phl 121 final

extended arguments

multiple arguments intertwined into a much larger passage

secondary analogue

new instance

argument

- a group of statements - one of which is the conclusion - the rest are premises that are meant to support the conclusion

premise

- the statements that are supposed to lend support to the conclusion - can only support the truth if they are true

1) it has rained everyday this week 2) the weather forecast is not predicting any sudden changes 3) therefore, it will probably rain tomorrow

inductive

Band Wagon

an argument saying in effect that because other people are doing something, you should too

informal fallacy

an error in reasoning that does not involve the explicit use of an invalid form

cogency

an inductive argument is cogent if the argument is strong and all the premises are true

strength

an inductive argument is strong if the true premises make it probable that the conclusion is true

terms

any word or string of words that can be the subject of a statement

division fallacy

argument in which a speaker assumes that what is true of the whole is also true of the parts that make up the whole

fallacies of ambiguity

arguments that confuse the real issue with multiple, vague, or otherwise unclear meanings

verbal disputes

arise from vagueness or ambiguity

theoretical definition

assigns a meaning to a term by providing an understanding of how the term fits into a general theory

identify the fallacy: We know that induction will provide dependable results in the future because it has always worked in the past. Whatever has consistently worked in the past will continue to work in the future, and we know that this is true because it has been established by induction.

begging the question

Fallacies of Relevance

confusing what is logically relevant with what may seem psychologically relevant

horizontal pattern

consists of a single argument in which two or more premises provide independent support for a single conclusion

1) all horses are mammals 2) all mammals are animals 3) therefore, all horses are animals

deductive

1) if mars is Earth-like, then there are people living there 2) there are not people living there 3) therefore, mars is not Earth-like

deductive

lexical definition

dictionary definition

factual disputes

disagreements about matters of fact

identify the fallacy of presumption: An athlete is a human being. Therefore, a good athlete is a good human being.

equivocation

increases from "tiger" to "mammal" to "animal"

extension

1) most analytically-minded people do well in logic 2) Jill is an analytically minded person 3) therefore, Jill will do well in logic

inductive

persuasive (emotive) definition

intending to provoke a certain feeling toward that word with this value-laden language

increases as we move from "animal" to "mammal" to "tiger"

intension

!) if A, then B 2) not A. therefore, 3) not B

invalid logical structure

vagueness

it is not clear whether the word or sentence applies

1) all A are B 2) C is A. therefore, 3) C is B

logical structure of a deductive argument

Suppressed Evidence

A failure to mention or otherwise acknowledge important, relevant evidence.

begging the question

A fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt.

Slippery Slope

A fallacy that assumes that taking a first step will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented

Red Herring

A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion

Straw Man

A fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea.

appeal to ignorance

A fallacy that uses an opponent's inability to disprove a conclusion as proof of the conclusion's correctness.

Fallacies of Weak Induction

A group of informal fallacies that occur because the connection between the premises and conclusion is not strong enough to support the conclusion

Appeal to Snobbery

A variety of the appeal-to-the-people fallacy that occurs when the arguer plays on the reader's or listener's need to feel superior

Tuquoque

Accusing someone of being hypocritical and not listening to their statement

fallacies of illicit transference

An attribute is incorrectly transferred from the parts of something onto the whole or from the whole onto the parts

Argument against the person

An informal fallacy that occurs when an arguer verbally attacks the person of a second arguer for the purpose of discrediting his or her argument

Appeal to Unqualified Authority

Arguer cites an untrustworthy authority

appeal to force

Arguer threatens reader/listener

Ad Hominem Abusive

Arguments that attempt to avoid the issue by insulting an opponent with abusive language.

Fallacies of Presumption

Arguments that make unwarranted assumptions about either the data or the nature of a reasonable argument

Weak Analogy

Claiming that items with only minor similarities are the same in almost everything else.

False Dichotomy

Consists of a consideration of only the two extremes when there are one or more intermediate possibilities

form

logical structure of a deductive argument is what we get when we strip out the content of the statements in the argument and replace it with variables

deductive or inductive? The interpretation of the laws is the proper and peculiar province of the courts. A constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body.

Deductive. Assuming the premises are true, the conclusion would have to be true as well.

Use the counterexample method to prove the following categorical syllogisms invalid. All galaxies are structures that contain black holes in the center, so all galaxies are quasars, since all quasars are structures that contain black holes in the center.

Form: All A are B. All C are B. Therefore, All A are C.

deductive or inductive? Although both front and rear doors were found open after the burglary, there were pry marks around the lock on the rear door and deposits of mud near the threshold. It must be the case that the thief entered through the rear door and left through the front.

Inductive. The conclusion certainly seems likely, given the premises, but it is not logically guaranteed.

sound or unsound? All leopards with lungs are carnivores. Therefore, all leopards are carnivores

Invalid, unsound

Is this an argument or nonargument? The pace of reading, clearly, depends entirely upon the reader. He may read as slowly or as rapidly as he can or wishes to read. If he does not understand something, he may stop and reread it, or go in search of elucidation before continuing. The reader can accelerate his pace when the material is easy or less than interesting, and can slow down when it is difficult or enthralling. If what he reads is moving he can put down the book for a few moments and cope with his emotions without fear of losing anything.

