Physics: Notable Concepts - Set #2

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Overview, Prisms, Rainbows, and X-Rays & X-Ray Machines (All Concepts and Facts)

The fundamental process which comes to mind when thinking about rainbows is refraction of light, which occurs in each raindrop Electromagnetic Energy and Radiation, one form of it being light, another sound, has different energies or wavelengths, and can travel at certain velocities, and pass a certain point so many times a wavelength or measure out as frequency The more dense an area, the less of a frequency or the less-traveled the light will go So since light can change frequencies and velocities dependent on the density of the area it is traveling in, it may travel in 2 different areas of 2 different densities or materials, and thus the frequency may change, as well as the direction in which the light is traveling dependent on the way it interacts with the substances in the area it is traveling in The longer the wavelength of light, the lower frequency it has, and vice versa the shorter the wavelength of light, the higher frequency it has So as light waves go through a prism, or raindrop acting like a prism, one light wave slows down before the other based on it most likely having a lower frequency, a longer wavelength, so red being less energetic and less frequency that purple must slow down when touching and/or going through the prism (raindrop), then this light turns again as it exits the prism, because one wave speeds up before the other The higher the frequency, the higher the speed or velocity, and so vice versa the lower the frequency, the lower the speed or velocity, different frequencies of light make the light move at different speeds through a certain area Once white light refracts colored lights and they separate at their characteristic frequencies when emitting from the prism or raindrop, you can see the separated colors more easily after their refraction, this is known as dispersion The slower a color travels through glass prisms or raindrops, the more sharp of a bend it will have when passing from the air to glass or from the air to water, (because the difference in speeds is large between the two mediums, and may be smaller for a color traveling faster through a raindrop) likewise the faster a color travels through a raindrop, the less sharp of a bend it will have since it won't slow down very much, in other words if the light coming in is fast, nothing will affect it or get in its way, but if coming in slow it will have time to interact and bend with the light With raindrops acting like those prisms, refraction and dispersion occurs when the white sunlight hits the raindrop You can only see one color from each raindrop So one raindrop in the sky refracts and disperses only wave of light since they are so tiny, and the rest bend at angles in which the differences between the angles of the colors and the angle at which our retina sees the rainbow vary so largely that the retina cannot see the other angles of color dispersing from the raindrops Although all the waves bend at the same angle in all the raindrops, the position in the sky at which the raindrops are at disperses light in different areas and thus disperse at angles different than our retina, so that is why they are separate, discrete amounts of color in certain proportions in the rainbow, and as for the colors these are the colors we can see at certain angles coming from the transmission of light from the sun out to the droplet and to our retina, our eyes So in one raindrop, the red light which refracts will bend at an angle relative to our eye, and we will see the red light, however the purple is too far up for our retina to notice, unless it is refracted at an angle high enough for us to see In one raindrop, red light will refract and all the surrounding raindrops in the position next to it will do the same, and the other colors exit at angles lower than the red, since red is on the top and violet is on the bottom of a rainbow, thus higher frequency colors are those closer to us In another raindrop, violet light will refract and all the surrounding raindrops in the position next to it will do the same, and the other colors exit at angles higher than the purple, since purple is on the bottom and red is on the top of a rainbow, thus lower frequency colors are those farther away from us Rainbows are actually spheres, since if you were way up in the sky the light bounces in all directions, above you and below you, but on the ground we can only see the above you colors If light is reflected once, you get a rainbow, but if the whole process in which light is transmitted and reflected occurs twice at the same time, you get a double rainbow the light exiting the raindrop at different angles than before, and at angles higher up, and the colors are actually in the reverse order Red Waves are also known as Sine Waves The Electromagnetic Spectrum ladies and gentlemen in order of lowest to highest energy: Radio Waves, Micro Waves, Infrared Waves, Visible Light, Ultraviolet Rays, X-Rays, Gamma Rays In thinking of the electromagnetic force in terms of waves, these waves are absorbed and reflected by certain substances in certain ways characteristic to that Substance- be it a compound or an element The reason we cannot see waves is because they travel at the speed of light, and the wave is constantly being absorbed, transmitted, and reflected to meet our eyes, and also their frequencies and certain velocities vary Radio Waves- In thinking of sound waves, which use the same exact concepts as light only in terms of sound, Radio Waves have very long wavelengths and are harmless, bending very sharp in prisms and raindrops, these Waves cannot be seen since they are always usually absorbed by substances to absorb this energy, allow its electrons to move forward and in doing so, giving off energy, ionizing the atoms of the substance through the Photoelectric Effect, and these Radio Waves are usually absorbed by everything however are emitted as sound from certain radio stations and can span the distance of Los Angeles to San Diego, RM stations Micro Waves- These waves are very long, harmless, bend at sharp angles, and are used in Microwaves, or machines in which Micro Wave energy is generated and emitted, and then that energy is absorbed by food and based on the substance being food doesn't convert it into light energy since it is still too low of an energy, absorbs it all, and instead of reflecting it since its electrons in its atoms do not have enough energy, the only thing Microwaves help in this process is when they absorb them, they convert the energy into a totally new function of energy, heat or Thermal Energy, and makes your food hot, used as such in warming food Infrared Waves- These waves are generally long enough, bend at sharp angles, harmless, and are usually always absorbed, not having enough energy, just like Radio and Micro Waves, and is converted not into light energy, but into the function of Heat Energy or Thermal Energy like Microwaves, however Infrared Waves are used for more complex heating of substances, such as the human body Visible Light: Red Visible Light: Orange Visible Light: Yellow Visible Light: Green Visible Light: Blue Visible Light: Indigo Visible Light: Violet Visible Light Ultraviolet Rays- These waves are generally used to ionize and vaporize substances, heating them so much more than Infrared that they undergo a phase change, or works up and converts the absorbed UV energy into chemical energy such as using UV light to fertilize plants, and grow and develop plants by using radiation, specifically UV radiation as a catalyst in the nurturing of all plants, bend at easy angles, somewhat shorter than purple waves we cannot see or do not match the wavelengths capable of being drawn out by our retina, and also the main source of light in which Mercury Vapor Lamps' Mercury absorbs the thermal energy from the electrical energy in these lamps, and then reflects and emits UV energy which is then absorbed by Phosphors as electrons gain energy and create longer wavelengths, as all electrons jumping upwards in their shells from the conversion of a higher to lower energy will do, creating longer wavelengths long enough but not too long for us to see them as a mixture of the colors of the gases or salts inside the lamp to turn white, also the application of the Ozone Layer, this molecule is large enough to absorb UV radiation from the sun, allowing no X-Rays or Gamma Rays to get through, however is not present in the poles of the Earth where these high energy waves are absorbed by gases in our atmosphere to create the Aurora Borealis we see X-Rays- These waves are a little harmful if overused, they can move right through your skin since substances like your skin cannot utilize X-Rays, and you can see more below Gamma Rays- A product of nucleosynthesis in stars nuclear fusion, nuclear fission, and other radioactive decay processes, Gamma Decay occurs when Gamma Rays, the highest forms