Physio Final Review

Stretch/Myotatic Reflex

"Knee-Jerk Reflex" Mediated by muscle spindle detecting stretch

Calculate the Heart Rate. Make sure to include units for your answer for full credit. 0.7sec from R wave to R wave

0.7sec/beat = 60s/xbeat 85.71 bpm

ID What is happening at each Number on the Graph below

1. Atrial Systole 2. AV Valve Shut 3. Semilunar valves open 4. semilunar valves close-2nd heard sound 5. AV valves open 6. Atrial systole 7. Passive Venous Return

What is necessary for hormone action

1. Hormones must be recognized and bound by specific cell receptor 2. Hormone-Receptor complex must be coupled to signal-generating mechanism or act as one itself 3. Generated Signal (Secondary Messenger)- changes intracellular processes by altering a. enzyme activity/function b. functional/structural proteins

ID the primary (main) ion contributing to each section of the graph above (#1-3) and the direction it is moving for #1-3 in the picture above

1. Na influx 2. Ca2+ influx 3. K+ efflux

Bulk flow/filtration across capillary wall

2% of plasma 85% of this filtered fluid reabsorbed in capillaries/venules regulates relative volumes of blood/ISF movement through endothelial pores regulated by pressure gradient (water vs oncotic pressure) passive, moves large volumes of solutes in fluid in same direction permeability varies with pore size/count direction/magnitude of water movement (pressure gradient)

Ventral Corticospinal Tract

20% of corticospinal tract fibers synapse on interneurons in ventral horn at spinal cord level connect bilaterally with α-motor neurons controls postural/gross movements in axial/proximal limb muscles

Describe in detail how the Na+/K+ ATPase pump functions in establishing an electrochemical gradient

3 Na+ ions bind, ATP binds and is hydrolyzed; PPi released; pump conformation changes Pumps 3 Na+ out 2 K+ ions bind; P is released; pump conformation changes Pumps 2 K+ in Net is electronegative ICF

Plasma Body Weight Percentage

5% Body Weight

Blood Basics

5L, 7% of total body weight Connective Tissue Matrix: Plasma=55% of blood volume=solvent for transported substances/support medium for blood cells Fiber-Fibrinogen Circulate in globular form-become fibers (fibrin) during clotting Cells: Cells/Platelets

Hemorrhagic Response Criteria

60+mmHg=baroreceptors 60-mmHg=chemoreceptors 40-mmHg=Cerebral ischemia responses

Carbon dioxide levels in the blood increases during a period of exercise, leading to an increase in respiration rate. In the feedback system that regulates blood gases, the lungs are acting as the _______. Select one: a. effectors b. control centers c. stimuli d. receptors

A. Effectors

(Pick 2) Channel and carrier proteins are different based on _____. Select one or more: a. Functional type of transport b. Solubility of the substance being transported c. Location in plasma membrane d. Conformational change during transport

A. Functional type of transport D. Conformational change during transport

(Pick 2) As the respiration or breathing rate increases, CO2 is removed from the lungs faster returning CO2 levels closer to normal. This is an example of ___________________ (negative or positive) feedback control via the _______________________ (nervous or endocrine) system of control. Select one or more: a. nervous b. endocrine c. positive d. negative

A. Nervous D. Negative

Axon Fiber Types Myelination

A=Myelinated C=Non-myelinated

Ganglionic Receptive fields are based on

AP rate in response to light in center of field

Excess Angiotensin II Treatment

ARB/ACE Inhibitor

Muscle energy sources-ATP

ATP-used in Actin cross bridge, Pump Ca2+ out of muscle to end contraction Pump Na/K to establish RMP About 8 muscle twitch worth stored, more metabolized aerobically when blood glucose available Fatty Acids also act as muscle energy source

Smooth Muscle Relaxation-Stress Relaxation

Ability to return to resting force of contraction following stretch Urinary bladder returns to resting force as bladder fills and is stretched Reverse stress relaxation=ability to return to resting force when force drops

Fever

Abnormally high body temperature systemic response to invading microorganisms Leukocytes/Macrophages-exposed to foreign substance, secrete pyrogens that reset thermostat in hypothalamus

ParaSNS NT

Acetylcholine

Gq Pathway

Acetylcholine Phospholipase C IP3/DAG PKC GI smooth muscle contraction

This protein is also known as the thin filament

Actin

Cardiac Muscle Excitation Contraction Coupling

Action potential originates spontaneously in pacemaker cells Spreads to contractile cells via gap junction Spreads across plasma membrane and T-tubules Opens L-type VG Ca2+ channels Calcium open s ryanodine receptors in SER Ca2+ in SER released (calcium induced calcium release) Sarcoplasm Ca2+ levels proportional with force of contraction in all muscles Ca2+ bonds troponin-tropomyosin shifts-actin binding sites exposed-sliding filaments

T-Cell Activation

Activates only when bound to foreign antigen

adaptive immunity

Active-Person's own immune system respond to microbe Natural-exposed to antigen by chance (flu) Artificial-vaccines with attenuated/dead virus Passive-receives antibodies from another person/animal, temporary bc no memory cells Natural-mother to fetus via Placenta IgG or breast milk IgA Artificial-Receives serum with antibodies from vaccinated person/animal

What tissues have a resting membrane potential?

All

What tissues have receptors

All

Serotonin

Amine, excitatory/inhibitory, sensory, learning, memory, mood, sleep, interneuron stimulation.

Osmotic pressure (π) (mmHg)

Amount of pressure needed to stop osmosis

Troponin

Anchoring protein anchors tropomyosin on actin TnI-Attaches to actin TnT-tropomyosin affinity TnC- Ca2+ attachment site empty at rest

Humoral Immunity

Antibodies produces by B lymphocytes circulate freely in body fluids Bind temporarily to target cell-inactivate-mark for destruction Acts on target protein on cell surface

Opsonization

Antibodies/complement proteins as opsonins that goat pathogens to make them easier to phagocytose

Eicosanoids are signaling molecules derived from

Arachidonic acid which is synthesized by Phospholipase A2 hydrolyzing phospholipids

Filtration location

Arterial end of capillary, absorption at venous end some capillaries only filter-renal glomerulus some only absorb-intestinal mucosa

Action Potential VG Channels At Rest

At Rest: VG Na and VG K channels closed Only some K moves through leak channels

Cerebellum abnormalities

Ataxia-balance/muscle tone Dysmetria-directional error/force of movement jerky, step-like movements

ANS Preganglionic axonal fiber type

Aβ

What part of the brain is Huntington's Chorea and Parkinson's disease associated with

Basal Nuclei/Ganglia

Cross-bridge cycling

Based on sliding filament model as myosin walks along actin to shorten muscle Allows sarcomere shortening= force development, which continues as long as cytosolic Ca2+ levels are high and ATP is available

Negative Feedback Example

Blood Pressure: Baroreceptors fire or stop firing depending on whether BP is too high or low, which induces heart rate changes, vasodilation/contraction

Hematopoiesis

Blood cell development-any type, all from same stem cell, hormonally regulated to determine type, originate from pluripotent hemopoietic stem cells in red bone marrow

Endongenous Analgesia System

CNS suppression of incoming information at brain level

Facilitated Diffusion

Channel/Carrier Dependent. Molecules bind to carrier protein that undergoes conformational changes

Rather than having z-discs (z-lines), smooth muscle has

Dense bodies

Plasma

Fluid of Blood 92% water 7% Proteins-buffers, bind excess H+, classified as colloids due to size 1% Solutes- ions, nutrients, wastes, dissolved gases, hormones, and chemical buffers (bicarb, HCO3-) contain many vasoactive substances within granules works in hemostasis

Defensins

In neutrophils that pierce pathogen membranes

Fick's Law Equation

J=-PS[C1-C2]=-DA[ΔC/Δx]

ICF ions

K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, PO4-, Organic Ions, Proteins

Where do ganglionic cell axons synapse

Lateral Geniculate nucleus of thalamus

What contributes to resting membrane potential

Leak channels leaking positive K+ out Proteins act as anions and are trapped within the cell Electrogenic Na+/K+ ATPase 3Na+ out, 2Na+ in. keeps negative membrane potential stable

Lymphatic System MOA

Lymph Capillaries drain into larger lymphatic vessels/ducts Lymph passes through lymph nodes-connective tissue packed with lymphocytes/phagocytes allows removal of microorganisms/recognition of foreign material, serves immune function Returns fluid back to vascular system via subclavian veins close to heart

Inverse Myotatic Reflex/Negative Stretch Reflex

Mediated by Golgi tendon organ receptors in response to muscle tension relayed to tendon (excess muscle contraction causes tendon stretch)

Special Senses

Modified Neurons in specialized sensory organs in head vision, hearing, taste, smell, rotational, linear acceleration of head.

Muscle Tissue Function

Movement

Aβ/Type II afferent Nerve Fiber Function

Muscle spindle, rapid touch, pressure receptors

How cells react to isotonicity

No volume change

Glia Cells

Non neuronal cells in nervous system

Plasma Membrane Receptor Systems (Rm) are activated by

Non-lipid soluble (NLS) hormones

Gs Pathway

Norepi Adenylyl Cyclase cAMP PKA Increased heart rate

Na/Ca exchanger (NCX)

On sarcolemma Secondary active transport powered by Na/K ATPase 1 Ca for 3 Na

At which labeled point on the AP is the Na+ closest to being at electrochemical equilibrium?

Peak

Types of retinal cells

Photoreceptors: rods/cones bipolar cells horizontal cells amacrine cells ganglion cells

What controls voluntary/precise motor operations

Primary somatic motor cortex Premotor Cortex

epithelial tissue functions

Protection, secretion, absorption, communication

Neuropeptides

Synthesized in soma, long term effects,

Temporal vs Spatial Summation

Temporal- post-synaptic potentials arriving in rapid sequence from one or many presynaptic neurons Spatial- EPSP+IPSP arrive at the same time on post synaptic neuron from multiple presynaptic neurons

Force Development Factors

The greater the myosin/actin overlap, the shorter the muscle and greater the tension developed

Describe adaptation types based on graphs

Thermofreceptor/nociceptor Curve from top plateaus down/ stable plateau as long as stimulus is present

Adaptive specific Defense System

Third line of defense attacks particular foreign substances (takes longer to react than innate) Consists of B cells-indirect attack, T cells-direct attack

Platelets

Thrombocytes 150,000-350000 per microL of blood 1% of blood volume clotting function

Smooth Muscle Tonic vs Phasic

Tonic-Sustain prolonged contraction without fatigue-sphincters Phasic-Contract/Relax according to demands of situation

Secondary Lymphoid Organs-Lymphoid Nodules

Tonsils, Peyer's Patches

What does the abbreviation TPR stand for

Total Peripheral Resistance

Rods _____. Select one: a. Are more sensitive to low intensity light b. Are in highest concentration in the fovea c. Adapt before the cones in the dark d. Are primarily involved in photopic vision

a. Are more sensitive to low intensity light

Platelet response to thrombin includes all of the following EXCEPT: Select one: a. Proliferation b. Ca2+ release from the ER c. Exocytosis of serotonin and ADP d. Activation of Rho protein e. Activation of PAR

a. Proliferation

Given the conditions indicated in the table for a hypothetical cell, use your conceptual understanding of membrane transport dynamics in mammalian systems to complete the statement below the table. Ion ECF/ICF H+ 125/10 Na+ 30/250 Cl- 15/150 K+ 100/50 If Cl- is moved into the cell with indirect use of ATP then Cl- movement would most likely be using a(n): Select one: a. a Cl-/Na+ antiporter b. a ligand-gated Cl- channel and an ion channel c. a Cl- ATPase d. a symporter and a Cl-/K+ ATPase e. an intracellular messenger-gated Cl- channel and a symporter

a. a Cl-/Na+ antiporter

(Pick 2) Which of the following is FALSE with adaptation? Select one or more: a. a decreased generator/receptor potential to a changing intensity stimulus b. It is more pronounced with some sensations than others c. It does not occur to any great extent in pain reception d. It may involve a decrease in action potential frequency to continued stimulation. e. Tactile receptors exhibit tonic adaptation.

a. a decreased generator/receptor potential to a changing intensity stimulus e. Tactile receptors exhibit tonic adaptation.