It depends. This passage could be read as a non-argument /or/ an argument. If it is read as an argument, the conclusion is: "The pace of reading, clearly, depends entirely upon the reader."

identify the premises & conclusion: To every existing thing God wills some good. Hence, since to love any thing is nothing else than to will good to that thing, it is manifest that God loves everything that exists.

P) To love any thing is nothing else than to will good to that thing. P) To every existing thing God wills some good. C) God loves everything that exists.

identify the premises & conclusion: Though it is possible that REM sleep and dreaming are not necessary in the adult, REM deprivation studies seem to suggest otherwise. Why would REM pressure increase with deprivation if the system is unimportant in the adult?

P1) REM deprivation studies show that REM pressure increases with sleep deprivation. C) REM sleep and dreaming are necessary in the adult.

Missing the Point

The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion—but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws.

Is this an argument or nonarugment? Mosquito bites are not always the harmless little irritations most of us take them to be. For example, some mosquitoes carry West Nile virus, and people who are infected can become very sick or even die.

This is an argument. The conclusion is: "Mosquito bites are not always the harmless little irritations most of us take them to be."

circular argument

This restates the argument rather than actually proving it.

appeal to vanity

Uses flattery to win people over

Accident Fallacy

misapplying a general rule to some specific case with accidental features that make it an exception to that rule

verbal, factual, or both? ERIC: I've just signed up for Philosophy 502—Dr. Peterson's class in metaphysics. I know I'm going to enjoy it because I've always been fascinated by magic and ghosts. LEAH: I'm afraid you're in for a surprise.

Verbal dispute. "Metaphysics" is an ambiguous word.

cogent or uncogent? The Declaration of Independence says that all men are endowed by their creator with certain unalienable rights. Therefore it probably follows that a creator exists.

Weak, uncogent

appeal to the people

When we claim that our viewpoint is correct because many other people agree with it.

value claims

a claim that something has or lacks a certain moral or aesthetic quality

soundness

a deductive argument is valid and has all true premises

validity

a deductive argument is valid if it is in fact the case that it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false

Hasty Generalization

a fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence

false cause

a fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second

appeal to tradition

a fallacy which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new

Complex Question

a question crafted to exclude any possible legitimate response

statement

a sentence that is true or false

necessary truth

a statement that cannot be false

empty extension

a term that does not denote anything

amphiboly

a vagueness of grammar that disguises or alters meaning

identify the fallacy of relevance: What the farmer sows in the spring he reaps in the fall. In the spring he sows $8-per-bushel soybeans. Therefore, in the fall he will reap $8-per-bushel soybeans.

accident

identify the fallacy of relevance: If 20 percent of adult Americans are functionally illiterate, then it's no wonder that morons get elected to public office. In fact, 20 percent of adult Americans are functionally illiterate. Therefore, it's no wonder that morons get elected to public office.

no fallacy

identify the fallacy of weak induction: Probably no life exists on Venus. Teams of scientists have conducted exhaustive studies of the planet's surface and atmosphere, and no living organisms have been found.

no fallacy

direct approach (appeal to the people)

occurs when an arguer, addressing a large group of people, excites the emotions and enthusiasm of the crowd to win acceptance for his or her conclusion

primary analogue

original instance

identify the fallacy of relevance: Animal rights activists say that animals are abused in biomedical research labs. But consider this: Pets are abused by their owners every day. Probably 25 percent of pet owners should never get near animals. Some cases of abuse are enough to make you sick.

red herring

precising definition

seeks to make more precise what was previously vague or fuzzy

Stipulate definition

simply assign a meaning to a word

for inductive arguments, the terms of evaluation are ______ and _______

strength and cogency

appeal to pity

taps into people's compassion for others

extension

the actual objects picked out by that term - any and all of them

over simplified cause

the arguer claims to have found the cause for an event that actually has multiple causes

Formal Fallacy

the argument is deductive but has a faulty inference

the gambler's fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

conjoint premises pattern

the conclusion only follows when the premises all work together

emotive meaning

the feeling evoked or expressed by a statement or word

cognitive meaning

the information a statement conveys AKA literally meaning

intension

the qualities or attributes that pick out the subject indicated by the term, either objectively or subjectively, depending upon your philosophical stance

inference

the reasoning process from premises to conclusion

conclusion

the statement that the arguer is attempting to show is true

deductive argument

the truth of the conclusion is guaranteed by the truth of the premises

inductive argument

the truth of the conclusion is likely given the truth of the premises

truth value

the truth or falsity of a statement

no cause

there is no casual relation between the items that the arguer claims are casually relates

an invalid argument is automatically

unsound

for deductive arguments, the terms of evaluation are _______ and _______

validity and soundness

inferential claim

when determining whether an argument is a good one or not, the first thing we focus on is whether the premises would actually support the conclusion

Ad Hominem Circumstantial

when someone's argument is rejected based on the circumstances of the person's life

ambiguity

when there is more than 1 clearly distinct cognitive meaning that it might posses in a given context

Simple Restatement

where one of the premises is nothing more than a simple restatement of the conclusion, in slightly different language