Phil 101 Final Study Guide

One philosopher of feminist ethics is Nel Noddings. How does Noddings define a "caring person"?

"Caring person": one who fairly regularly establishes caring relations and, when appropriate maintains them over time.

How does she distinguish between "caring-about" and "caring-for"?

"Caring-about": involves a certain benign neglect; the foundation for our sense of justice; must be seen as instrumental in establishing the conditions under which caring-for can flourish. "Caring-for": face to face encounters in which one person cares directly for another.

*How is Nietzsche's use of the terms good versus bad different from a Christian's use of the terms good versus evil? What is the inversion of values? Originally how did the words "good" and "bad" derive their meaning (i.e. etymology)?*

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What three elements characterize a "caring encounter"?

1. A cares for B- that is A's consciousness is characterized by attention and motivational displacement, and 2. A performs some act in accordance with (1), and 3. Be recognizes that A cares for B

In his writings, how does Nietzsche describe a woman's role? Can women become "superwomen" according to Nietzsche? Why or why not?

A woman's role is to have children and a man is necessary to accomplish this goal. Her hope is to bear the superhuman. The happiness of the man is 'I will.' The happiness of woman is 'He will.' Women should obey. Nietzsche places women in an inferior position to be used as recreation for men; however, they are to be tamed for they are dangerous playthings.

How can we limit our obligation to care for others?

Actual obligations rest upon the seriousness of the need, the assessment of the appropriateness of filling the need, and the ability to do something about filling it. Therefore, we are not actually obligated to as many things as we think we are.

What virtues, if any, does Nietzsche's master morality share with Aristotelian ethics? *What does Nietzsche think about pride and humility?* What virtues, if any, does Nietzsche's master morality share with feminist ethics?

Aristotelian ethics: they share the values of courage, aspiration, pride, and temperance. Feminist ethics: do not share any virtues, but slave morality shares the values with feminist ethics.

"Men come to be builders, for instance, by building; harp-players, by playing on the harp." What does Aristotle mean by this quote and what is its significance to moral virtue (Nicomachean Ethics)?

Aristotle means by acting in relations that we are thrown, some come to be just and some come to be unjust. Moral virtue can be learned through practice until it becomes habit. Follow good roll models and follow the golden mean.

What characteristics did Aristotle recognize as virtues? How are these sets of virtues generally characteristic of and valued by certain groups of people?

Aristotle's virtues: courage, justice, friendliness, modesty, liberality, aspiration, pride, temperance, wittiness. These virtues are mostly recognized by aristocratic, wealthy males during war times.

c) Will to Power

Basic drive to expand one's power, to perfect self, to grow, to master & dominate; passion for life

*Why does Nietzsche disagree with St. Augustine's teachings about faith and hope?* Why does Nietzsche think that Christianity is a religion of resentment and is anti-natural? H

Because Christianity involves the rejection of passions and denies real earthly happiness, but favors hope in an afterlife, love of God and the realm of the spirit.

Why is a person who is painfully following his or her conscience not thereby virtuous, according to Aristotle? How would one imagine a saint or moral ideal being virtuous?

Because they are having to work for it. Work hard enough it becomes second nature. Saints are inherently good, no second guessing = virtuous.

In the Parable of the Madman, what does Nietzsche mean by saying that God is dead and we have killed Him?

By saying God is dead and we have killed him, Nietzsche means that faith has been lost and it must be replaced with something. Says is God is really dead then everything will change because some sort of spirituality is necessary to find meaning in life.

How does he describe the Church's stance toward passion and life? How does this contrast with the god Dionysius?

Church rejects passions and does not lead to a full and happy life. Nietzsche admired Dionysius, the Greek god of wine; Nietzsche encouraged embracing passion and celebrating life.

In the Nicomachean Ethics, how does Aristotle describe the virtue of courage, liberality and friendliness? What vice of deficiency and excess correspond to each virtue?

Courage= excess: absence of fear or in positive confidence (rash). Mean state: courageous. Defect: too much fear and too little confidence (coward). Liberality= excess: prodigality- gives too much. Mean state: liberality. Defect: stinginess- gives too little. Friendliness= excess: flatterer. Mean state: friendliness. Defect: quarrelsome.