of energy stored in nuclear and chemical bonds is released after the bond or fuse breaks and releases, very harmful, bend at no angle, going right through anything, prism, raindrop, your skin, your blood, and it may be absorbed by large, complex organic molecules working their butts off in your body and then those can ionize and completely change the way your body works, leading to diseases due to this harmful radioactive exposure, which include Cancer With understanding the Photoelectric Effect, certain light has energies too high or low for us to see or pick up that energy with our retina, so in order to see that light of higher or lower energy, in which something of matter can contain that light, the matter must absorb the highest energy forms of visible light or lowest energy forms, meaning bright purple or dark red light must be shined in a room, therefore the substance can absorb that light, transmit, and then reflect out the light it naturally emits as radiation So if substances with UV light are slightly radioactive, or Ultraviolet Radiation, which basically means it is a little higher form of purple we cannot see unless we shine visible light's purple at it, therefore it can absorb the purple and when doing so, transmit and reflect a higher form of energy, UV light energy UV Light and understanding how substances absorb high purple light, transmit, and reflect UV light are applicable to many different sciences This is all only one way of describing the way light works, through refraction But ever more simply, light in terms of waves which don't interact with substances can just bounce off the surface of something and be reflected, simply reflection, so really when we always say through the photoelectric effect, it absorbs, transmits and reflects light we should say through the photoelectric effect, it absorbs, transmits, and refracts light Reflection occurs when light moves in the same area or medium Refraction and Dispersion occurs when light moves in different areas, from one area to another, or from one medium to another Paper is a good application of Reflection Lenses are a good application of Refraction, whether they be for glasses or for a telescope, they have curved sides for concentrating, dispersing, or changing the angles of light waves, as a ray of light enters the material, it refracts, and as the same ray exits it refracts again, so the 'net effect' of this refraction occurring twice signifies that the light ray changed directions, and lenses' manufacturers take advantage of this effect to make small objects appear bigger, and distant objects appear closer A mirage is an optical illusion caused when light waves moving from the sky toward the ground are bent by the heated air. GUESS WHO CAME UP WITH ELECTROMAGNETISM??? YUP, JAMES CLERK MAXWELL! AND REMEMBER< ALL LIGHT WAVES HAVE ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS AROUND THEM SINCE THEY ARE ALL ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCES @WORK which travels through a vacuum at the speed of light AND GUESS WHAT???? MAX PLANCK CAME UP WITH THE PHOTON THEORY OF LIGHT, NO WONDER WHY I GOT THESE GUYS CONFUSED: Photon Light- Max Planck, however Electromagnetic Light- James Clerk Maxwell Let's knock out the concept of the Photoelectric Effect proposed by Einstein himself again even though this is explained in many other documents The Key rule to the Photoelectric Effect is that as an atom absorbs energy, its electrons move up orbitals (probabilities of the location of an electron based on its energy, a principal energy quantum value determines the distance of which the electron lay whizzing about from the nucleus), and creates a line of energy from which the electron was once at to where it went, and certain proportions of energy absorbed are equally converted or transmitted and reflected back out as either waves or photons, dependent on how you want to look at them So if an electron moves up and out a certain number of energy shells, a photon is created, a particle of light which has an equal amount of energy to the energy an electron would have in a certain orbital minus the energy it had in the previous orbital as it began accelerating farther out from the nucleus, so a photon contains a "quanta" of energy or the difference in an electron's energy before and after moving up a certain number of levels When thinking about it in terms of wavelength, the number of shells or orbitals the electron moves up, the longer the wavelength, so if it absorbs energy and an electron moves up 3 levels, the wavelength will be 3 units as long, or the quanta of energy in the photon will be 3 units So since X-Rays have more energy than Visible Light, the energy absorbed by substances to reflect or transmit X-Rays must be great enough to match the wavelength of X-Rays, the electron's path to ionizing the atom by escaping it must be able to absorb energy which will carry it that far When an atom absorbs a photon of energy or discrete unit or length of a wave, the level of energy contained in the photon is equal to the energy difference between the two positions of the electron, before and after it absorbed the quanta of energy After light has been absorbed, the electron usually moves back closer to the nucleus, releasing that energy in another form it cannot sustain absorbing and as it falls back down, it reflects that light back out at us Some waves go right through substances made of atoms since they either have too low of an energy and are always absorbed, or too high of an energy and aren't even absorbed slightly, and if a substance does absorb a high energy wave, the highest wave known to be absorbed by a substance is an X-Ray, although scientists work on creating substances which may absorb Gamma Rays and prevent harm or cellular change or evolution These high energy or frequency or velocity waves can knock an electron out of an atom completely, ionizing it or turning it into an ion The larger the atom, the more electrons shells or more orbitals, and thus more of a potential to absorb energy, more of a distance in energies between two shells So larger atoms absorb X-Rays while smaller atoms let them just go through Most organic material- Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, and Phosphorus in your body do not contain atoms large enough to absorb X-Rays, so it goes right through those and only is absorbed and reflected back into visible white light in the form of larger atoms, things in your body of inorganic material or your bones- Calcium, Strontium, etc. and places where heavy minerals lie, or potentially dangerous radioactive or heavy metals may lie- Mercury, Lead, Radon, etc. Inside an X-Ray machine is an electrode pair- cathode and anode, inside a quartz glass vacuum tube, and the cathode is a heated filament, and passes electric current through it, heating it up through energy conversion, taking electrons off the surface of the electrode, and the anode being Tungsten (positively charged), draws in the negative electrons emitted from the burning cathode in the vacuum tube of the machine, creating a beam of electrons The difference in cathode to anode voltage is great, and the electrons thermionically emitting from the cathode to the anode or moving at such a speed that it collides with the tungsten anode or a Tungsten atom, it collides with ground state electrons and makes them go flying up the electron shells or orbitals, and an electron from a higher energy level loses energy and makes it way back to the long journey down to the nucleus (although very quick in terms of normal speed), and it emits a very long wavelength of a very high energy, or an X-Ray photon, and as zillions of X-Ray photons are generated from the Tungsten anode, it generates not only a lot of X-Ray energy but also a lot of heat Remember, the Waves of the electromagnetic spectrum act as waves, and Rays act like Rays, one in the same if talking about the photon nature of light though, but different if eliminating the other side of forms of light These temperatures can be up to more than 4,000 K, higher than Tungsten can melt down, so to keep it from melting, an electric motor wheel is hooked up onto it to keep it spinning and not start to melt Also, oil is pasted all around the vacuum tube to absorb some of the heat produced from the collisions of electrons between the cathode and anode Also, the case of the machine is made out of Lead, a large atom, and common element, which makes the casing for the X-Rays to absorb any X-Rays which aren't carried over from the motor to the mirror where they diffract from and shine on a person's body, also so that X-Rays don't emanate from the machine and go out into the atmosphere, but are instead carried over to the shine on the person' body Other than X-Rays, Gamma Rays can be very harmful, ionizing the atoms of your cells, making them chemically react, and mutating your cells in an unnatural format, causing diseases such as cancer, metals or minerals in your body should be ionized, but organic compounds should not be