Which of these does not directly impact venous return Select one: a. increase in PNS b. interthoracic pressure c. valves d. venoconstriction

a. increase in PNS

Which connective tissue is wrapped around fascicles Select one: a. perimysium b. endomysium c. epimysium d. tendon

a. perimysium

Lymphocytes

act against target cells Directly-by killing infected cells Indirectly-by releasing chemicals that enhance inflammatory response, or activating other lymphocytes. macrophages

ANS Preganglionic cell synapses

at autonomic ganglion with post-ganglionic neuron in peripheral NS

What level can visceral reflexes be mediated by

autonomic ganglion, spinal cord, brain stem, hypothalamus

Hypothalamus is a major controller of the

autonomic nervous system limbic system

Neural Control

autonomic nervous system alters hormone secretion in response to nervous receptor stimulation

Given the conditions indicated in the table for a hypothetical cell, use your conceptual understanding of membrane transport dynamics in mammalian systems to complete the statement below the table. Ion ECF/ICF H+ 125/10 Na+ 30/250 Cl- 15/150 K+ 100/50 If Cl- is moved into the cell then it could be moving across the membrane using a(n) ______. Select one: a. a symporter and a Cl-/Na+ ATPase b. a carrier and a Cl- ATPase c. a ligand-gated Cl-channel and a uniporter d. an intracellular messenger gated Cl- channel and a symporter e. an exchanger and a Cl-/K+ ATPase

b. a carrier and a Cl- ATPase

Which of these only promotes smooth muscle relaxation? Select one: a. angiotensin 2 b. adenosine c. acetylcholine d. endothelin

b. adenosine

Which of these vessels does not contain smooth muscle. Choose one or more. Select one or more: a. vein b. capillary c. arteriole d. venule

b. capillary d. venule

A mutation in phospholipase C occurs such that it is still functional but less efficient. What will likely happen? Select one: a. decreased relaxation of cardiac muscle b. decreased formation of IP3 c. Increased activity of SERCA d. more Ca2+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum

b. decreased formation of IP3

L-deprenyl is a drug of choice to help alleviate the devastating effects of Parkinson's disease because this drug inhibits the ______. Select one: a. synthesis action of acetylcholine transferase b. degradative action of MAO c. synthesis action of COMT d. degradative action of acetycholinesterase

b. degradative action of MAO

(Pick 2) Which of the following is (are) TRUE about the primary motor cortex? The primary motor cortex is: Select one or more: a. directly associated with the operation of the stretch reflex b. directly connected to the pyramidal transmission (corticospinal tract) c. topologically mapped for the efferent control of the body periphery d. located posterior to the central sulcus

b. directly connected to the pyramidal transmission (corticospinal tract) c. topologically mapped for the efferent control of the body periphery

One-to-many form of neuronal organization is _________. Select one: a. convergence b. divergence c. lateral inhibition d. feedback facilitation e. feedback inhibition

b. divergence

_______ is a form of post-synaptic regulation where one pre-synaptic neuron branches to affect a larger number of post-synaptic neurons. Select one: a. feedback excitation b. divergence c. upregulation d. pre-synaptic excitation e. convergence

b. divergence

(Pick 2) In Parkinson's disease, _______ is the neurotransmitter most often shown to be deficient, but due to the arrangement of basal ganglia circuitry, the condition may be treated by the administration of an acetylcholine _______ (agonist, antagonist). Select one or more: a. norepinephrine b. dopamine c. antagonist d. epinephrine e. agonist

b. dopamine c. antagonist

Which type of capillary are you more likely to find in the kidney Select one: a. none of these b. fenestrated c. discontinuous d. continuous

b. fenestrated

(Pick 3 that apply) Muscle tension is detected by ________. Select one or more: a. osmoreceptors b. mechanoreceptors c. Pacinian corpuscle d. nociceptors e. proprioceptors f. baroreceptors g. muscle spindle h. golgi tendon organ

b. mechanoreceptors e. proprioceptors h. golgi tendon organ

What is happening between the peak and halfway down. a. Na+ influx b. K+ influx c. K+ efflux d. Na+ efflux

c. K+ efflux

Which is NOT involved with wound healing Select one: a. inflammation b. angiogenesis c. tissue necrosis d. wound contraction

c. tissue necrosis

Cones provide

color vision at higher light levels and precision vision

Fovea centralis in eye contains only

cones and is also sharpest point of vision

The T-tubules in cardiac muscle compared to T-tubules in skeletal muscle Select one: a. More terminal cisternae b. Are smaller c. Contain more connections to SR d. Located at the Z line

d. Located at the Z line

Which of these is not occur during atrial systole Select one: a. ventricular filling b. rise in ventricular pressure c. atrial contraction d. semilunar valves close

d. semilunar valves close

(Pick 2) When fully activated, a sensory unit that has a large receptive field would produce an action potential of ________ ( lower / higher / equal) frequency in comparison to a sensory unit that has a small receptive field. When a sensory unit is continuously stimulated, its impulses would be _________ (spatially / temporally / both spatially and temporally / neither spatially nor temporally) summated by the post-synaptic neuron. Select one or more: a. equal b. lower c. both spatially and temporally d. temporally e. neither spatially nor temporally f. spatially g. higher

d. temporally g. higher

Consider the autonomic nervous system: 1. adrenergic nicotinic receptors are always found at the ganglionic junction 2. cholinergic alpha receptors are found at most post-ganglionic junctions in the sympathetic 3. epinephrine is released by most sympathetic post-ganglionic terminals 4. acetylcholine is always released at effector tissues in the sympathetic a. Statements 1 and 4 only are correct b. All statements are correct c. Statements 2, 3 and 4 are correct d. Statement 3 only is true e. All statements are incorrect

e. All statements are incorrect

The enzyme that catalyzes the formation of the secondary messenger cAMP is ______. Select one: a. tyrosine kinase b. protein kinase C c. protein kinase A d. phospholipase C e. adenylyl cyclase

e. adenylyl cyclase

(Pick 2) A human red blood cell lyses. It must have been placed in a _____ mOsm/L solution, a ____ solution. Select one or more: a. hypertonic b. 300 c. isotonic d. 500 e. hypotonic f. 100

e. hypotonic f. 100

_______________ is functionally significant in 2-point discrimination to provide contrast between areas that are simultaneously activated. Select one: a. divergence b. feedback facilitation c. feedback inhibition d. convergence e. lateral inhibition

e. lateral inhibition

Activation of which specific receptor type is likely to produce most widespread autonomic activation? Select one: a. beta b. muscarinic c. adrenergic d. alpha e. nicotinic

e. nicotinic

Which of these is not a vasoconstrictor Select one: a. thromboxane A2 b. vasopressin c. epinephrine d. serotonin e. none of the above

e. none of the above

The lipid component of the plasma membrane consists of _______. Select one: a. a lipid bilayer with a hydrophobic phosphate facing the ECF b. cholesterol that decreases membrane fluidity c. a lipid bilayer with hydrophilic fatty acid tails inside the bilayer d. either intrinsic or extrinsic components e. phospholipids that are amphipathic

e. phospholipids that are amphipathic

What doesn't Fick's Law take into account

electrical charge

What can cause an action potential

electrical, chemical, mechanical stimulus

How are receptor-hormone complexes brought into the cell

endocytosis

Z-Line

endpoint of sarcomere

Lateral inhibition

enhances contrast between strong vs weak stimulation

Which type of tissue is associated with endocrine and exocrine function

epithelial

List the four tissue types

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

Ependymal

epithelium lining the ventricles and central canal of spinal cord

This hormone, released from the kidneys stimulates the production of red blood cells.

erythropoetin

Rods are located

everywhere except optic disc/fovea

Bipolar Retina cells

excitatory/inhibitory depending on NT

Intracellular fluid (ICF)

fluid within cells, 40% body weight, 2/3 Fluid Volume

Site for personality, planning, decision making

frontal cortex

Loss of cone function results in

full blindness

Mrs. M, a middle-aged woman, had been complaining of severe headaches before collapsing at work and being transported to the hospital. The attending physician briefly conducted an external examination and checked her vital signs and reflexes before requesting a CAT scan and a blood work up. Based on his initial examination, he suspected that Mrs. M has suffered a hemorrhage in her left thalamic nuclei. (Pick 3) Which of the following sensory and motor pathways would involve thalamic neurons as part of their synaptic locations? Select one or more: a. ACST b. LCST c. inverse stretch reflex arc d. stretch reflex arc e. crossed extensor reflex arc f. flexor reflex arc g. visual h. AST i. LST j. DCML

g. visual h. AST i. LST

What are the optic tracts

ganglionic cell axons leaving the optic chiasma

SNS vs ParaSNS in organs with dual innervations

generally counteracts SNS

What happens with smaller receptive fields, 1:1 relationship between primary and secondary neurons

higher sensitivity (ex: finger tips)

Lysosomal degradation- receptor hormone complex

hormone and receptor degraded or receptor recycled back into membrane

Chronotropic control

hormones released based on rhythms (circadian, diurnal, ultradian)

What to photoreceptors (rods/cones) do in presence of light

hyperpolarization and release of inhibited neurotransmitter

Inhibitory bipolar retinal cells

hyperpolarize bc glutamate indirect signal via horizontal cell decrease ganglionic cell signal frequency

Motor Output motivation from

hypothalamus of limbic system

Where do the anteriolateral pathways decussate

immediately after entering spinal cord

Where is the secondary area of the somatosensory cortex located

immediately posterior to somatosensory area I, known as SSII

Supplemental Motor Area Location

in front/above premotor cortex

What inhibits Acetylcholinesterase

neostigimine, physostigmine

What is the perception of pain in the absence of nociceptive stimulation

neurogenic peripheral nerve damage (phantom limb) CNS damage (thalamus lesions)

What happens when GABA is released into the synapse between primary/secondary sensory neurons

neurons are hyperpolarized and substance P release inhibited, substance P receptors inhibited from being stimulated