How do Christian morality and Democratic policies demonstrate the weak people's will to power for Nietzsche? How does Nietzsche think that civilization and religions prevent the development of the higher type of man?

Democratic policies: tries to raise the weaker people in society by forcing the stronger people to help others. An example is taxation of the rich. Christian morality: for the weak because they need a higher power to tell them what to do and differentiate between right and wrong. Denies desire, rejects passions. Both stop the development of the higher type of man because they do not support the growth of the stronger man, they only put it down.

What does Nietzsche think about Kantian respect for persons? Does Nietzsche think that all men have equal worth?

Everyone is not equally worthy. Some individuals are superior and deserve more than the weaker people. Some people are masters, are more creative and powerful than others. The masters can treat people as they see fit. The strong person does not have to be cruel or inconsiderate; he can choose to be a hero and help out the weaker people but in doing so he is not acting out of obligation.

What material goods or circumstances are also necessary for someone's happiness?

External goods: wisdom, health, luck, wealth, etc.

What similarities does Feminist Ethics of Care share with Aristotle's Virtue Ethics? How are both moral theories virtue-based ethics?

Feminist ethics: virtue based ethics. Morality of virtues such as compassion, mercy, forgiveness, care, kindness, protectiveness, helpfulness, empathy, generosity, understanding. Aristotle: virtue based ethics. Not what we ought to do, but how we ought TO BE. Both have qualities that can be acquired by reputation or practice. The identification of caring virtues fuels the tendency to classify care ethics as a virtue ethic.

What does Aristotle mean by "happiness" (eudaimonia)? What is the function of a human being?

Happiness or "eudaimonia" meaning long term well being or human flourishing. The function of a human is to use reason in pursuit of a good life.

What is the Heinz Dilemma? According to psychological studies, how do boys tend to respond to this dilemma as opposed to girls?

Heinz dilemma: Heinz can't afford to pay for the medicine his wife needs. Should Heinz steal medicine from a pharmacist to save the life of his sick wife? Boys: definite answer, rational calculation, neutral standpoint, moral principles. Girls: no definite answer, empathy and compassion, need to talk, seeks information to understand situation.

What are the three stages toward the creation of the overman? That is, what are the Three Metamorphoses?

How the spirit becometh a camel, the camel a lion, and the lion at last a child. -load bearing spirit asked what is heavy? he knelt down like the camel, and wanted to be well laden -spirit became a lion in the loneliest wilderness; freedom will it capture, and lordship in its own wilderness -innocence is the child, and forgetfulness, a new beginning, a game, a self-rolling wheel, a first movement, a holy Yea -"it's own will, wilted now the spirit, his own world winter the world's outcast"

What impact does this event have on the meaning of human life and morality?

If we deny the existence of a transcendent God, we are the only possible replacements. Whoever is born after us-- for the sake of this deed he will belong to a higher history than all history hitherto.

According to Aristotle, would a moral ideal have to fight off temptation and struggle to be good?

If you were really good, you would not even be tempted. Does right thing without much struggle; easy, natural, spontaneous.

For Aristotle what is the difference between intellectual and moral virtues? What sorts of intellectual virtues are there and how do people come to acquire them? How do people cultivate moral virtues?

Intellectual virtues: excellences of mind; acquired by inherence and education. Philosophical wisdom; practical wisdom: knowing how to live life and achieve goals. Moral Virtues: acquired by repitition or practice; virtue is a habit, done naturally and easily; ex. courage, modesty, justice, truthfulness, friendliness.

What does Nietzsche think of the crude hedonist's goal of seeking pleasure and comfort?

It is not rest and leisure that the strong person should aim for. The ultimate goal for the strong person is self-perfection, mastery and growth. This may require hard work and sacrifice.

How does Kohlberg interpret the differences between a male's and female's response to moral dilemmas? What is Gilligan's interpretation?

Kohlberg believed the moral reasoning of girls and women is immature because of its preoccupation with immediate relations. Gillian's Interpretation: Male approach- stresses that individuals have certain basic rights that should be respected. Morality imposes restrictions on what you can do to others. Morality involves the application of universally valid moral rules. Male morality has a "justice orientation." Female approach- people have responsibility towards others. So, morality is an imperative to care for others. Female morality has a "responsibility orientation."