Various Basic Physics Concepts (All Concepts)

The shape you create in motion is really dependent on how many turns you take, or how many times you accelerate, changing velocity, or changing speed (magnitude) and direction So if you turn once, you make a triangle, and if you turn twice or three times you make a square This best describes the relationship between Geometry and Motion You can also use Trigonometric concepts to define its relationship with motion, given your displacements of x and y (or your distance), and your displacement, you can use Trigonometric Functions inversely proportional to the lengths or measures of length of the shape you have, specifically triangles or right triangles, given that your change of direction is not curved rather straight, and solve for the angle measures that you need based on your starting point or the adjacent and hypotenuse The Formula for speed is best expressed simplified, although other forms of the equation describe other situations whereas you can apply speed, most commonly Average Speed, which is equal to the distance divided by the total time covered, even if you are resting Remember, since this is applied algebra, we can model these functions (formulas) by using the function rule or simplified answer, and we can also use a table of linear relationships/proportions in place of the quantities of such formulas, and write the ordered pairs of the table and create a graph based on that information The three types of acceleration, going upwards (slowing down), changing direction (straight or even curved- in this case), and going downwards (speeding up, due to gravitational pull, or force), so if a ball is accelerating 2 meters every second, then by the 2nd second it will be going 4 meters every second, then by the 3rd second it will be going 8 meters every second, then by the 4th second it will be going 16 meters per second, and you can see this exponentially growing, so it be represented by an exponential relationship based on the variable being the exponent or the second that passes as an object obtains a certain speed As you graph speed or velocity, you should see straight diagonal lines going upwards since they follow according to the ordered pair values in your table As you graph acceleration, you should see straight diagonal lines going upwards, but then see a straight horizontal line (meaning your speed is the same over a given amount of time), and then either see a straight diagonal line going upwards from the horizontal line (meaning positive acceleration from resting point or constant motion point), or see a straight diagonal line going downwards from the horizontal line (meaning negative acceleration or deceleration from resting point or constant motion point), and note that the three states of motion are constant motion, rest, and acceleration (whether it be positive or negative) As you graph speed or velocity, your distance is the y axis and your time is the x axis As you graph acceleration, your speed or velocity is the y axis and your time is the x axis So, most physics functions, equations, formulae, or whatever you want to call them; can not only be rearranged using properties of equality, and can certain quantities be substituted by other quantities or ratios using properties of substitution to combine certain ideas, theories, and laws, but also normally expressed as ratios or proportions, they can either be directly proportional or indirectly proportional Direct Proportions are two equivalent ratios in which as one quantity gets larger, the other gets larger as well, however Indirect Proportions are two equivalent ratios in which as one quantity gets larger, the other gets smaller For example, the proportion in which Momentum and Impulse are derived, the Momentum part is inversely proportional, in which if the Mass increases, the Velocity must decrease, and if the Velocity increases, the Mass must decrease mathematically but also due to macromolecular advantage Whereas Momentum is equal to Mass times Velocity, as the Mass of the object increases, it won't go as fast, and if the Mass of the object decreases, it can move faster, either way, the unbalanced forces acting upon the object must overcome either the quantity of the mass of the object, or the velocity or speed in a given direction at which it is going, but as the Mass increases, it will slow down, not speed up, so it is an inverse proportion Whereas Momentum is equal to Force times Time, also inversely proportional since if the quantity of Force increases, than the time acting upon that force is less, and if the quantity of Time acting on a force increases, than the force itself must decrease in quantity since it is allowing time to pass and act on it, rather than "push or pull right through it" Whereas Momentum is equal to Force times Time, where Time is defined as the time the force acts upon the object in order to stop it or take it out of motion, whereas momentum is defined as the quantity of unbalanced forces needed to stop an object with much mass or much velocity in constant or accelerated motion already, meaning it doesn't apply to objects at rest Newton's Second Law works the same way, whereas if the Mass is increased, it will accelerate less, than when the Mass is decreases, it will accelerate more Pressure works the same way as being directly proportional, in which if the Force is increased larger than the Area, the Pressure will increase, and if the Area increases larger than the Force, the Pressure will decrease, so in order to change the pressure exerted on an object, you can increase the force always, but you can also decrease the area, so the equal force will have a greater pressure, this is why nails are pointed instead of round, and why laying your body across ice increases the area larger than the force, so the Pressure is less than when the force is equal but area is larger, thus you can stay on the ice The reason that Pressure increases as you decrease in height is because there is more height and more force pushing down on you above you and since you cover a very small area, the pressures are greater than when you are elevated high such as in the mountains, whereas the pressure decreases since there is no force acting upon you, and the temperature decreases since the temperature and pressure of a gas are directly proportional Although Air Pressure is extremely great in quantity, there are fluids in your body which exert an equal pressure outwards Balanced Forces and Unbalanced Forces and their effect are determined by the net force or difference in forces, for if they are balanced, in object will continue to rest or stay in motion However, if they are Unbalanced there must be some quantity of net force available, and thus that will knock it out of its rest or its constant motion Mechanical Energy is the energy of motion and is measured as the sum of the Potential and Kinetic Energy of all particles in an object Remember, Thermal Energy is the total kinetic energy of all particles in an object & Temperature is the average kinetic energy of all particles in an object Thermal Energy and Heat is usually transferred from warm to cool areas

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Incandescence (All Concepts and Facts)

Using heat or thermal energy, you can energize atoms and completely ionize them, producing light Once you apply enough heat to cause white light, you are energizing so many different electrons in a number of different ways so that all the colors are being generated, they all mix together to look bright white, since white is a mixture of all colors So electrical energy converts to thermal energy which converts to light energy The filament is a thin strip of Tungsten, which has a high melting point, and thus offers a good bit of resistance to the electric current, and also can heat up for a long time Unfortunately, Incandescent Lamps, the first ever made didn't work as efficiently because only a little of the heat energy was converted into light energy, and they quickly dimmed out as all the energy was converted to heat, so Mercury Vapor Lamps were up ahead next So the history of the use of Lightbulbs and Lamps kind of works out like this: o Fuel (Wood, Oil, Coal) Combustion in Lamps and Cars o Carbon Filament Incandescent Lightbulbs o Platinum Filament Incandescent Lightbulbs o Tungsten Filament Incandescent Lightbulbs o Fluorescent Lamps o Mercury Vapor Lamps o Neon (Noble Gas) Lamps o Phosphorescent Lamps o Metal Halide Lamps o Low-Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamps o High-Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamps o Lasers In order to make a laser, you need to have a lamp

Various Concepts Associated with Quantum Theory (All Concepts)

