able to heal because when I was sick, I kept thinking positive thoughts, imagining myself better, and I did, in fact, recover!

True

Instructions: True or false: The post hoc error is made in the following argument. As Halley's comet approached the earth, the price of ice cream cones in Boston rose regularly. So of course the increase in the price of ice cream cones in Boston was due to Halley's comet! (Thanks to Stephen J. Gould)

True

Instructions: Can the following be evaluated for truth or acceptability? If the former, indicate what would verify or falsify the claim. Particles of rock, sand, and mud, which are collectively called sediment, settle in layers at the bottoms of rivers, lakes, and oceans, and as the sediments accumulate, they bury shells, bones, leaves, pollen, and other bits and pieces of living things. With the passing of time, the layers of sediments are compacted by the weight of overlying sediments and cemented together, and the buried plant and animal remains become fossils within the sedimentary layers. Since sedimentary rocks are formed particle by particle and layer by layer, the layers end up stacked one on another; thus, in any sequence of undisturbed sedimentary rock, the layers increase in age the further down they are. Geologists have divided time into four very broad segments: the Precambrian, up to 540 million years ago; the Paleozoic, 540—250 million years ago; the Mesozoic, 250—65 million years ago; and the Cenozoic, 65 million years ago to the present. (Certain elements decay and turn into other elements at a known and constant rate, so by measuring the amount of decay, geologists can determine the age of the rock; for example, it takes 5,700 years for carbon to half-decay into nitrogen, it takes 1.3 billion years for potassium to half- decay into argon, and so on.) So the fossil record provides evidence for the theory that animal life forms have developed along a certain trajectory: invertebrates developed first, as invertebrate fossils are found in the Precambrian layer of rock; then fish and reptiles started showing up, in the Paleozoic time period; mammals and birds don't appear until the Mesozoic. (Based on John Pojeta, Jr. and Dale A. Springer, "Evolution and the Fossil Record," American Geological Institute, at: http://www.agiweb.org/news/evolution/index.html)

Truth, e.g., finding fossilized rabbits in Precambrian layer of rock.

Instructions: Is the following argument based on an insufficient sample? Eventually you will have to ask: who is doing the art that's getting censored? Mapplethorpe was gay, Serrano is Hispanic, Scott Tyler is black. The San Diego billboard group is multicultural, promoting a black cause. While this censorship crisis may be a surprise to many, any multicultural, gay or feminist artist can give you a litany of examples. (Steve Durland, "Censorship, Multiculturalism, and Symbols," High Performance, Fall 1989)

Yes, because a "litany of examples" is more akin to personal anecdotes and not extensive research.

Instructions: Is the following argument based on an unrepresentative sample? A study conducted simultaneously in California and New York, involving a stratified random sample of people in both states ensuring that age, sex, and class were proportionately represented, led to the conclusion that the American people do not feel superior to European people.

Yes, because a sample from two states is not enough to represent the opinions of all 50 states.

Instructions: Does the following contain the fallacy of composition? Why? I will bring you many beautiful flowers tomorrow; you will be able to make a beautiful bouquet!

Yes, because individual beauty does not necessarily result in combined beauty.

Instructions: Is the following an example of the gambler's fallacy? Why? Okay, this time I'll get a basket. I mean, I've missed every one so far, so the odds are good that this will be the one that makes it.

Yes, because the speaker mistakenly assumes the odds of the current act are calculated according to past success/failure.

Instructions: Does the following argument involve the application of a general principle? My body, my choice, you say? Okay, then, I most certainly have a say in whether or not you have an abortion! That's my sperm in there!

Yes, because there is an attempt to apply rights that the whole has to the parts.

Instructions: Are the following survey results acceptable? How un/acceptable are they? More than half of Americans will develop a mental illness at some point in their lives, often beginning in childhood or adolescence, researchers have found in a survey... (The New York Times, June 7, 2005)

Yes, but this information alone is only moderately acceptable, as we cannot tell how biased and reliable it is.

Instructions: Is the following explanation testable? If so, what is an example of a testable hypothesis (i.e., can enable prediction)? The flood during the time of Noah covered the entire earth.

Yes, this explanation is testable. For example, the claim can be falsified if something dating to pre-Noah times is found more intact than it would be had it been submerged in water.

Instructions: Is the following case of personal testimony acceptable? If yes, to what degree? My eyeball and eye socket were recently destroyed by someone playing a "harmless" prank with a paintball gun. Parents should remember that paintball guns are exactly that: guns and not toys.

Yes, to a limited degree because it is the testimony of only one person in regard to the dangers of an activity.

Instructions: True or false: The following is an argument by analogy. Anyone who has ever struggled to fix a paper jam in a copier knows that most machines aren't very adaptable. When machines break, they don't release a host of component parts to heal themselves. They remain broken until some- one calls tech support. Likewise, with the exception of the virtual machines of software, most technology isn't capable of adaptive self-assembly. (Steven Johnson, "Self-Assembling Robots, Discover, April 2005)

false

Instructions: True or false: The following is an example of generalization. Well, we asked our employees—all 31 of them, actually—and 27 wanted to go on a flextime program. In fact, 20 of them agreed to work 40 hours/week instead of the current 37.5 if it meant they could work those hours according to a schedule they themselves set. So there you have it: almost 90 percent of our employees want flextime.

false

Instructions: True or false: The following is an acceptable counterexample to the statement. Statement: Women can't be good soldiers because of their physical size. Counterexample: The Vietnamese won the Vietnam War with male soldiers who, on average, were about the same size or smaller than the average American woman.

true

Instructions: True or false: The following is an example of the either/or fallacy. We either deal with terrorism and this extremism abroad, or we deal with it when it comes to us. (General John Vines, as quoted by President George W. Bush, June 28, 2005)

true