What information travels the same way as other somatic sensations

nociceptive information

Tuberculosis

not killed by acidified lysosomal enzymes

Rod/cone inner segment contains

nucleus NA/K ATPase pumps mitochondria

Enkephalin system stimulates neurons in the

periaqueductal gray matter (between 3rd and 4th) ventricles that release enkephalin

Where is enkephalin released from

periaqueductal gray matter between the 3rd and 4th ventricles that release enkephalin

The lipid component of the plasma membrane consists of _______. Select one: a. phospholipids that are amphipathic b. cholesterol that decreases membrane fluidity c. a lipid bilayer with a hydrophobic phosphate facing the ECF d. a lipid bilayer with hydrophilic fatty acid tails inside the bilayer

phospholipids that are amphipathic

Fast pain pathway

reticular areas, VB, basal areas of brain, somatosensory cortex

What passes through capillary pores

small molecules- H2O, NaCl, urea, glucose flow-limited=capillary works as fast as blood arrives pathology: increasing diffusion distance (edema) may limit diffusion, only works as quickly as diffusion works larger molecules-diffusion limited-larger molecules do not diffuse as easily

Saltatory conduction

the jumping of an action potential from one Node of Ranvier to another. Conserves energy and moves faster

Epitope

the part of an antigen molecule to which an antibody attaches itself Globulin (immunoglobulin) with 4 polypeptide chains

Lateral spinothalamic tract receptors

tonic receptors that slowly/don't adapt

are nociceptors tonic or phasoc

tonic- little to no adaptation

Third order neurons

transmit information from thalamus to primary somatosensory area ipsilateral from thalamus to cortex

Smooth Muscle Innervation

under involuntary NS control innervated by motor neurons of ANS no motor end plate ANS neurons supplying smooth muscle flow across tissue NT (Ach/norepi) released at swellings (varicosities)

ID what is occurring in the graph below (#1-3)

1. Pacemaker Potential 2. Depolarization 3. Repolarization

In the section below, place the components of the electrical conduction system in order from where it would initiate (1) to where it would end (4). Purkinje Fibers SA Node AV Node Bundle of His

1. SA Node 2. AV Node 3. Bundle of His 4. Purkinje Fibers

Intrinsic heart rate

100 bpm

Calculate the Ejection Fraction. Show your equation, your calculation and the answer with units for full credit 140 high value-20 Low

130-20=110=SV 110/130=0.846x100= 84.61%

Cerebellum Structure

2 hemispheres 3 lobes- flocculonodular lobe anterior lobe posterior lobe each lobe has cerebellar cortex/ deep cerebellar nuclei

autonomic motor unit

2 motor neurons (pre and post‐ganglionic neurons) ganglion effector tissue

Lateral Corticospinal tract

80% of corticospinal tract fibers deccusate at medulla descend in lateral column of white matter of spinal cord synapse directly with α-motor neurons in ventral horn control fine, skilled movements in distal portion of limbs

Bulk Transport/Vesicular Transport

Active (ATP/GTP breakdown required)

Antigens

Adaptive immunity substances that can mobilize adaptive defenses and provoke immune response Most are large complex molecules not normally found in body Immunogenicity-can stimulate proliferation of specific lymphocytes Reactivity-can react with activated lymphocytes and antibodies released by immunogenic reactions Can be whole/partial microbe can be non-microbial (pollen, egg, incompatible blood cells, transplanted tissues) Usually small parts of a large antigen provoke response

Phagocytic Steps

Adherence Ingestion Digestion Killing

Muscle Energy Source-Oxidative Metabolism

Aerobic breakdown of carbs, fats, proteins Good source over prolonged muscle use-hours

Relative Refractory Period Action Potential

After absolute refractory period until RMP reestablished. Requires a stronger than normal stimulus to reach threshold (has to overcome K channels still open). Amplitude is lower than normal as well, due to the Na vs K conductance

Receptor-enzymes MOA

After ligand binds, enzyme begins activity

Plasma Proteins

Albumin-Transport proteins-most common so have most influence on colloid osmotic/ontotic pressure, affects exchange of fluids at capillary beds Globulins-Transporters, antibodies (immunoglobulins) and zymogens (circulating inactive precursors of enzymes) Fibrinogen-Clotting protein

Which tissues can communicate with other tissues

All

Muscle Type Recap

All Three excitable with RMP via Na/K ATPase pump/leaky K+ channels All respond to stimulation by increasing intracellular levels of Ca2+ leading to contraction Speed of contraction slower in smooth All 3 slide actin past myosin to shorten contractile units All have length tension relationship, limited in skeletal by attachment to muscle, which optimal functional lengths, with cardiac at suboptimal lengths, and smooth having a large range Skeletal/Cardiac actin linked, Smooth Myosin linked smooth bc no striations Cardiac/Smooth innervated by ANS, Skeletal by Somatic NS Coupling mechanisms associated with innervation Action Potentials Shortest- Skeletal, cardiac, smooth- longest

Skeletal muscle fiber types

All made of mixed myosin isoforms

Thalamus function

All sensory information relayed to specific nuclei here, filtered/refined and then passed on to appropriate areas of cerebral cortex

Catecholamines

Amine derived from tyrosine. Includes dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine Dopamine mainly inhibitory. Brainstem nuclei, substantia nigra, midbrain, controls movement/mood

Myosin

Anchoring Protein polymer of 250 myosin molecules different in each muscle between actin filaments anchored to Z-line by Titin Titin spans z-line to z-line stabilizes contractile filaments majority tail myosin head contains actin/ATP binding sites form crossbridge with actin when actin myosin binding site available

Adhesion Molecule Function

Anchoring, tissue organization, intracellular communication, cell shape

RBC Disorders

Anemia-O2 carrying capacity of blood lowered, due to low Fe content of dysfunctional hemoglobin Polycythemia-Increase blood viscosity, workload of heart

Capillary Bed Arrangement

Arranged for maximum exposure of tissues parallel arrangement of capillaries forms bed entrance to capillaries guarded by precapillary sphincter, regulates blood entry w/ myogenic control, determined by metabolic state of bed Capillary density varies: high in metabolically active tissues: cardiac/skeletal/glandular lower in metabolically inactive: subq tissue/cartilage blood flow within capillary=microcirculation=nutritional flow, exchange occurs between blood/tissue, dependent on contractile state of arteriole, able to withstand large internal pressure beds surrounded by pericytes, decrease size of filtration slits, tighten capillary bed

Blood Vessel Types

Arteries- carry blood away from heard, pressure reservoir Arterioles- deliver blood to capillaries, resistance vessels, resistance via diameter changes Capillaries- nutrient/waste exchange, thin walls with pores, form beds at tissue Venules-Drain blood from capillaries Veins- carry blood back to heart, aided by valves, pumps venules/veins function as Blood volume reservoirs

Autocrine vs Paracrine hormones

Autocrine releases a molecule that binds on a receptor of itself/identical cell Paracrine goes to a nearby cell via ISF/Gap junctions

Dorsal Column Medial Lemniscal (DCML) Pathway composed of

Aβ/Type II fibers

(Pick 2) The bulk release of neurotransmitters from the membranes of nerve cells (neurons) ________. Select one or more: a. requires ATP but not Ca+2 b. is mediated by exocytosis c. involves passive transport d. requires Ca+2 but not ATP e. requires both Ca+2 and ATP

B. is mediated by exocytoses E. Requires both Ca2+ and ATP

Hypothalamus function in Heart Rate

Behavioral/Thermal input to CV Center increased SNS, lowered PNS HR up, SV up, venoconstriction, VR up, CO up, vasoconstriction so TPR up, MAP up increases oxygen readily available to body

Connective Tissue Location

Between other tissues (bone,tendon,cartilage,blood)

Antiporter-Na+/K+ ATPase

Binds two substances on opposite surfaces of membrane, one with energy gradient, and other against with secondary active transport. 1/3 of total body energy expenditure

Based on the picture below answer the following questions Layer with Platelets Layer with fibrinogen Layer with oxygen

Buffy Coat Plasma Plasma/RBC

SNS Varicosities

Bulbous enlargements consisting of axon terminals NT released diffusely α2 autoreceptors axon terminal pumps very active, reuptake 50-80% of intact NT

Myofibril

Bundles of highly organized contractile proteins within myofiber organized in sarcomeres-end to end repeating contractile units. Wrapped in SER

(Pick 3) The rate of diffusion across a membrane is increased by______. Select one or more: a. low permeability coefficient b. thickened membrane c. large concentration gradients d. heat e. extensive surface area f. high molecular weigh of the diffusing substan ce

C. Large Concentration Gradients D. Heat E. Extensive surface area

Modulation of Force of Contraction

CNS signal strength varies for size of motor unit Motor Unit Summation=Recruitment of more motor units Wave/Frequency Summation= increased freuency of action potentials within a given motor unit (temporal summation) Temporal Summation overwhelms ability of SR to pump Ca2+ back into reservoir Force developed proportional to cytosolic Ca2+ concentration (Frank-Starling)

Nervous Tissue Location

CNS, PNS, Ganglions, etc

Blood Flow Regulation

CV reflexes adjust flow to meet demand monitor conditions in specific areas of CV system alter CO or TPR CV center located in medulla oblongata input from peripheral baroreceptors/chemoreceptors/high centers outputs via PNS/SNS changes to heart/BV

SERCA- Membrane Sarcoplasmic Endoplasmic Reticulum

Ca2+ ATPase pump Ca2+ into SER from sarcoplasm

Skeletal Muscle Relaxation

Ca2+ actively pumped back into SR by SERCA Troponin/Tropomyosin slide back into place covering myosin binding site Contraction terminated until new Ca2+ influx ATP is necessary to release cross-bridges from actin and prevents muscle shortening and locks them in place

Ca2+ diffuses into cytosol

Ca2+ binds to TnC Conformational change pulls tropomyosin off actin's myosin binding site Binding site exposed

The presence of this ion in the cytosol is crucial for contraction to occur. (No abbreviations for full credit)

Calcium

Smooth muscle sarcolemma Ca2+ regulation

Calcium channels can be voltage, ligand, or mechanically gated voltage/mechanically are store independent Calcium source is ECF, not stored Ca2+ Decreased ECF Ca2+ concentration will lead to cessation of smooth muscle contraction Calcium can enter cell via store/receptor operated calcium channels (S/ROCC) Opened by ICF calcium released by SR

Which protein binds Ca2+ in smooth muscle? (no abbreviations for full credit)

Calmodulin

Smooth muscle Relaxation

Can be induced with hormones, NT, drugs norepi acting on Beta2 coupled to Gi relaxes smooth muscle during stress decrease gut motility delays micturition inhibits labor/relaxes non-pregnant uterus dilates small arteries to skeletal muscle dilates small coronary arteries bronchodilation Norepi acting on alpha2 coupled to Gi Relaxes smooth muscle/prevents sympathetic contraction of smooth muscle Clonidine, guanabenz, guanfacine, alpha-methyldopa are a2 agonists acting via Gi to lower cAMP in presynaptic neurons and lower norepi release, leading to less contraction