- Since Bohr's model couldn't describe complex structures of atoms, rather just their atomic radius display, electron configurations or orbital descriptions were created - They're based on quantum theory which says matter also has properties associated with waves - Knowing both the exact position and momentum (speed and direction) of an electron at the same time is impossible (of Heisenberg) - Orbitals give probability rather than certainty to this new principle to determine the variability within the locations of the electrons - Quantum numbers help determine the location of the electron - Principal, represented by n describes the energy of the orbital and of which orbital the electron is moving from and/or to, in other words which electron shell physically displayed around the nucleus - Angular momentum, represented by l describes the shape of the orbital and of how the electrons take up a certain shape to their whereabouts in the electron cloud - Magnetic, represented by ml describes the orientation of the orbital and whether or not the electrons moving within it are focused on a positive or negative charge near another electron configuration or set of electron shells in another atom it is about to bond with - Spin, represented by ms describes the spin of the electron, where clockwise is represented as +1/2 and counterclockwise as -1/2 - Orbitals of the same size (n), but of different shape (l) are called subshells - These subshells are given letters to help chemists distinguish the possible shapes that are different while all the same size, giving the definition of the letter in a configuration model: - 1s1 : 1 is the Principal, s is the Angular Momentum, and the subscript is the amount of electrons in the specific subshell, while Magnetic and Spin are represented when necessary as their +/- symbols indicate - s, p, d, f, & g are the different subshell shapes and s= 0, p=1, and so on when it comes to determining the value of (l) or the angular momentum - Due to such values, p had 3 distinct subshells each with magnetically different charged of +, 0 (neutral), and -, as represented by x, y, a z axes and therefore gives p three different subshells of different magnetism because of its orientation - Based on the subshell numerical values, the first principle can have the s orbital, the second principle/electron shell can have both the s and p orbitals, the third principle/electron shell can have the s, p, and d orbitals and so on, and because the Angular momentum of the s orbital is valued at 0 for the p orbital to be valued at 1, p can have a magnetic of its own based on its orientation or axes, but all of them always have a ms of +1/2 or -1/2 - REMEMBER, each +1/2/-1/2 is a possible electron, and is the most valid way of describing an electron, so when it comes to the 1s2 , the 2 subscript represents both +1/2 and -1/2, and therefore 2 electrons can occupy the first subshell, while 6 can occupy p because 2 electrons occupy each charge, and p can have a charge of -1, 0, or 1, each charge with a set of 2 electrons - REMEMBER, each bundle of 2 electrons is a subshell, while an orbital is each bundle of the total magnetic orientations of those 2 electrons - REMEMBER, so that a p subshell had 2 electrons and the p orbital had 6 electrons, MAXIMUM - Any s orbital maximizes with 2 electrons, whether they're in a low energy state of 1 or a high energy state electron shell/principle of 5 - When moving to a higher energy level, a new orbital exists - REMEMBER, although electron shells/principles differ in energy, you should note that the orbitals within the electron shells/principles may differ too, as in the second principle/electron shell p and s each have a unique amount of energy, but p has more energy than s while both stay in the same orbital - ALSO REMEMBER, that sooner or later in the electron cloud, an orbital will contain differing energy so much than that of another orbital that it's place of the electron shells may move the electron shell higher than it needs to be such as 3"d" having more energy than 4"s" - Therefore, when writing electron configurations of atoms, ...4s3d4p... is normal - Using the Aufbau diagram, you can recall this nature by memorizing these specific energy orders: 3p4s3d4p5s4d5p4f5d - Note that when filling energy level diagrams or knowing the place of electrons, the specific arrows which determine whether the electron is in ground state (down arrow), or excited state (up arrow), and also determines the spin of the electron or ms and to checkpoint: - Hund's rule that states all electrons are in excited states until they fill up a subshell as in a state of ground/excitement where they move to the next subshell and do not fill it because there aren't enough electrons as there are only so many protons in an atom - So be on your way when writing electron configurations based on the configurationally named nomenclature talked about earlier - To conclude that Quantum Theory exists and that matter is described as particles and as waves, or matter and as energy (chemistry), waves are the fundamental concept of quantum theory - Amplitude- the height of the wave from the midpoint of the wave to its highpoint or low point (of lesser amplitude), measure of the strength of electromagnetic radiation of substances or the intensity/brightness of light - Wavelength- the length between two low or high adjacent points formerly named crests usually measured with reasonable units of which a common wavelength of a certain wave is deduced on the electromagnetic spectrum - Frequency- The number of waves that pass a given point during a specified time interval, the measure or how many waves in cycles per second (SI units: 1/s or s-1) - lv=c, meaning that the wavelength and frequency have a relationship to equaling the speed of light since waves travel at the speed of light, or since generally speaking light waves are measured at the speed of light, therefore the units of waves must describe the speed, but amplitude doesn't rather describing the height, or as sound waves describing the volume in acoustic physics - Wavelengths are measured in meters, light speed is measured In meters per second, and frequency is measured as cycles per second, and In units, it is measured in Hertz or Hz, so 560 AM would be 560 kHz (kilohertz) reasonable measurement for radio waves and would display that 560 kHz is 560,000 Hertz, or cycles per second to reach wherever, or 560,000 s-1 - E=hv, where E is the energy of the electromagnetic radiation measured in joules, h is Planck's constant, (which Is 6.626 x 10-34 J x s, and is defined as...) v is the frequency in the waves' radiation measured as s-1 - E= hc/l - Einstein said particles of light known as photons carry Planck's quantum or quanta (plural) of energy, so light has both wave properties (l and v) and particle properties (photons) - Light from most sources (atoms, compounds, elements) contain many different frequencies of waves and photonic emissions from particles due to their photonic nature, and you can separate them through a prism (yes, we know!) - When separating the frequencies of waves, you create a spectrum or range of wavelengths and only depends on the source of light for the specific spectrum, known as spectroscopy - Continuous spectrums consist of all frequencies of light - When exciting elements using heat or electricity to charge them in the gas phase, the elements emit light at various frequencies and after bonding emit photons - Without producing a continuous spectrum, they produce a line spectrum of separate frequencies and because the spectrum results from individual atoms emitting light, it can also be called a emission spectrum - The lines observed are characteristic of the element as each elements gives a different combination of lines, a unique emission spectrum - If light is used rather than electricity or heat, than the atom absorbs it, and produces an absorption spectrum from light of a continuous spectrum, resulting in the absorption of some of the frequencies, & the second spectra of absorption results from this transmitted light - Therefore, emission spectra and absorption spectra are shown on the spectrum, only whatever transmitted light used for the element to absorb, there is no light, so it's black with no colors and interrelates to the colors on the spectrum, created by electromagnetic waves as the colors they are, but only as in the visible part of the entire, key word entire spectrum - Ultraviolet and Infrared span out from visible light as purple and red light but invisible and more towards the absorptions spectra that covers all but somewhat in visible light on the entire electromagnetic spectrum - L= h/mu defines the wave properties of particles, since particle properties have already been discovered in waves - Don't confuse v (frequency) with u (velocity) - Magnetic quantum numbers can also be defined from -1 to 0 to +1 as within the range of the energy value, so if it was 1 or "s" it would be that way, but if it was 3 or "f" it would be -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, and 3 as the magnetic or positive/negative to-be ion like in periodic table trends such as electronic affinity or electronegativity, so "s" would hold a maximum of 2 just as 0, "p" would hold a maximum of 6 as -1, 0, and +1, "d" would hold a maximum of 10, "f" with 14, and so on

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Metal-Halide Lamps (All Concepts and Facts)