Does Manning think that we are obligated to help starving people in Africa? For Manning what are the different objects of care? Besides persons, what else can be an object of care?

Manning thinks if one is obligated to do some ethical caring, and this involves calling upon one's ideal caring self, then this ideal caring self would feel some obligation toward animals and starving children in Africa. (The starving children in Africa share crucial characteristics with the children we know and love, and therefore out ideal caring self won't ignore this. Animals can also be objects of care.

e) Master vs. Slave Morality

Master: the values chosen by the strong people: Pride, Ambition, Drive/Passion, Independence, Creativity; value their own qualities. Slave: value patience, kindness, forgiveness, charity, faith.

b) Nihilism

No God means: No human purpose/meaning; No objective morality; Must we become gods? Humans - creators of values

What do these terms mean in Nietzsche's theory: a) Existentialism

Philosophical view emphasizing individual existence, freedom and choice.

What problems do feminist ethicists see in moral dilemmas such as the Heinz question? In contrast to autonomy, individualism, universal principles and justice, what does feminist ethics value?

Problems: - moral judgements emerge from actual situations and are not derived by playing logical formulas to generate principles - feminist thinks that what you should focus on is people with faces and lives Values: compassion, mercy, forgiveness, care, kindness, protectiveness, helpfulness, empathy, generosity, understanding

d) Strong vs. Weak People

Strong: smart, physically stronger, witty, motivated, independent, skilled, brave. Weak: slower, clumsier, not as physically strong, dull, not as intelligent, lazy, incompetent, unmotivated.

f) The Overman

Struggle and hardship to be the overman, like climbing a mountain accomplished with laughter and free spirit. Like Greek warrior: the ideal pagan. Qualities of the strong.

According to Rita Manning, what is the central priority of ethics? How do our duties to others arise?

The central priority of ethics is not the concept of individual rights, but relationships with other human beings. Our duties to others are not always by social contract but are often unchosen responsibilities.

What point is Nietzsche trying to make about his story of Eternal Recurrence (in the Greatest Stress excerpt)? How does your answer to the demon's question show whether you are leading an authentic and meaningful life?

The concept of eternal recurrence. If you react negatively to this concept, then you are not living the life you truly want. If you react positively, then you are living a meaningful, authentic life, true to yourself.

"The excellence of the eye, for instance, makes both the eye good and its work also: for by the excellence of the eye we see well." What is the excellence of Man (Nicomachean Ethics)?

The excellence of man, i.e. virtue, must be a state whereby man comes to be good and whereby he will perform well his proper work.

How is choosing the mean relative to the individual and not to be calculated by some arithmetical proportion (Nicomachean Ethics)? For example, how is picking the right amount of food relative to each person and not absolute?

The mean relatively to ourselves, that which is neither too much nor too little for the particular individual, but this is not the same to all. Picking the right food is relative not absolute because not everyone is the same.

Do we have equal responsibilities to all people?

There is a prima facie obligation to care for when we come across a creature in need who is unable to meet that need without help, when our caring is called upon as a part of a reciprocal relationship, or when caring is indicated as part of our role responsibility.

What is the ultimate end toward which all our actions are aimed?

To live a happy life. virtuous life> good life> happy life

Why does Manning wonder whether taking a moral philosophy course is the best way to become sensitive and moral individuals?

Wonders this because in taking care of the hungry, homeless, and helpless we are engaged in caring for. By taking a course, you are not engaged in caring for.

If you have the misfortune to be brought up rude, inconsiderate and quarrelsome, is there any hope for you? According to Aristotle, if there is hope, what means can such a person employ to cultivate the virtue of consideration or friendliness?

Yes, all those characteristics are considered moral/ lack of moral virtues. They can recognize moral virtues in others and do what they do until it becomes second nature to them.

Who is Zarathustra in Nietzsche's writings? Why does Zarathustra teach that mankind is like bridge? *How is Zarathustra an awakened one in contrast to the "teachers of wisdom"? Is the good man of greater value than the evil man in furthering the advancement of humanity?*

Zarathustra is the character in Nietzsche's stories who sets out on all the journeys and discovers/ tells people about Nietzsche's beliefs. "What is great in man is that he is a bridge and not a goal: what is lovable in man is that he is an over-going and a down-going."