Fast Cardiac Myocytes

Cardiac Contractile Cells Cardiac more similar to skeletal than smooth striated due to sarcomere organization of myosin/actin filaments single nucleus, centrally located rich in mitochondria, requires continuous supply of O2 shorter than skeletal muscle cells branched/joined end to end at intercalated discs desmosome-revet gap junctions atrial/ventricular syncitia not connected sarcolemma has fast Na channels, but slow Ca channels onset of AP decreases K+ permeability T-tubules larger than skeletal and branch internally SER smaller than skeletal-less Ca2+ from contraction from SER, mostly from ECF Contraction similar to skeletal muscle cells with sliding filament model, direct length-force relationship and refractory period longer than in skeletal muscle to prevent premature heartbeats

Simple Diffusion

Carrier independent. Substances move through membrane/membrane pores depending if lipid soluble/insoluble

T-Tubule function

Carries AP into cell interior

Aα afferent Nerve Fiber Function

Carry information 1a from muscle spindle 1b from Golgi tendon organ

Integrin-receptor

Catalytic receptors

Subacute hypersensitivity

Caused by IgM and IgG transferred via blood plasma/serum, slow onset 1-3 hours, long duration 10-15 hours Cytotoxic type II reactions antibodies bind to antigens on specific body cells, stimulate phagocytosis and complement-mediated lysis of cellular antigens. Ex: mismatched blood transfusion Immune Complex Type III Antigens widely distributed in body/blood insoluble antigen/antibody complexes form Complexes cannot be cleared from area of body intense inflammation, local cell lysis, cell killing via neutrophils ex: systemic lupus erythematosus

Moderate Fever Benefits

Causes liver/spleen to sequester iron/zinc for microorganisms, intensify interferon effects, metabolic rate/rate of repair

Myofiber Microanatomy

Cell membrane=sarcolemma Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) with somatic Aα motor neuron contains Na/K ATPase, K leak channels for RMP nicotinic receptors=ionotropic-open LG Na+ Channels T-Tubules (Transverse tubule)-carry mambrane depolarization in cell and contain DHP(dihydropyridine) receptor/voltage sensor linked to RYR (Ryanodine) receptor on SR

Cell Adhesion Molecules enable

Cell to cell adhesion signaling

Orthostatic Hypotension

Change in blood distribution from gravity (shifting prone to upright or standing still upright) blood pools in legs, superficial veins in neck collapse fainting standing still=lack of muscular pump=lowered VR thermal effect=pooling of blood cause by warm ambient temp induces vasodilation-more blood moves in venous system induces sweating heavy clothing increases effect by preventing heat loss through evaporative cooling

Identify each component and its function

Cholesterol: Stabilize membrane fluidity at higher and lower than normal temperature Intrinsic Proteins: carriers, channels, enzymes, receptors Extrinsic/Peripheral Proteins: Enzymes, phosphatases/kinases that remove/add phosphate groups to proteins Carbohydrates: glycoproteins/glycolipids involved in cell-cell recognition, receptors

ANS Preganglionic Cell

Cholinergic cell body in intermediolateral gray of spinal cord (lateral horn)

Smooth Muscle Activated PLC effect

Cleaves PiP2-DAG/IP3 DAG-activates Protein Kinase C-inhibits MLCP-Myosin Light Chain Phosphatase IP3-opens ligand gated Ca2+ channels on SER, liberating Ca2+ from SR

Clot Dissolution

Clot liquefied via fibrinolysis Activators derived from tissues, plasma, urine (urokinase), bacterial streptokinase, endothelial Tissue Plasminogen activators (TPA), thrombin Exogenous=streptokinase and TPA

Clot Retraction

Clot shrinking, drawing wound together over 1-24 hours, days for large injuries, triggered by factor XIIa and fibrin mesh getting twisted together

Limbic System Function/Componenets

Cognitive functions Amygdala-emotion/memory Hippocampus-learning/memory

Proprioceptors

Collect information regarding body position in space, weight differences. Muscle Spindle, Golgi Tendon Organ

Chemical Synapse

Composed of a pre and post synaptic cell with a synaptic cleft filled with ISF between the cells

Connective Tissue Function

Connect and support other tissues

Gap Junctions formed by

Connexins (Membrane Proteins) and Connexons (protein channels)

Actin

Contractile Protein Actin-Thin Filament polymer of 2 G-actin forming double strand Perpendicular to/attach to Z-line Contain myosin-binding sites

Sarcomere

Contractile Unit Contains myofilaments- regulatory/anchoring proteins

Circulating Volume Regulation

Controlled by kidneys/GI system Fluid in via GI- salt/water intake Fluid out via Kidney- excretion/reabsorption of salt/water thirst mechanisms blood volume from peripheral vascular beds in lower limbs to heart increasing venomotor tone-vanoconstriction=lower venous compliance orthostatic gravity changes-lying down/elevating legs reabsorption of interstitial fluid at capillaries due to changes in starling forces

Higher Centers in Blood Flow

Cortical/Limbic initiate cardiac reactions that occur during excitement, anxiety, other emotional states hypothalamus-initiates cardiac response to alterations in temperature, acts on vasomotor center in medulla to alter SNS/PNS output

Plants with anticoagulant components

Coumarin, Salicylate, Antiplatelet drugs can be found within Angelica Root, Arnica Flowers, Anise, Chamomile, FenuGreek

Pus

Creamy yellow mixture of dead neutrophils, tissue/cells, living/dead pathogens Abscess: Collagen fibers laid down, walling off sac of pus, may need to be surgically drained Some bacteria such as tuberculosis bacilli resist digestion by macrophages and remain alive inside, forming tumorlike growths-ganulomas

Actin binding site on myosin heads links with myosin binding site on actin

Cross-bridge of myosin head binds actin causing conformational change (tilting) Tilting frees ADP from ATP binding site Energy stored in myosin head released Myosin heads swivel Pulls actin filaments toward center of sarcomeres "power stroke"

Fast/Contractile Cardiomyocytes MOA

Depolarization- fast voltage gated Na channels open at threshold, rapid upstroke, depolarization, slow VG Ca2+ channels begin to open Early Repolarization- outward movement of K+ via open channels Plateau- due to opening of slow voltage gated Ca2+ channels-L-type Ca2+ channel predominant. Permeability to K+ remains at lower conductance Repolarization- Develops slower than depolarization- K+ permeability due to slow VG K+ channels, L-type Ca2+ channels close, Na+ inactivation gates remain closed until midway thru this phase Resting State-excess Na/Ca eliminated, muscle relaxation

Smooth Muscle slow wave potentials

Depolarization/Repolarization cycles, if depolarizations reach threshold and produce AP=pacemaker potentials responsible for rhythmic activity of GI tract

Action Potential VG Channels with depolarizing stimulus

Depolarizing Stimulus VG Na Channels open Na moves into cell with concentration gradient membrane depolarizes to threshold point

Parkinson's Disease

Destruction of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra of basal ganglia Dopamine inhibits motor areas of cerebral cortex symptoms: muscle rigidity, tremors, bradykinesia-slowed movement

Macrophages

Develop from monocytes Chief/most robust phagocytic cells Free macrophages-wander through tissue spaces-alveolar macrophages Fixed Macrophages-permanent residents of some organs- stellate macrophages-liver, microglia-brain

Memory Cells

Differentiate into more plasma cells in future infections with same antigen/microbe

Carbon Monoxide MOA

Diffuses into smooth muscle to activate guanylyl cyclase forming cGMP, which activates vasodilation

Nitric Oxide MOA

Diffuses into smooth muscle to activate guanylyl cyclase, which forms cGMP, which activates vasodilation

DHP

Dihiydropyridine

Antigen-Presenting Cells

Do not respond to specific antigens Engulf antigens and present fragments to T cells for recognition Major Types Dendritic Cells-CT Macrophages-CT, lymph fixed, more phagocytic when activated B cells- do not activate naive T cells, present antigens to helper T cells to assist own activation

All sensory information enter the CNS via ______.

Dorsal Root/Dorsal Root Ganglia

Where does the 1st synapse of the anteriolateral pathway occur

Dorsal root with interneurons, then 2nd order neurons in lateral part of dorsal horn

Nitric Oxide

EDRF (endothelium derived relaxing factor), vasodilator

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Effector nerves=craniosacral origin 75% supplied by vagus nerve which supplies thorax/abdomen viscera ganglia in wall of organs supplied

Sympathetic Nervous System

Efferent nerves-thoracolumbar origin fight or flight ganglia very close to spinal cord short pre ganglionic long post ganglionic Adrenergic 80:20 Norepi:Epi

Prostanoids are

Eicosanoids produced by cyclooxygenase (COX) and include Prostaglandins and thromboxanes, which are involved in platelet aggregation

Leukotrienes are

Eicosanoids produced by lipoxygenase and are involved in asthma and anaphylaxis

Nernst Equation Variables

Eion=Equilibrium Potential for that ion z=valence=ion charge and positive or negative Inside ion concentration/Outer ion concentration

Nernst equation

Eion=[-61.5/z]log[ionin/ionout]

Electrical vs Chemical Synapse

Electrical: ions passed from one cell to another via gap junctions ONLY in cardiac/smooth muscle

Smooth Muscles Ca2+ Influx Mechanisms-Electromechanical Coupling

Electromechanical coupling-less common stimulated by norepi, serotonin, histamine, drugs use non-calcium related channels to generate an action potential action potential opens L-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in sarcolemma, VG Na+ channels few to absent

Goldman's Equation

Em, weighted average of equilibrium potential of all permeant ions

Homeostatic Reflex Pathways

Endocrine cells do not have sensory receptors, but act as sensors and integrating centers for an endocrine reflex

Endocrine vs Neurocrine

Endocrine- Made by classical endocrine cells and travel via blood to target tissue Neurocrine- Released by axonal ends of neurons into blood to reach target tissue

Blood Vessel Layers

Endothelium-innermost thin layers of epithelial cells, physical barrier/vascular functions Smooth Muscle-vasodilation/constriction Connective Tissue- elastic connective allows for BV stretch Fibrous provides BV with tensile strength

Tendons are formed by

Epimysium, Perimysium, endomysium extending beyond muscle fibers and fusing

ICF vs ECF Osmolarity

Equal, roughly 300 mOsm

Action potentials occur in what types of cells

Excitable cells (Neuron/Muscle)

Glutamate

Excitatory Transmitter in brain, spinal cord, eye. Ionotropic receptor

Primary Motor Cortex Function

Execution of movement only Fine voluntary movement simple learned tasks with distal limbs muscles of speech

Clotting Cascades

Extrinsic-External trauma causing hemorrhage, quicker than intrinsic, Factor VII Intrinsic- Trauma within vascular system, activated by platelets, exposed endothelium, chemicals, collagen, slower/more important, involves factors XII, XI, IX

CV Regulation Extrinsic vs Intrinsic

Extrinsic-Systemic, in skin, splancnic, Intrinsic-Local, brain, heart, resting skeletal

Inotropic Factors

Factors affecting force of cardiac contraction Ca or Na gradient Increased ICF Na reduces Na/Ca exchanger activity so Ca not removed as rapidly, which stops contraction

Venous Return of blood to heart

Factors include venomotor tone-low to increase volume capacity tone increase via SNS, greater volume of blood returns to heart respiratory activity-diaphragm generates negative inter-thoracic pressure-facilitates return of blood toward heart by pulling blood into thoracic cavity orthostatic stress- standing up increases pressure in veins of lower legs, and can briefly reduce cardiac output skeletal muscle pumping/one way valves excercise lowers venous pressure in legs muscles push veins against bones, forcing through veins toward heart

Shock

Failure of CV system to deliver enough O2/Nutrients Types: Hypovolemic, Cardiogenic, Vascular, Obstructive Shock Shock homeostatic compensation Activation of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone secretion of antidiuretic hormone, activation of sympathetic ANS, local vasodilator release

The peripheral chemoreceptors increase their firing as an individual goes into circulatory shock Select one: True False

False

The remnants of your Halloween candy are making their way through your GI tract. The smooth muscle cells involved with these wave like contractions are multiunit. Select one: True False

False

When a drug has a positive inotropic effect, it increases the rate of relaxation. Select one: True False

False

Free/Active Hormones

Fast acting, short half life, susceptible to enzymatic degradation

Contractile/Fast Cardiomyocytes

Fast=depolarization rate Located in atrial/ventricular myocardium generate contractile force that moves blood stable RMP= -90 mV created by Na/K ATPase, K/Na conductance values

Basal Nuclei/Ganglia

Feedback to cortex for voluntary motor activities, selection and initiation of desired movement and inhibition of unwanted movement.