Metal Halide Lamps, contain a metal filament and a Halogen Gas inside of it, and are exactly like Mercury Vapor lamps except that the metal that immediately reacts with the Halogen to produce a Metal Halide produces a color more exquisite than that of a Mercury Vapor Lamp, and doesn't need a Phosphor coating either, and the tube itself or lamp bulb is made of ceramic, sometimes quartz glass, and also contains an Argon Shield Gas and a Metal Halide salt such as Sodium Bromide and unlike Mercury Vapor Lamps, they operate at higher pressures and temperatures, and as the gas is ionized, emitting UV and Visible Light, sometimes contain a Phosphor Coating on the inside of the tube These Metal Halide Lamps consist of Metal Halides, particularly like Silver Bromide, Chloride, Iodide, or Fluoride which produce a white color after being heated to 4,000 K in the lamp to produce the light and heat energy needed for the lamp So how does a Metal Halide lamp work? Well, inside the lamp there is an arc tube made of quartz glass, in other words a cylindrical tube where on both ends it has an electrode pole, and wrapping around it is a Tungsten filament on both ends, which seal off the arc lamp from the air, and it is a vacuum tube There is also the Starting Electrode, on of the two electrodes connected to the battery and resistor which start up the lamp when it gets cold The Arc in the lamp contains Argon Gas, Mercury Liquid and Vapor Gas, and also a Halide Salt, so when the wire from the resistor part of the battery enters the lamp and an electric current is produced from the battery, and the electricity excites and ionizes the Argon Gas so it turns blue for one bit Then, as the Arc lamp starts to heat up, the Mercury liquid completely vaporizes into a gas, the lamp gets smaller in size of light but brighter as a blue color, and then the Halide Salts are specific chemicals given to the name Halide Salt Lamp or Metal Halide Lamp, and when they are heated and ionized through electrolysis and Thermolysis through the Photoelectric Effect, they give off their own colors So Silver Fluoride (clear), Chloride (White), Bromide (Yellow), and Iodide (Greenish Yellow) all give off their own colors when the Tungsten filament withstands the high temperatures inside the tube, so the Argon gives it a blue color at first, and then the rest of the colors shine soon after, and this mixture of light turns the already ionized Argon Gas producing blue light into white light once it heats up more and ionizes the Metal Halide Salts producing white light The ends of the Arc Tube unlike the Arc Tube whole itself are coated with Ceramic, to reflect heat back into the lamp which if it were not there to insulate the heat, the heat would be wasted and go out of the lamp to keep the arc at a specific temperature to keep it burning and producing a bright light, the light energy will only be generated if heat energy is present, these are sort of like the Lamps used in OttLite lamps 75% of the energy is actually used to make heat, which is then converted to working the remaining 25% of the energy as light Without the Ceramic Heat Insulation as a Polymer, the lamp would shift in color because the heat energy is thus wasted as it goes out into the atmosphere, and the metal halide salts are cooler, not ionized, back to normal, and the white light goes back to blue light, and if it gets too cool then it will just burn out Also, the ends of the Arc lamp are coated with ceramic pained white to reflect any of the heat rather than absorb it if it were to be pained black or any other color A 400-Watt lamp puts out about 38,000 lumens of light, which is 18,000 more lumens than Mercury Vapor Lamps, and more efficient But High-Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamps are even more efficient and are the most modern lamp source used today, although as long as it lives, having a lamp life or shelf life shorter than Sodium Vapor Lamps as well, it emits a nice array of clean, bright white light, and doesn't depend on a Phosphor Coating like Fluorescent Tubes do So, Incandescent and Arc Lamps are rarely used anymore, and so Fluorescent Lamps are used but depend on a Phosphor Coating, so then Mercury Vapor Lamps were used which didn't depend on a Phosphor coating but weren't as efficient, so Metal Halide lamps were used but didn't last as long as High-Pressure Sodium Lamps, so those are now used, and also Neon or Noble Gas lamps are the two Lamps commonly used today Metal Halide Lamps are used for "high-day" lighting, Parking Lot lighting, and Gas Station Canopy lighting

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Blackbody Radiation (All Concepts and Facts)

A Blackbody is simply any object which absorbs all electromagnetic radiation, from red to purple and everywhere in between, and therefore is black However, Blackbodies can radiate! What?? Nothing can be a Blackbody! This is because all the electromagnetic energy being absorbed by a blackbody is converted into thermal energy since it can't absorb and even though light isn't directly given off, it is converted into one form and back into its original form to glow, and glows a certain color based on the substances or elements in the blackbody When heating a piece of steel, it glows red, then orange, then yellow, and sometimes green and blue because at a certain temperature it is a certain color No matter the substance of an object, if it is observed as a blackbody, then it changes color dependent on the temperature, not on the chemical makeup, and thus glows a certain color at a certain temperature Spectra depends on temperature As temperature increases, brightness increases As temperature increases, emitted wavelengths' lengths decrease

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Bioluminescence (All Concepts and Facts)

Also known as Organic Chemiluminescence, Fireflies and other Bacterial organisms like squid contain a certain chemicals in them called Luciferin and Luciferase, and the Luciferase is a catalyst and enzyme of some animals, which speeds the chemical reaction of Luciferin reacting with the Oxygen in the air to produce the oxide of an Organic compound, just kidding, it actually produces Oxyluciferin as well as electromagnetic or light energy that is usually greenish-yellow to the retina or naked eye Sometimes known as "Cold light" when chemical compounds be they inside animals or glow sticks chemically react and mix to produce a glow based on their ionization interactions and properties On land, animals like Fireflies which use Bioluminescence for various purposes to their advantage include Fireflies as well as Fungus through the "Foxfire" effect, the Jack-o-Lantern mushroom, centipedes, millipedes, worms, and most insects In water, animals like jellyfish, squid, shrimp, krill, and marine worms generate this light from chemical reactions which produce bioluminescent light This light is generated not from converting, reflecting, or refracting other electromagnetic energy, but from chemical energy which is somewhat converted into the light energy, and at deep depths, the Aphotic Zone of water depends on light from these animals, however the Euphotic and Disphotic zones can still depend on sunlight

The Physics of Fireworks (All Concepts and Facts)

An aerial firework, or a firework which ends up either converting heat and light energy into kinetic energy, or kinetic energy into heat and light energy, or the kinetic energy is supplied along with the heat and light energy, thus forcing it upwards, a "flying" firework literally; are shells of cardboard that wrap around 4 main parts including the following o Container- A cardboard container with a pasted string and paper forming around the apparatus of the actual aerial firework o Stars- This is the official terminology for the chemical mixture- the Oxidizer, Fuel, and Dye, or just in plain historical terms- the gunpowder and color salt o Bursting Charge- the Firecracker charge at the center of the shell o Fuse- Provides a time delay so the shell explodes at the right time Any normal firework has a key few components o Lift Charge o Main Fuse o Launch Tube o Chemical Mixture o Time-Delay Fuse o Break In simpler terms, the fuse is lit, and that excited or heats the gunpowder inside the tube of the firework, or multiple tubes of the firework, and in heating the gunpowder, that forces the burst charge with the other chemical mixtures to ignite, and lighting and casting in all directions many of stars, small packages of certain reactants selected to create certain colors In the granulations of gunpowder made from mixing the three components together for hours on end, you can also burn this finer, coarser powder in a very small space, and the fire can burn between the powder and through the powder, the reaction is a lot quicker, however still burns for longer periods of time, and since fireworks consists of large amounts of gas in short spaces of time, the gunpowder can be used to make what are called lifting charges, and the same gunpowder can be compressed and used to make little balls of chemical mixtures filled into firework compartments and can be used to make what are called stars, typical components of fireworks including lifting charges and stars In the engineering of the firework, the Fuse is lit by a fire, a thread of cotton combusting with Oxygen and then burning the gunpowder, it decomposes and through a series of chemical reactions we described earlier, the firework is lifted into the air, and while being lifted high up in the air, the lift charge explosion initiates another fuse, or the main fuse, and an electrical current is sent to another timed fuse, where the new spark, or a second explosion is waiting to happen, which goes through the chemical mixture or stars, and thus the stars are shaped in such a way in which the firework will explode

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Lightbulbs and Lamps (All Concepts and Facts)

Chemical Energy producing light proposed hazards for household lighters, so it was changed historically to allow Electrical Energy to produce Light energy, and Heat energy In 1802, the beginnings of the Lightbulb began with my favorite chemist, Sir Humphrey Davy, when he used electrolysis to split alkalis and find new metal substances, and he demonstrated that electric currents he created from batteries could heat strips or ductile, wired metals to white heat and produce light through the photoelectric effect of course, the start of the Incandescent Era of Lightbulbs, or Lightbulbs which glowed with light and heat energy emanating from the bulb Afterwards, the Arc Lamp became more common, in which 2 electrodes of Carbon were separated by a space of air, and electric current was applied to one electrode, which flowed to the other electrode and produced light across the space of air In 1879, in Thomas Edison's first lightbulb, he used a Platinum filament and put a piece of Carbonized Cotton Cloth around and in the filament, ran electric current through it, and it burned through thermionic emission for 2 and a half hours, and he decided to place it in a vacuum, sucking all the air out and placing the filament in there so the Carbon cotton wouldn't react with the air Today, Tungsten Lightbulbs or Lamps use Tungsten Filaments since this element has the highest melting point than that of any other, and can heat up while conducting heat and electrical energy at very high temperatures without melting or burning out, so it is placed between two electrodes in the form of an electromagnet, and as electric current is carried through and it produces an electromagnetic field which creates motion for the thermionic emission to occur and for the heat and light energy to be generated