SNS Control of Heart

Fibers distribute as extensive epicardial plexus to chambers release NorEpi over Epi positive chronotropic effect on SA node acts on beta-1 receptors coupled to G-Protein and cAMP mediated effects activates VG Ca2+ channels in membrane and influx of ECF Ca2+ Activates increased Ca2+ release from SR both increase ICF Ca2+ and increased depolarization rate Nerve terminals uptake most NorEpi via reuptake pumps and MAO degradation. Reuptake increased by phospholambdan, phosphorylated by SNS increased Ca2+ for shorter, faster contraction increased Ca2+ reuptake for shorter duration of contraction-decreases cardiac cycle length of time

Primary Motor Cortex Output

Fibers from giant pyramidal cells=betz cells from motor homunculus travel on specific pathways synapse in ventral horn in spinal cord with α motor neurons regulates contractile force of skeletal muscles

If HR too high

Filling time down Force down due to Frank-Starling Mechanism

Innate nonspecific Defense System

First/Second Lines of defense First-external body membranes (skin/mucosa) Second-antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, fever, Natural killer cells other cells to inhibit spread of invades, inflammation

Interstitial Fluid (ISF)

Fluid between cells, 15% body weight

Extracellular fluid (ECF)

Fluid outside cells, 20% body weight, contains ISF and plasma, 1/3 Fluid Volume

Hypothalamus hormones aid in:

Fluid regulation Timing of birth via uterine contraction milk ejection pituitary hormones thirst hunger temperature

Astrocytes function

Found at synapses, secrete chemicals/ions, ECF homeostasis, blood-brain barrier

Premotor Cortex Location

Frontal lobe in front of primary motor cortex

Primary Motor Cortex Structure

Functional columns, each responsible for motor output to group of synergistic muscles contralateral organization-right brain controls muscles on left side of body

Muscle Tetanus

Fused Contraction-muscle fibers continue to contract with no relaxation

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are composed of

G-Protein and β-γ subunit

What happens after serotonergic nerves synapse in the enkephalin system

GABAminergic/enkaphalin neurons stimulated to release GABA between the primary and secondary sensory neurons

Nodes of Ranvier

Gapes between myelin producing cells where ion exchange can occur.

Huntington's Disease/Chorea

Genetic disease, loss of GABA/Cholinergic in certain basal ganglia results in absence of inhibition, excessive excitation of cortex symptoms: depression, dementia, loss of motor contral/chorea (rapid flicking movements of facial muscles/distal limbs) No cure, dopamine blockers/memory aids provide relief

What neurotransmitter to photoreceptors (rods/cones) release in ABSENCE of light

Glutamate

Muscle Energy Sources-Glycolysis

Glycogen Breakdown Anaerobic Respiration Forms rapidly Can reconstitute ATP for glycolysis and phosphocreatine

Leukocyte/WBC/White Blood Cell Granulation

Granular-Neutrophil 50-70%, Eosinophil 1-5%, Basophil 0-1% Agranular- Monocytes 1-6%. Lymphocytes 20-40%

Autonomic Ganglion

Grey matter outside CNS Where synapses occur

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

HIV cripples immune system by interfering with activity of helper T cells Characterized by severe weight loss, night sweats, and swollen lymph nodes Opportunistic infections occur, including Pneumocystis pneumonia, Kaposi's sarcoma

ANS Control of heart rate

HR increase from lower PNS/higher SNS activity PNS via vagus nerve-negative chronotropic factor ACh released at nerve terminals near SA,AV nodes binds to M2 muscarinic receptors coupled to special G-protein opens K channels, efflux leads to hyperpolarization rapid breakdown due to lots of acetylcholinesterase decrease Ca2+ permeability increase tone, decrease rate of SA node depolarization PNS tone controls healthy individual at rest resting HR of 70-80 bpm excess stimulation can stop HR for several seconds/produce various degrees of block

Hemostasis

Homeostatic Mechanism to maintain blood volume vasoconstriction-limits flow through damaged area local or sympathetic reflex Platelet Aggregation-endothelium damage causes platelets to adhere to site of injury Those platelets degranulate/release products ADP+ThromboxaneA2 (TxA2)- activate additional platelets Serotonin (5-HT)-vasoconstrictor, activates fibrinogen Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-stimulates wound healing Mass of platelets block small blood vessels (platelet plug) thrombocytopenia-low platelet count-causes small hemorrhages (petechia) or large (ecchymoses) on skin/mucus membranes Blood Coagulation- Several factors made in liver and need vitamin K Calcium needed for coagulation activated thrombin (Factor II) converts fibrinogen (Factor 1) to fibrin Forms thrombus-blood clot-network of fibrin strands containing blood cells, platelets, plasma

Responsiveness of target cells to hormones depends on

Hormone Concentration Number of receptors Chronotropic factors: duration of exposure/interval between consecutive exposure Intracellular conditions: rate limiting enzymes, co-factors, substrates other hormones that work with or against the hormone Number of target cells via mitotic cycle stimulation/apoptosis inhibition

Intracellular Receptor system MOA

Hormone diffuses through membrane and enters cell to receptor (usually in nucleus) Receptor-Hormone complex interacts with DNA and alters gene transcription

Phosphodiesterase function

Hydrolyze cAMP, cGMP

Circulatory Shock

If hemorrhage stops but MAP below 50mmHg can cause death via severe tissue damage, irreversible circulatory collapse/death positive feedback downward spiral

Abnormal AV Node

If the AV node has depressed firing, then this will likely show as an increase in the R-R interval. It might also show an extension of the P-R segment spacing specifically. This indicates that it takes longer for the electrical signal to pass through the electrical conduction pathway. If the AV node has increased firing, then this will show as an decrease in R-R interval (perhaps there is no longer regulation of HR by the nervous system). This could also show as a decrease P-R segment length. This indicates that the electrical signal is able to move more quickly from the AV node to the rest of the electrical conduction system.

Autoimmune

Immune system loses ability to distinguish itself from foreign Autoimmunity: production of autoantibodies and sensitized TC cells that destroys body tissues

Naive Lymphocytes

Immunocompetent B and T cells not yet exposed to antigen Exported from primary lymphoid organs to seed secondary lymphoid organs to increase chance of encounter with antigen

Adaptive

Important cells- B cells/ T cells Lymphocytes Must gain immunocompetence to develop antigen receptors B cells-plasma cells-produce antibodies

Somatic Receptor Types

In Skeletal Muscle/Skin Proprioceptors Cutaneous Receptors

Muscle Tissue Location

In muscles

Anticoagulants

In vitro-out of body-sodium citrate oxalate remove calcium/prevent coagulation In vivo-naturally occurring/therapeutics useful in body- heparin-made by basophil/mast cells, degraded within a couple hours Warfarin (coumadin)-inhibits synthesis of vitamin K dependent clotting factors-long term effectivity (Factor II, VII, IX, X)

Prohormone

Inactive water soluble hormone precursor until cleaved. This enables a prolonged half-life

Inflammation Stages

Inflammatory Chemical Release into ECF by damaged tissue, immune cells, blood proteins- histamine via mast cells. Macrophages have Toll-like receptors that release cytokines to promote inflammation. Can also release Kinins, prostaglandins, complement. All cause vasodilation of local arterioles, make capillaries leaky, attract leukocytes and some trigger pain receptors, or release more inflammatory chemicals Vasodilation, increased vascular permeability. Leads to hyperemia-redness/heat. Pain can also result from bacterial toxins/prostaglandin/kinin release Phagocyte mobilization- Leukocytosis-Neutrophils enter blood from bone marrow Margination-Neutrophils cling to capillary wall Diapedesis-Neutrophils flatten/squeeze out of capillary Chemotaxis-Neutrophils follow chemical trail

Gamma-aminobutyrate (GABA)

Inhibitory Neurotransmitter in the brain. Inhibitory in basal ganglia and cerebellar Purkinje cells. Used in spinal interneurons

IPSP vs EPSP

Inhibitory Postsynaptic potential vs Excitatory Post Synaptic potential

Skeletal Muscle Contraction

Initiated of contraction by nervous signal at NMJ Excitation-contraction coupling depends on intracellular calcium levels Contraction-Relaxation=sliding filament process one cycle=muscle twitch

Cardiac Thermal Input

Inpur from thermoreceptors in skin, blood perfusing hypothalamus SNS output to peripheral blood vessels, redistributes blood flow cold increase SNS output, constricts BV, reducing flow/limiting heat loss. Heat does exact opposite.

Spinocerebellum-Medial portions of anterior/posterior lobe

Input from spinal cord regarding ongoing movement receives limb position/muscle length/tension information Output to thalamus/ventral horn of spinal cord via red nucleus regulates trunk/proximal limb movement corrects output errors

Corticocerebellum-lateral portions of anterior and posterior lobes

Input from supplemental, premotor, parietal cortex planning/initiation of movement to distal portions of limbs

Tonic Receptors

Intensity=continue to send signal if any stimulus present constant firing

Antimicrobial proteins

Interferons-Cells infected with viruses can secrete IFNs that warn healthy neighboring cells Complement Proteins- 20 blood proteins that circulate in blood in inactive form Activation=inflammation/bacterial destruction Enhances both innate/adaptive defenses-cell lysis/increased opsonization

Cytokines include

Interferons-Communicate between cells to trigger protective defenses Interleukins-Stimulate immune responses like inflammation Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)- regulates brain function Growth Factor- Signals organism growth

Sarcoplasmic Endoplasmic Reticulum

Intracellular Calcium Reservoir Enlarged terminal ends (cysternae) contact T-tubules calsequestrin in SER=low affinity Ca2+ binding protein Ryanodine RYR receptor=Ca2+ release channel. DHP coupling activation of RYR=Ca2+ into cytoplasm

T Cells

Involved in adaptive immunity Cytotoxic T cells-CD8 cells Become cytotoxic T cells that are capable of destroying cells harboring foreign antigens or become memory T cells Helper T cells-CD4 cells Become helper T cells that can activate B cells, other T cells, and macrophages, direct adaptive immune response. Can also become memory T cells CD4/8 are naive, others are activated

ionotropic vs metabotropic receptors

Ionotropic- Fast, NT from vesicles near presynaptic release site. Ligand-gated channels that alter membrane conductance, post-synaptic membrane potential GABAa receptors on Cl channel, ACh on nicotinic receptors gate Na+ channels Metabotropic-NT released from synaptic vesicles further from cleft. indirectly opens/closes ion channels Requires multiple steps, including a G protein with secondary messenger, multiple pathways, kinases/phosphotase formation.