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Fluorescence and Fluorescent Lightbulbs and Lamps (All Concepts and Facts)

Fluorescent Lamps are another type, which contain Mercury drops which are liquid and gas, vaporizing each moment, and an Argon shield gas, a skinny and long spherical tube which has a phosphor coating, a filament and electrode as always, Mercury Vapor for producing UV radiation or light once it is ionized by the electrical energy running through the filament in the tube, and then the Phosphors are coated with UV light, absorb this light, transmit, and through the Photoelectric Effect reflect lower energy or visible light we can see, as Fluorescence and Phosphorescence are both taking place Once again the tube is made up two contact pins on the outside of the quartz or glass bulb, and inside lies the electrode and Tungsten Filament, which undergoes thermionic emission after converting electrical energy into thermal energy and primarily ionizing the Inert Gas, turning the lamp blue since it is Argon, secondarily vaporizing the Mercury, emitting UV light absorbed by the Phosphor coating, and through complexities of the Photoelectric Effect, in which higher energy light is absorbed and lower energy light, longer waves as an electron's path to revisit his father nucleus after the bully picked on him returns and the longer wave is reflected in terms of waves, and then there is a mixture of colors and it turns white Remember, Phosphors are substances which absorb light to transmit and reflect light back out, simply converting electromagnetic forces of energy There can be two different types of conductors o Solid Conductors carry one electrical charge over to another, and all the negative charges are attracted to a positive charge always, whether it be a positive ion as they are carried through electrolytes of batteries, or it be a positive electrode, an anode, it carried through a solid conducting copper wire conductor o Gas Conductors carry electrical charges, but carries free electrons moving independently from atoms, and do not carry electric charges from one electron to another, rather they are all ionized from the start and metallic bonding isn't necessary, only ionized atoms from absorbed energies are needed o To send a current through a gas conductor in a tube such as a fluorescent light tube or mercury vapor tube (gas vapor tube), you need free electrons and ions, and a difference in charge between the two ends of the tube or voltage o There are rarely free electrons or ionized atoms (ions) in a gas, most stay in the neutral state Black Lights, are Fluorescent Tubes without Phosphor Coatings Gas Discharge Tubes are another common source of light

Generators vs. Motors (All Concepts and Facts)

Generators Motors G: Powered by Manual Use M: Powered by Automatic Use G: Converts Mechanical into Electrical Energy M: Converts Electrical into Mechanical Energy G: Uses Alternating Current M: Uses Direct Current to convert chemical energy into electrical energy to power the motor or alternating current G: Electrons in the conductive wire loop are inserted from wind turbine mechanical energy or manual mechanical energy which makes the loop spin and electrons energize M: Electrons in the conductive wire loop are naturally there with copper already inserted and the wire loop is inserted between two magnets which spins because the electrons produce an overall magnetic field G: Electrons produce magnetic fields which attract and repel between the north and south poles of the magnets which make the metal loop spin to produce electrical energy M: Electrons produce magnetic fields which attract and repel between the north and south poles of the magnets which make the metal loop spin to produce mechanical energy G: Alternating Current because it spins back and forth M: Direct Current because it constantly spins or alternating current, because it constantly spins back and forth with same nature as the left

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Lasers and Holograms (All Concepts and Facts)

Laser stands for "Light Amplification by Stimulation Emission of Radiation" Theodore H. Maiman invented the first laser, and we will take a look first at how his laser was used It contained a ruby crystal, a quartz flash glass tube, reflecting mirrors, and ballast or a battery power supply Before we talk about lasers, let us talk about gems and impurities Gems are impure minerals that just happen to be very beautiful and sometimes translucent rather than opaque, so Rubies are actually a mixture of Carbrorundum (Aluminum Oxide) and the Impurity of Chromium Oxide, in other words in all those zillions of molecules of Aluminum Oxide in the ruby crystal, lies a billion or so Chromium Oxide molecules, in which Chromium just happened to react with the Oxygen in the same way the Aluminum did as the crystal formed Carbrorundum isn't very cool looking, but the Chromium inside of it to make Ruby, Chromium and Aluminum Oxide, the Chromium acts as the Chromophores, and absorbing blue and green light of a higher energy and going right back down its long path back to the nucleus, creating a longer wavelength and lower energy wave of red light, which we see as the red in most lasers today, through the photoelectric process Then, he placed a reflecting mirror and a partially reflecting mirror on two sides of the lamp which contained the cylindrical form of the ruby, reflecting the red light produced from the Chromium Oxide impurities in the Ruby Crystal and this light was in turn also absorbed by the Chromium Oxide molecules but wasn't of a high enough energy to ionize the Chromium, however it interacted with the Chromium and quickly excited it a little to produce more photons until a whole bunch of photons were traveling from one end to the other of the arc lamp Maiman used, and once they refracted off of the glass at a certain angle they could escape and could be seen as beams of photons from the Chromium in the Ruby in the Arc Lamp of the Laser The name lives up to its meaning and abbreviation Population inversion is described as the number of atoms whose electrons are excited in higher orbitals or in the excited state compared to those electrons, the number of electrons closer to the nucleus or in the ground state For lasers to work, the medium of atoms you are exciting must have a high ratio of atoms in the excited state compared to the ground state, or must have a large population inversion, meaning more electrons in the excited state than ground state of the medium the laser will travel through Two identical atoms with electrons in identical states will release photons with identical wavelengths Laser light has 3 distinctive properties from that of Visible Light Laser Light is monochromatic ("one color"), meaning that all the excited atoms come from the same atom, or all from one element, and that the wavelength of light released is determined by the amount of energy (in photons) released when an electron drops, so if an electron drops a little, it's not as long as a wavelength if it dropped down a lot, also releasing more photons Laser Light is coherent, meaning it is organized, and that all the photons are released together at the same time Laser Light is directional, in other words the beam is not only organized but has a very limited surface area and is very concentrated where it exists, however a flashlight releases light in all directions, thus it isn't concentrated and the light it puts out diffuses easily, unlike lasers which never diffuse Stimulated Emission, caused by the radioactivity of atoms releasing energy after absorbing such energy, photon emission is organized or coherent Remember, the (photon) wavelength an atom releases has an energy dependent on or equal to the difference in energy between the excited state and ground state of an electron in an atom If this photon comes across a different atom whose electrons are in the same excited state as the photon possessing the energy between the electrons excited and ground states in an atom, and if this photon comes across another electron, that electron will absorb energy, creating another photon, and going back down to the ground state, thus knocking more photons out of atoms consistently This interaction is catalyzed when placing 2 mirrors reflecting the beam of light or consistent stream of photons together, making them move back and forth as it reflects and doesn't refract, for it is traveling in one medium, the medium of the laser In order for the photons to begin generating though, you must shine light upon them for them to absorb any energy significantly, and these electrons move out of the excited atoms when a flash tube, or tube of light containing high energy waves is shined on the medium A mirror at one end reflects some of the produced light at the other mirror, but one of the mirrors is "half-silvered", in other words one of the mirrors allows for some of this produced light to pass through, the laser beam, or the laser itself, such as the "half-silvered" mirror being an opening for a gun to shoot a laser in a sci-fi movie For example, Maiman's Red Ruby Laser consisted of a cylindrical form of a ruby with the yellow flash tube absorbed by the excited atoms After being stimulated and releasing photons, the photons are bouncing back and forth between the mirrors until the half silvered mirror allows them to go through and "shoot-out" Once the photon interacts with another atom to create two photons, those two photons interact with 2 different atoms to produce 4 photons, and then 8 photons, and so on until they reach the mirror and bounce back and forth between them, exciting more atoms randomly, it is like a chain reaction propagated by the flash tube of light There are many different types of lasers which work similarly as the original, as there were different types of lamps which worked similarly to the original lightbulb, which include Solid-state Lasers (Ruby Lasers, Neodymium: Yttrium-Aluminum Garnet Lasers, and Ruby: Yttrium-Aluminum Garnet Lasers) Gas Lasers (Noble Gas Lamp Lasers, like the lamps, only using a higher energy lamp, or 2 lamps to make the laser, as well as mirrors on each end of the lamp, so first you make the lamp, then you can make the laser!) Excimer Lasers (Excited Dimers, Chlorine and Fluorine Gas used in the presence of Argon and Krypton Gas, produce "dimers" as well as photons Dye Lasers (Uses liquid dyes to transmit light the way all dyes and pigments would) Semiconductor Lasers (LED/Diode Lasers) In order to choose which color you want the laser to exemplify monochromatic effect on, you have to calculate the frequency and determine the color, based on calculating it from the Light Equation ν=c/λ, where the "v" equals frequency, the "lambda" is the given wavelength, and the "c" is the speed of light constant, so you can calculate the frequency or color In order to find the energy of the color of light you see, multiply the quotient or answer of the Previous problem by Planck's constant in order to find the energy, in terms of photons, of the light being produced, based on calculating it from the Light Energy Equation E=hν Here is a table of the different wavelengths of light emitted from different substances characteristic to that substance, be it a compound or element, and if you convert it from nanometers to meters, or Angstroms, you could use either the meter or Angstrom unit in your two equations to figure out two useful properties of the light you are using, the frequency, and the energy (in terms of photons): - Photons from a flash tube are absorbed by atoms in the ruby rod, raising the atoms' electrons to a higher active energy level - When the electrons drop back to their normal energy levels, the atoms emit photons in random directions - If an emitted photon hits another atom, the second atom emits a photon of the same energy and in the same direction of travel - The number of photons rises quickly until a stream of photons emerges from the reflective mirror as a laser beam - LASER stands for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation (of atoms' electrons) - All the photons in a laser beam have the same wavelength- giving lases a monochromatic feel of having only one color - Ruby is one medium used as a laser and stored in a glass tube with mirrors or diodes to produce a continuous beam of photonic energy from bouncing photons emitted from the given energy and the excited and ground states of moving electrons - Holograms are formed by the interference patterns created by the interaction of two laser light beams- one of a scattered in light object in 3D and one "reference beam" - The 2 laser beams are recorded on a transparent film plate which can be excited by white light to emit its spectrum of colors within the 3D object and the interference patterns of the 2 beams - The interference patters scatter or diffract when they reach a viewer's eyes and seem to appear

The Physics of Light (All Concepts and Facts)

Light moves in Straight Lines The key to forming any image is a small opening that can restrict the light from entering such as in darkened chambers The Aperture excludes the craziness of extraneous light rays that surround us, the smaller the aperture the fewer directions that light can come from which makes the image/icon sharper Rather be blinded by the light, we can see everything it has to show us Al-Haytham and Al-Hazen figured this out They also invented the telescope Bigger openings collect more light while maintaining a certain focus So a telescope collects light from any spot in its field of view, across the entire lens or mirror Openings larger than Camera obscurer hole He/They also created the Scientific Method The Scientific Method is... Isaac Newton, William Herschel, Joseph Fraunhaufer Figures Sunlight or White Light is a mixture of all the colors of the rainbow A display of these colors is called a spectrum, which you can see when you shine light through a clear prism. Spectrum is Latin for Phantom too Using a telescope, the scientific method, and experiments Herschel was able to say that light carried heat to make the colors Red Light is warmer than blue light, he shined light on paper for thermometers to pick up the temperature, and one of his thermometers was higher in temperature than the others, the red over the blue, but another didn't even have light reaching it, it was an invisible light he called Infrared- Unseen Light to the human eye, Latin- for Blow, skin is sensitive to it, but not to our eye Sound Waves and Light Waves- Just like the wavelength of sound determines the pitch we hear, light determines the color that we see When light travels through air or space, all its colors move at the same speed But when it hits glass at an angle, the light slows down and changes direction LIGHT IS ENERGY< NOT MATTER, Particles can be both though IC AC ZC 2 Hydrogen Protons join as a nuclear reaction 2 Hydrogen Electrons join as a chemical Reaction Chemical Properties, Changes and Chemical Reactions depend on Electrons Physical Properties & Changes depend on Element Protons repelling and joining at the same time depend on Nuclear Reactions, Nuclear Forces, and Nuclear Chemistry Inside the prism, each color moves at a different speed Red is the longest, and purple is the shortest usually such as in glass These changes in speed pry the colors apart sending their waves apart in different directions Light waves of different lengths from the sun strike the earth and the pedals of these flowers absorb all of the low energy, long red length waves of light, and the petals reflect the shorter high energy blue wave length of light This interaction between sunlight emission and petal is what makes blue Red Wavelengths have lowest energy, Violet have highest energy Feelings of certain colors are triggered by the frequencies and energy of light waves Black vertical lines intervening with the Color Spectra- they appear there when the light waves of those particular colors are being absorbed happening at the atomic level The Chemistry of anything is determined by it's electron orbit And the quantum physical jumping electrons are not forced due to gravity rather a force of electrical attraction ATOMS ARE ALWAYS MOVING TO AND FROM OTHER ATOMS PROOF ATOMS EXIST: Electrons dance a wavy ring around the central nucleus or nucleons within it while making quantum leaps up or down, and based on Quantum Physics, the bigger the leap, the greater the energy of the electron and electrons have to get energy to leap to larger orbits or losing energy to jump back down Every upward leap is caused by an atom absorbing a light wave But what causes the downward leaps? Such leaps though always produce a light wave whose color matches the energy difference between the electronic shell orbitals Particles of Light give heat, energy, absorption for emission to an atom The sun's surface radiates light waves of all colors, looking at some light though a prism you'll see its spectrum, magnifying it with a telescope you raise the curtain of the electron dance in the atom When the energy of the electron fails and it drops to a lower orbital the light wave it emits scatters and most of it doesn't reach us nor the human instinct of visible light, leaving a dark gap in the spectrum These dark lines are the shadows cast by a Hydrogen atom in the atmosphere of the sun Sodium Atoms cast different shadows in the spectrum of different wavelengths, crests, and types of light in certain places where it can be emitted, And their electrons dance to a different tune When you look at a star with a spectroscope, you can see all the dark lines from all the atoms or elements in its atmosphere Seeing these spectra can determine what elements planets are made up of because for one, the photon particles emitted from each element bonding within a nuclear or space body gives into the explanation above, and two these black lines determine the light gaps in the spectrum of the tiny electrons for which we see, and with the amazing invention* of the spectroscope**, we can define the composition of elements of any space body by spectro-graphing the planets of the Cosmos His special lines revealed that the visible cosmos is all made up of the same elements discovered such as bodies like the planets, the stars like our sun, the galaxies, and our known universe As the wavelength of a wave gets longer, the frequency gets longer if you think of it as a light wave, or lower if you think of it as a sound wave, and thus it has lower energy and low penetration power for it can easily be absorbed. The color red is a good example of low energy, and the longer wavelength part of the spectrum include the sections of Infrared Waves, Microwaves, and Radio Waves. However, as the wavelength of a wave gets shorter, the frequency gets shorter if you think of it as a light wave, or higher if you think of it as a sound wave, and thus it has high energy and high penetration power for it cannot be easily absorbed. For example, Infrared Light has low energy and low penetration power, because when it hits your skin it is absorbed by it and doesn't pas through it when you feel heat from the sun. However, UV light has high energy and thus high penetration power, because when it hits your skin it is taken in by the cells of your skin, and changes them, causing skin burn and thus concluding it has strong penetrating power