Isometric vs Isotonic Muscle Contraction

Isometric- Constant length-muscle tightens but doesn't shorten-Carrying a box Isotonic- Muscle shortens with constant tension- lifting weights

Fick's Law Variables

J=Net flux/movement across membrane in mol/m²/sec P=Permeability coefficient S=Capillary Surface Area A=Surface area of membrane D=Diffusion Coefficient [C1-C2]/ΔC=Concentration difference across membrane, out-in Δx=membrane thickness

Parkinson's Treatment

L-dopa L-deprenyl-inhibits MOA Transplanted fetal dopamine cells destruction of feedback circuitry

Adrenal Medulla

Large SNS ganglia longer duration of action by releasing Epi into blood (less degradative enzymes)

Plasma Membrane Receptor Systems (Rm) are

Large glycoproteins with specific extracellular binding sites and are often found within the plasma membrane and composed of subunits

Endocytosis

Large molecules entering, including phago/pinocytosis. Receptor-mediated

Axon Fiber Diameter

Larger=Faster α-alpha-largest β(beta) γ (gamma) δ (delta)-smallest

Secondary Lymphoid Organs-Spleen

Largest Lymphoid Organ-Removes microbes, aged/defective erythrocytes

What is the specific area for visual information

Lateral geniculate nucleus of thalamus

Gated Channel Types

Leak- spontaneously open/close, tend to open Voltage Gated: Depends on membrane potential changes Ligand Gated- Depends on binding signal molecule (neurotransmitters, hormones, drugs) Mechanically Gated- Depends on physical deformities (stretch, pressure) Intracellular Messenger Gated- Depends on change in intracellular signals (Ca2+, cAMP concentration increase)

White Blood Cells

Leukocytes 7000-10000 per microL of blood 1% of total blood volume immune function within Buffy coat (between plasma/RBC) all contain nuclei non-specific/innate immunity-use phagocytoses/enzymes to digest microorganisms, damaged cells, cellular debris looks for self markers

The two classes of eicosanoids are

Leukotrienes and Prostanoids

Hypothalamus Function

Links endocrine/nervous system

Intracellular Receptor Systems are used by

Lipid Soluble Hormones

Heart Rate Factors

Local Factors-Temperature/Stretch- alters rate of spontaneous depolarization of SA node Outside factors- ANS=Main factor hormones plasma electrolyte concentration age

Arterial baroreceptors

Located in carotid sinus, aortic arch Increased MAP=Increase vascular stretch/deformation, increased firing activated at 50mmHg maximum firing at 200mmHg sensitivity altered, high BP, body adapts to new normal, sensitive with hypertension due to sinus/aortic stiffness

Central Chemoreceptors

Located in medulla directly stimulated by lower pH, increase CO2 pressure decreased tonic activity with high pH, lower PaCO2 (hyperventilation)

What happens when arterial baroreceptors fire

Lower SNS output lower SNS to arterioles, lower vasoconstriction lower TPR, increase outflow to venous, lower MAP lower venoconstriction increase venous compliance, lower VR, lower EDV Increased PNS output, act on SA node, lower HR, lower CO

Secondary Lymphoid Organs-Lymph nodes

Lymph Nodes- Scattered throughout lymphatic vessels Filter microbes-macrophages and lymphocytes in lymph nodes destroy filtered microbes

Systemic Contribution to cardiovascular function

Lymphatic-Fluid Homeostasis Respiratory- Oxygen supply, carbon dioxide removal Skeletal-Blood formation Renal-stimulates blood formation, removes wastes, provides fluid homeostasis GI-provides nutrients for distribution

Which are agranulocytes Which would become abundant if allergic to peanuts Which is most abundant

Lymphocyte/Monocyte Eosinophil Neutrophil

Hemorrhage Response

MAP decrease needs CO/TPR increase to restore Baroreceptor-stretch on aortic arch/carotid sinus, firing of baroreceptors PNS lowered, SNS increase from CV center redistributes blood flow CO by HR/SV increase via contractility venoconstriction increase VR, EDV, SV, CO vasoconstriction increase TPR Chemoreceptor Firing Increase SNS from CV center respiration stimulated=ancillary pump, increase venous return Cerebral Ischemia Responses=Massive SNS Neural Changes produce rapid increase of MAP increase HR, cardiac contractility, TPR, venoconstriction Prolonged response occurs over 12-24 hours to increase Blood volume lowered capillary hydrostatic=increased reabsorption of ISF fluid thirst-fluid ingestion/absorption Hormonal response- Epi-from adrenal medulla Vasopressin (ADH)- lower urine production Renin-Angiotensin System- Angiotensin II release, potent vasoconstriction aldosterone release renal conservation of salt/water lower urine production Longer than 24 hours synthesis of plasma protein by liveer stimulation of erythropoeisis in bone marrow to increase hematocrit

Blood Pressure Regulation

MAP=COxTPR Sensed/corrected by baroreceptors, chemoreceptor, hormone regulation of MAP

Smooth Muscle Termination of Contraction

MLCK inactivated by low Ca2+ levels Calcium removed by SERCA, CA2+ ATPase, Ca/Ca exchanger cross bridges dephosphorylated by myosin light chain phosphatase

Define homeostasis

Maintaining a stable internal environment

Spinocerebellum location

Medial portions of anterior/posterior lobe

Brain Stem Components

Medulla Oblongata, pons, midbrain

How are neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft?

Membrane bound vesicles from presynaptic neuron

ANS Post-ganglion neuron

Membrane contains ACh receptors Nicotinic receptors-coupled to ligand gated Na+ channel

Action Potential VG Channels Hyperpolarization

Membrane potential progresses towards K equilibrium potential, which is more negative than RMP. Na/K pumps restore ion balance and RMP

Exercise

Mental anticipation-increase SNS, lower PNS Increase HR, myocardial contractility, TPR, MAP Factors: K+ released by contracting muscle acts as vasodilator-initial decrease in vascular resistance adenosine/tissue pH decrease-sustain vasodilation in blood vessels of skeletal muscle circulating Epi bind to beta receptors on blood vessels within skeletal muscle bed/contributes to vasodilation

Smooth Muscle Overview

More variable than skeletal wide range of lengths arranged in circular, longitudinal, oblique orientations arranged as bundles/sheets contract/relax much slower than skeletal lose less energy than skeletal not striated (actin/myosin not in regular sarcomeres) less localized receptor sites than skeletal muscle responds to more stimuli Vascular, Visceral, Ocular Muscle

B Cell Cloning

Most activated B cells clone become plasma cells antibody secreting effector cells 2000 molecules/sec for 4-5 days, then die antibodies circulate in body/lymph, binding to free antigens, marking for destruction

Absolute Refractory Period Action Potential

Most sodium channels have not reset so cannot be reopened at all no matter what

Smooth Muscle Nervous Arrangements

Multiunit- individual cells/small groups of cells densely innervated (greater control) some very small blood vessels, muscles of skin, iris/ciliary body of eye Unitary- large number of cells function together as single unit bulk of visceral organs cells that depolarize affect neighboring cells via gap junctions

Muscle Energy Sources-Phosphocreatine

Muscle stores 5 phosphocreatine as ATP Creatine Kinase transfers phosphate to ADP to form ATP Muscle cells have high Creatine Kinase concentration and high levels of creatine kinase in the blood indicate muscle damage

Myelin forming Glia cells

Myelin forming cells Schwann cells in PNS Oligodendrocytes in CNS

Sarcoplasm

Myofiber cytoplasm contains glycogen multiple mitochondria

Smooth Muscle Microanatomy-Myosin linked regulatory proteins

Myosin Light Chain (MLC)-at base of myosin head Myosin Light chain kinase (MLCK)- phosphorylates the MLC activating myosin ATPase Myosin Light chain phosphatase (MLCP)- dephosphorylates the MLC and decreases myosin ATPase activity MLCK/MLCP ration determines ability of smooth muscle to respond to Ca2+

This protein is responsible for the dephosphorylation of the myosin head in smooth muscle. Please write out the full name of the protein (not the abbreviation) to receive full credit.

Myosin Light Chain Phosphatase

Skeletal Muscle Resting State

Myosin head has bound ATP ATP partially hydrolyzed by ATPase portion of myosin head=ADP+Pi=stored energy ADP+Pi in ATP binding site of myosin head induces conformational change myosin heads cocked and perpendicular to rest of molecule in ready/energized state myosin binding site on actin covered by tropomyosin, preventing myosin from completing power stroke myofiber RMP -90

Smooth Muscle Contraction

Myosin-linked At rest, actin active sites exposed, myosin heads not in position to form cross links Cell stimulated electro/pharmacomechanically ICF Ca2+ levels rise Ca2+ binds to calmodulin Ca2+/Calmodulin complex activates MLCK enzyme, which phosphorylates Myosin Light chain (myosin phosphorylation occurs when the terminal Phosphate of ATP is transferred to light chain, phosphatase also activated, removing phosphate group, but dephosphorylation is slow and doesn't affect contraction) Phosphorylation causes myosin heads to move to cocked position (allows cross bridge formulation, actin-myosin binding, allowing actin and myosin to interact as sliding filaments) Once myosin crossbridges formed, crossbridge cycles similar to skeletal muscle, but cycle at slower rate than skeletal, with very slow detachment, functioning as latch bridge, spending most of time attached, leading to low ATP use (1 ATP per cycle)

Action Potential VG Channels Repolarization

Na influx slows, K efflux increases until all fast activating Na channels are closed, slow activating K channels stay open

Action Potential VG Channels Depolarization

Na keeps entering and moving towards equilibrium potential Overshoots isoelectric point to positive as depolarization occurs VG K channels open, K moves out of the cell

ISF Ion

Na+, Cl-, HCO3

ECF Ions

Na+, Cl-, HCO3-

Plasma Ion

Na+, Cl-, HCO3-, Proteins-

What restores the membrane potential in the synaptic cleft.