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Luminol (All Concepts and Facts)

Luminol reveals traces of substances, mainly blood in places you cannot see them, and are usually used in high energy light cameras at crime scenes to collect evidence of blood on the carpet which would rather blend in if the criminal had tried mopping it all up Luminol reacts with hemoglobin and other substances or chemicals to produce products as well as translucent turquoise blue wavelength light In this specific reaction, the reactants have more energy than the products, and the other energy converts or turns into the form of electromagnetic or light energy, and uses properties fireflies, worms, and glowsticks all use and share the same concept, chemiluminescence Luminol is also known as C8H7O3N3 In order to find the "blue" blood, CSI Agents mix the Luminol powder with a Hydrogen Peroxide solution and a base or two in case it is too acidic, or Hydroxide, or Alkali solution, and pour this big solution into a spray bottle, which turns the solution mechanically into an Aerosol When they come in contact with the blood, the iron from the hemoglobin inside the blood catalyzes the reaction between the Luminol, Hydrogen Peroxide, and Base, and through an oxidation redox synthesis chemical reaction, the Luminol loses Hydrogen and Nitrogen, oxidizes to gain Oxygen, in forming a new product, an organic compound called 3-aminophtalate is formed as well as lots of light energy, and the electrons are quickly excited when the 3-aminophtalate absorbs this light energy produced, absorbing, transmitting, and refracting or reflecting the light back out so it produces light, blue wavelength to be exact, and this way, the chemical performs chemiluminescence

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Mercury Vapor Lamps (All Concepts and Facts)

Mercury Vapor Lamps have two bulbs which act in the same way as Fluorescent Lamps only the bulbs is made of Quartz (Silicon Dioxide Glass) and the Mercury Vapor or Gas is at higher pressures, allowing the Mercury Vapor or Gas to produce visible light instead of UV light, signifying that changing the pressure of a gas can change what light it emits, or the extent of light it emits, and produces this light without the use of a Phosphor coating

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Neon Lamps (All Concepts and Facts)

Neon Lamps are tubes filled with Neon Gas which glow a bright red when electric discharge runs through them, and through the Photoelectric Effect, it is ionized in a vacuum tube by tremendous voltages of electrical energy, and determined by the gas, determines the color, so you can also have other colored Lamps such as Argon, Krypton, Xenon, and Helium lamps which are based on the same concept and glow different colors depending on the gas used

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Phosphorescence/Chemiluminescence (All Concepts and Facts)

Simply put, light generated from Phosphorus and Oxygen forming White Tetraphoshphorus Decoxide in the form of either Phosphorus, Phosphates, or Phosphor Compounds and either converted or absorbed by another substance to produce light, see more in Lecture Chemistry Notes Simply put, light generated from a chemical reaction, see more in Lecture Chemistry Notes

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: High-Pressure Sodium Lamps (All Concepts and Facts)

Sodium Lamps, the filament is made of Aluminum Oxide also known as Corundum, and a solid mixture of pressurized Sodium is mixed with Mercury While High Pressure Sodium Lamps emit red-orange colors, Metal Halide Lamps emit more of a blue color These HPS lamps burn with a bright yellow-orange light These HPS lamps contain a Lamp bulb of Alumina or Carbrorundum (Aluminum Oxide), a very stable oxide ionic compound which works better than glass and is the only lamp which uses a non-glass material for its bulb or tube containing the gases inside of it, and this Carbrorundum is made or transformed into a Ceramic-like material which other tubes and lamps used on the outside of the arcs inside the bulbs, but the bulbs themselves were glass which worked well enough, but these have ceramic on the arc lamps and on the glass bulbs The sudden change in use of Carbrorundum Ceramic was due to the fact that the ionization energy and high temperatures and pressures used in these lamps could withstand the temperatures, unlike glass or ceramic itself which would just break A discharge lamp, it has one electrode at each end with Tungsten filaments, the gas used is Xenon Gas which is heavier than Argon Gas and thus can withstand such temperatures and be ionized to produce a lasting effect greater than that of Argon, and there is an Amalgam or Mercury Alloy of Sodium and Mercury in the Arc Tube, because the alloy controls the rate at which the Sodium melts and also because it can absorb, transmit, and reflect light through the Photoelectric Effect to produce a whiter light, and although it still looks orange, it also gives a "monochromatic" white light at first Higher compact and longer lasting, they aren't as efficient as Low-Pressure Sodium Lamps, but overall outweigh efficiency and use of all lamps If the lamp gets cold, they use a high-voltage pulse to get it going There is an external electric circuit built-in outside of the ballast or battery and the current hits the lamp with a high-voltage spike or spark which starts the arc As the current is used more and more, the temperature and pressure increase, and the Xenon is excited and ionized first and turns the lamp a Sky Blue, then the Mercury from the Amalgam vaporizes second turning the lamp normal Blue, and then the Sodium vaporizes last, generated by the heat from the Mercury Gas, and turns the lamp orange-yellow color from the normal flame test and photoelectric results of Sodium So, first the Xenon is excited and ionized and it turns the lamp a Sky Blue color, and then the Mercury from the Amalgam vaporizes as the temperature from the increasing current increases High Pressure Sodium Vapor Lamps are used for street lighting, lighting large areas, home lights, orange color and glow, and at first were normal Pressure but then High Pressure because they found that would increase it efficiency And by the way, Ballast is a passive component used in an electric circuit to moderate changes in current, kind of like a battery

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Pigments and Dyes (All Concepts and Facts)

Subtractive Color is applied to Chromophores like Chlorophyll which absorbs blue and red light, or UV light, and refracts or reflects green light The frequency of incoming light as a wave is at or near the frequency of the motion of electrons in a material, and depending on how electronegative an element or substance is, in which absorption occurs when the electrons are held tightly to their atoms, or the more electronegative the element being used, the more it may absorb, another factor in determining such a quantity, also the number of shells or energy levels, and the overall size of the atom as well as its electronegativity are accounted for, a good reason why Metal Halides (with the Halide electronegative element in it) hogging all the electrons because of its strong proton charges from periodic trends Anyway, substances or elements with high electronegativities, electrons held in close, can undergo absorption, and the vibrations of these waves or passed along to the nuclei of these atoms, allowing the atoms to speed up, collide with other atoms, and give up the heat energy produced from the vibrations

Light and the Photoelectric Effect: Photolysis (All Concepts and Facts)

You can also use light or electromagnetic energy to have them be absorbed by chemical compounds just so none is transmitted, rather the components of the compounds, individual atoms of elements are ionized, broken down, and/or split apart, a type of decomposition reaction catalyst, like Electrolysis or Thermolysis, only with light it is Photolysis This is not how UV light interacts with plants! It builds up a plant or makes it grow, not break it down, nor break down its sugars Photolysis is primarily used for Ionic Salts and Organic Compounds