Na/K ATPase pump

What systems work together to regulate homeostasis

Nervous and endocrine

Compare and contrast nervous and endocrine function as is applies to homeostasis

Nervous: Fast, short term, localized regulation via neurotransmitters from SNS neurons via electrical impulses from nerves and chemical synaptic transmission Endocrine: Slow, long term, widespread regulation via hormones/chemical messengers from adrenal medulla via blood transport

Lymphatic System

Network of closed-ended lymph capillaries, blind end bc no delivery system, start in tissue beds single layer of endothelial cells, no tight junctions fine filaments anchor lymph vessels to surrounding connective tissue tissue expands/pulls on fine filaments, permits entry of proteins/large particles into lymph capillaries, extensive series of backflow preventing one way valves

Reticular Formation

Network of nuclei (grey matter) along pons/midbrain utilized in sleep/wake cycles, arousal, intensity of ascending afferent signals

What is a dendrite and what is its function

Neurotransmitter receptor

White Blood Cell/WBC/Leukocyte Types

Neutrophils-1st line of defense, phagocytic eosinophils-allergic/autoimmune reactions/parasitic infections basophils-granules contain heparin (anticoagulant)/histamine (increase vascular permeability) monocytes-largest cells, become macrophages-potent phagocytes. Not confined to blood/lymph (can be found in loose connective tissue) motile cells with ameboid motility (passes through capillary walls) attracted to site of injury, inflammation, bacterial invasion via chemotaxis. Macrophages take foreign and display foreign antigens on surface, show non-self antigens to specific cells Lymphocytes B, T lymphocytes+ natural killer

Muscle tension via cross bridge cycling

New ATP binds to myosin and releases myosin head from actin New ATP partially hydrolyzed to re-cock head (return to ready position) If Ca2+ is still in cytoplasm, cross bridges reform fast enough that muscle doesn't stretch back out

What receptor types does Acetylcholine work with

Nicotinic: ionotropic containing ion channel at core, gate allows rapid Na influx Muscarinic: G protein associated. Activation of M1 decreases K+ conductance with phospholipase C activation and depolarizes membrane Activation of M2 increases K+ conductance via inhibition of adenylate cyclase and hyperpolarizes membrane

Smooth Muscle Relaxation-Nitric Acid

Nitric Acid released from endothelial cells of stressed blood vessels Acts on enzyme guanylyl cyclase which catalyzes GTP-cGMP cGMP turns off IP3, inhibiting Ca2+ influx activates K+ channels, leading to hyperpolatizaion/relaxation cGMP activates PKG, activating MLCP, dephosphorylating MLC, leading to smooth muscle relaxation Sildenafil (Viagra) blocks phosphodiestase removal of cGMP, leading to more cGMP present-more dilation of penile erectile blood vessels Vasodilates BV directly-Nitroglycerin converted to NO in blood-dilating coronary blood vessels Indirectly vasodilates by inhibigin AngII

Passive Transport

No energy and utilizes diffusion/osmosis, driven by chemical, electrical, and electrochemical gradients gradients

If H+ (125 ECF/10 ICF) moves into the cell, which is involved. A. ligand-gated Na+channel and uniporter B. exchanger and Na+-K+ ATPase C. symporter and Cl--Na+ ATPase D. intracellular messenger gated Na+ channel and symporter E. Carrier and ATPase.

None of the choices, H+ is moving with its concentration gradient - only a carrier protein can do this as facilitated diffusion

Natural Killer Cells

Nonphagocytic large granular lymphocytes police blood/lymph can kill cancer/virus-infected cells before adaptive immune system activated Attack cells that lack self cell surface receptors Kill via apoptosis of cancer cells/virus infected cells and secrete potent chemicals that enhance inflammatory response.

Gi Pathway

Norepi Adenylyl Cyclase cAMP GI smooth muscle relaxation

How does Norepi signal heart cells to increase contraction force

Norepi Beta 1 Receptor Gs alpha subunit activates Adenylyl cyclase AC converts ATP-cAMP cAMP activates PKA PKA opens Ca2+ channel Ca2+ concentration increase=increased contraction force

Gq Pathway

Norepi Phospholipase C IP3/DAG PKC Vascular smooth muscle contraction=vasoconstriction

Norepinephrine vs Epinephrine receptor

Norepi prefers alpha Epi prefers beta

Identify the neurotransmitter for each secondary messenger. cAMP IP3 DAG Ca2+

Norepinephrine, epinephrine Acetylcholine, Norepinephrine Acetylcholine, Norepinephrine Acetylcholine

Basal Ganglia/Nuclei Location

Numerous nuclei located deep in cerebral hemispheres close to thalamus

What cannot pass through capillary membrane

Nutrients, fluid, larger things transported via transcytosis

T Cell Maturation

Occurs in Thymus Positive Selection-Selects T cells capable of recognizing self-MHC proteins, those that can't are destroyed by apoptosis Negative Selection- Prompts apoptosis of T cells that bind to self-antigens displayed by self-MHC Clonal deletion process ensures self tolerance

Uniporters-Ca2+ ATPase, SERCA, H+ ATPase

Only Primary Active Transport.Active Transport Pump using one substance at a time against its gradient.

Compartmentalization

Organizational concept on the cellular, organ, and organism level that allows maximum efficiency

Oncotic Pressure

Osmotic Pressure of plasma proteins

Allergic Reactions

Overreaction to substance that most others tolerate well Immediate hypersensitivity Acute Type 1 begins in seconds. Initial contact sensitizes, IgE against antigen binds to mast cells/basophile Second contact-flood of histamine release from IgE Systemic Response-Anaphylactic Shock Delayed Hypersensitivity appear 12-72 hours postexposure

EKG

P: Atrial Depolarization QRS: Ventricular Depolarization/Repolarization T: Ventricular Repolarization PR interval: atrial to ventricular depolarization QT-Ventricular de and repolarization

How does excess NaCl impact cells: Increase/Decrease for Plasma Osmolarity RBC Osmolarity Plasma Volume RBC Volume Hematocrit Plasma Protein Concentration

PO: Increase RBCO: Increase until=PO PV=Increase RBC Volume: Decrease Hematocrit: Decrease PPC: Decrease

Immunity Second Line of Defense

Phagocytes Natural Killer Cells Inflammatory Response-Macrophages, mast cells, WBCs, inflammatory chemicals Antimicrobial proteins-interferons/complement proteins Fever

Smooth Muscle Phasic vs Tonic

Phasic-muscle mostly at rest contractions brief in response to single/small bursts of stimuli equivalent to isotonic twitch-like contractions of skeletal muscle most associated with AP seen in organs that propel/move substances-slow waves in Electromechanical activation by pacemaker cells of gut-L type Ca2+ channels on plasmalemma action potentials conducted via gap junction GI smooth muscle: Ach-M3-Betagamma subunit activates PLC Kidney afferent arteriole: Angiotensin II activates DHP sensitive L-type Ca2+ channels via membrane depolarization Uterine Smooth Muscle, OXY-Class 1 G protein coupled receptor-activates PLC Tonic- Mostly contracted, long/sustained contractions in response to single/continued stimulation by nerves, drugs, hormones producing constant tension (tone) Level of tone set by concentration of specific chemical/hormone norepi/epi on a1-Gq on bladder/GI sphincters ANGII on Ca2+ entry via SOCC in kidney efferent arteriole found in organs that must remain contracted for long periods of time, including blood vessels capable of developing high forces can prevent movement of substances

Rods/Cones

Photoreceptor cells attached to pigmented epithelium, nutrients by diffusion from choroid and transduce light into electrical signals

Premotor Cortex Function

Planning/executing movement controls axial muscles (posture) muscle impulses carried in anterior corticospinal tract output to primary motor cortex to control simple tasks of distal limb muscles contains Broca's area-word formation

What is the cell membrane of the neuron called

Plasmalemma/Neurilemma

What is the threshold point

Point of no return, the Action Potential is initiated. More fast activating VG Na channels are opened until they all are

How do action potentials travel?

Positive ions go to neighboring areas of the membrane and cause depolarization there, which triggers action potentials there. They cannot go backwards due to absolute refractory period

β motor neurons

Pre-ganglionic fibers associated with autonomic (Involuntary) motor output

Pre vs Post synaptic inhibition

Pre: Prevents ligand release Post: Prevents receptor stimulation

Smooth Muscles Ca2+ Influx Mechanisms-Pharmacomechanical Coupling

Predominant mechanism for stimulating vascular smooth muscle no significant effect on membrane potential-calcium released from SR, requires PLC activation Vascular smooth muscle: norepi-a1-Gq-aq subunit activates PLC Vascular Smooth muscle: ADH-V1 receptor, Gq, activates PLC GI smooth muscle: Ach-M3-BetaGamma subunit activates PLC Bronchial smooth muscle paracrine histamine action: Gq-PLC activate Uterine Smooth Muscle:OXY-class 1 G protein couple receptor-activates PLC

Frank-Starling Relationship

Preload-force that stretches out muscle before contraction generates resting tension increased preload results from increased VR, increased efficiency of heart stretch myocardium- higher filling volume, higher load, higher affinity of TnC for Ca2+

Flexor Withdrawal/Pain/Nociceptive Reflex

Prepotent response-takes priority of any other reflex activity stimulation by pain polysynaptic reflex

If Na+ (30 ECF/ 250 ICF) is moved into the cell with direct use of ATP then Na+ movement would most likely be using a(n) A. Na+- ATPase B. antiporter and Na+-K+ ATPase C. H+-Na+ symporter D. intracellular messenger gated Na+ channel and symporter E. ligand-gated Na+ channel and ion channel.

Primary active transporters use direct energy from ATP hydrolysis Primary active uniporter moves Na+ against its concentration gradient (into the cell); hence Na+ ATPase Na+ (intocell) and K+ (out of cell) are moving against their concentration gradients, hence, antiporter and ATPase

Primary vs Secondary Active Transport

Primary-Energy directly from ATP hydrolysis, requires an ATP pump Secondary- Carrier that binds two molecules, with one going against its concentration gradient

Lymphoid organs

Primary-Stem cells divide and become B or T cells Secondary-Where most immune responses occur

Primary Lymphoid Organs-Bone Marrow

Produces mature B cells and immature T cells

Basal Ganglia/Nucleus

Programming/planning movement converting abstract thought into voluntary actions determine which movement, how rapidly, large, intensity

Thrombin clotting

Protease that cleaves off part of receptor to activate G12 activated, triggers signaling pathway, activate Rho protein, alters shape of platelet to enable contact with other platelets Protease activated receptor activates Gq-phospholipase C-PIP2 to DAG/IP3-open IP gated channel to release Ca from ER DAG/Ca2+ bind/activate PKC, which phosphorylates intracellular proteins, including SNARE proteins triggering exocytosis of platelet granules (vesicles) CA2+ increases PLA, converting phospholipid to arachidonic, increasing activity of cyclooxygenase pathway to produce thromboxane A-made from prostaglandin H2, can be inhibited by aspirin inhibiting COX1 so precursor formation inhibited Stimulates New platelet activation/aggregation

Phagocytosis MOA

Pseudopods-Cytoplasmic extensions bind to/engulf particle Phagosome vesicle fuses with lysosome to become phagolysosome, which is acidified, and lysosomal enzymes digest particles Indigestible/Residual waste is exocytosed from phagocyte

Central Muscle Fatigue

Psychological low pH Failure of communication at NMJ or CNS

Basal Ganglia/Nuclei Circuits

Putamen-subconcious execution of learned movement patterns Caudate circuit-cognitive planning of sequential/parallel motor patterns to achieve specific goals

Starling Equation

Qf=k[(Pc+Pii)-(Pi+Pip)] Qf=Net fluid movement ml/min/100g tissue/mmHg k=filtration constant Pc=Capillary Hydrostatic pressure Pi=intersitial hydrostatic pressure Pip=plasma oncotic pressure Pii=interstitial oncotic pressure Qf positive=filtration Qf negative=absorption

Blood flow Equation/Factor

Qorgan=(Pi-Po)/R Qorgan= flow through organ in mL/min (Pi-Po)=difference in pressure in-out R=Resistance to flow increases as radius of vessels decrease increase as vessel length increases increases with blood viscosity Qbody=MAP/TPR Qbody= blood flow in whole body in L/min MAP (mean arterial pressure)-(2xDiastolic+Systolic)/3 in mmHg TPR (Total Peripheral Resistance)-sum of all resistances Qbody=Cardiac Output Cardiac Output=HRxSV Heart Rate=BPM Stroke Volume=End diastolic-End systolic MAP=COxTPR=HR(EDV-ESV)TPR

Red Blood Cells

RBC aka erythrocytes 20-30trillion 5.4 vs 4.8 million per microL in men vs women %Blood Volume from RBC=hematocrit 45 vs 42% in male vs female viscosity= fluid resistance to flow-more RBC, more viscous Transports oxygen and some CO2 Hemoglobin-iron containing protein that binds and carries O2 erythropoiesis-RBC formation, stimulated by erythropoietin, made in kidney if low O2, or in liver Antigens responsible for stimulating defense mechanisms/Blood typing

Phasic Receptor

Rapid adaptation stop responding when stimulus stops changing stimulus change=signal on/off

Membrane Receptor Types

Receptor-Channel G-Protein Couple Receptors Receptor-Enzyme Integrin Receptors

Inflammation signs

Redness-Rubor, Heat-Fever, Swelling-Turgot, Pain-Dolor, sometimes impairment of function seen if movement/use of area hampered

Satellite Cells

Regulate nerve tissue's external environment

Muscle Contraction Steps-Skeletal

Regulated by somatic division each myofiber directly innervated action potential in α-motor neuron releases ACh from NMJ axon terminals Folded to increase surface area ACh binds to nicotinic ligand-gated receptor channels of motor end plate Agonist-Metacholine, carbachol, nicotine Curare-antagonist Antibodies to ACh receptor cause muscle paralysis of myasthenia gracis Channels opening allow Na in, K out, Ca in Depolarizes Local membrane potential toward end plate potential=-15mV Activates voltage gated Na+ channel/action potential initiated

Pineal gland function

Regulates circadian rhythm via melatonin release

Nervous Tissue Function

Regulation and communication

Tropomyosin

Regulatory Protein Wraps around actin covers myosin binding sites when muscle inactive

Aδ/Type III afferent Nerve Fiber Function

Relay Fast pain, cold temperature, non-specific touch information

C/Type IV Nerve Fiber Function

Relay Slow Pain and Warm Temperature information

Corticobulbar tract

Relays motor output to muscles of eyes, face, tongue, throat fibers travel to motor nuclei of cranial nerves

Microglia

Remove damaged neurons/infections

MAP Regulation

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone (RAA) System Epinephrine/Norepinephrine Antidiuretic Hormone- ADH Atrial Natriuretic Peptide- ANP

What is the neural and innermost portion of the eye wall

Retina

Venous System

Returns blood to heart valves prevent backflow Low pressure system-pressure must be lower in capillaries or blood won't flow hydrostatic pressure 2ommHg in post capillary venules, decreases to 0mmHg in thoracic vena cava/right atrium, pressure must be lowest at right atrium or blood won't return to heart High Compliance-low resistance up to 70% blood volume

Autoimmune conditions

Rheumatoid Arthritis-Destroys Joints Myasthenia Gravis: Impairs nerve-muscle connections Multiple Sclerosis-destroys white matter myelin Graves' Disease: hyperthyroidism Type 1 diabetes mellitus, destroys pancreatic cells Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE): multiple organ damage Glomerulonephritis: Kidney damage

Retina Phototransduction (Light)

Rhodopsin absorbs photon electron-higher energy level Conformational change (11-cis-retinal, all-trans-retinal) all-trans-retinal, opsin completely dissociate (bleached) G protein activated (G1 transducin) cGMP phosphodiesterase activated cGMP converted to inactive 5'-GMP Na channel close, hyperpolarization -70-80 Na/K ATPase continues voltage gated Ca2+ channel close glutamate release inhibition

Retina Phototransduction (No light)

Rhodopsin intact=11-cis retinal, opsin protein photoreceptor membrane potential at -40 leaky Na channels open voltage gates Ca2+ channels open glutamate constant release

What composes the outer segment of rods/cones

Rods: Rhodopsin-purple 11-cis retinal, scotopsin protein Cones: RGB pigments 11-cis retinal, photopsin protein Leaky Na channels=intracellular messenger cGMP gated channels

What protein is directly responsible for the release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in cardiac muscle. (no abbreviations for full credit)

Ryanodine (RYR) Receptor

SNS vs ParaSNS Neuron length

SNS short pre ganglionic long post ganglionic PSNS long pre ganglionic short post ganglionic

What interprets pain information

SSI, SSII determine quality (pricking, burning, itching), location, intensity, duration

Most third order neurons in the anteriolateral pathway go from thalamic nuclei to

SSI, limbic system, or basal ganglia

Where does the DCML decussate?

Second order neurons at the medulla

Visceral Receptors

Service Organs Pain, stretch, chemoreceptors, baroreceptors, osmoreceptors

Cutaneous Receptor

Service the skin Naked Nerve endings Merkel discs Ruffini endings Meissner's Corpuscles Pacinian Corpuscles

Capillaries

Sites of nutrient/waste exchange capable bc thin walls w/ pores Form bed at tissue Flow controlled by metarterioles, precapillary sphincters Three different capillary types with different permeabilties Continuous capillaries=plasma membranes of cells form continuous tube interrupted by intercellular clefts, permeable to H2O, small solutes, glucose, most abundant Fenestrated Capillaries-contain pores called fenestrations, found in kidneys, small intestine, endocrine organs Sinusoids-Wider, more winding, large fenestrations, allow movements of larger substances such as proteins/blood cells

Skeletal Muscle Structure

Skeletal Muscles Cells=Myocytes=Myofibers Multinucleate Each surrounded by connective endomysium Cells bundled in fascicles Each surrounded by perimysium connective, nerve, vascular tissue between fascicles Groups of fascicles form whole muscle Muscle surrounded by epimysium

Muscle Relaxation Mechanism

Skeletal- SERCA, no new ATP Smooth- SERCA, Ca2+ ATPase, Na/Ca exchanger Cardiac- Ca2+ ATPase/ Na/Ca exchanger

SNS Effector Tissue

Smooth/Cardiac Muscle, glands α and/or β receptors utilize G protein mediated effects

ParaSNS Effector Tissue

Smooth/Cardiac muscle and glands muscarinic receptor G protein involved short lasting responses-high tissue levels of acetylcholinesterase

What is the neuron cell body called and what is its function

Soma, directs synthesis of neurotransmitter

Sites for sensory perception

Somatosensory Cortex Visual Cortex Auditory Cortex

Where does concious perception of somatic sensation occur (modality, quality, quantity, location)

Somatosensory cortex

Transcellular Fluid

Specialized Fluid (synovial in joints, fluid in eyes)

Adaptive Defense

Specific defense system amplifies inflammatory response activates complement Shortcoming-must be primed by initial exposure to specific foreign substance over time

Adaptive Immunity

Specific, Systemic, has memory Humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity Cellular (Cell-mediated) immunity

What damage causes spinal reflex inhibition

Spinal cord damage

Venous Return Factors

Starting CO that varies based on total metabolic demand (CO highly dependent on EDV vs Frank-Starling) total blood volume vasomotor tone distribution of blood within vascular system resistance to venous return

Non-innervated smooth muscl

Still capable of functioning May have intrinsic activity (gut muscles in peristalsis) hormonal/environmental factors (myogenic control-when stretched they contract) Pharmacomechanical coupling ANS supply to smooth muscle drops NT from swollen regions (varicosities)

Smooth Muscles Ca2+ Influx Mechanisms-Mechanomechanical Coupling

Stretching of muscles in response to pressure/fullness distorts cell membrane causes adjacent VG Ca2+ channels to open myogenic contraction

Edema Benefits

Sweep foreign material into lymphatic vessels for processing in lymph nodes, deliver clotting proteins/complement to area

Autonomic Motor neuron subdivisions

Sympathetic prepare for stress vs Parasympathetic maintain daily homeostatic routines

Anaphylactic Shock

Systemic Allergic Reaction-Immediate Hypersensitivity Usually with injected allergens-bee sting bronchioles constrict vasodilation treat with epi

Self-Recognition

T cells must be able to recognize bodies own MHC and lack reactivity with Self recognition/tolerance

What happens when the AP reaches the inner cell

T tubules open to ECF At triads VG DHP receptors activated, Activate RYR receptors of SER RYR receptor is Ca2+ channel and opens

The NA+/K+ ATPase _______. Select one or more: a. is an antiporter that moves 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell b. directly uses energy by ATP hydrolysis c. is a symporter which moves 3 Na+ ions into the cell and 2 K+ ions out of the cell d. is an antiporter that moves 3 Na+ ions into the cell and 2 K+ ions out of the cell e. is a symporter which moves 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell

The correct answers are: A. is an antiporter that moves 3 Na+ ions out of the cell a B. 2 K+ ions into the cell, directly uses energy by ATP hydrolysis

Cardiopulmonary Baroreceptors

Tonically active mechanoreceptors in right atrium/pulmonary vessels increase in volume of blood in atrial/pulmonary vessels, increase in stretch/firing Lower SNS output-especially to kidney increase renal blood/urine flow to decrease Blood volume Lower ADH release from hypothalamus increased urine production removes excess fluid ANP release from atrial myocyte (diuretic/vasodilator) decreased firing (hypovolemia) increase SNS output to kidney increase Angiotensin, aldosterone, ADH vasopressin release to increase kidney absorption, retaining salt/water

Capillary Transcytosis

Transfer across capillary endothelial cells via endocytoses/shuttling substances within tiny vesicles uses kinetic energy-expends ATp only very small amount can be moved, but useful for large non lipid soluble molecules

Lymphatic System Failure

Transport overwhelmed/vessel blockage- fluid accumulates in tissue=edema regulates blood volume Can be caused by increased hydrostatic pressure increased venous pressure decreased plasma protein concentration increased interstitial protein

Helper T cells

Trigger macrophage to produce respiratory burst to kill pathogens resistant to lysosomal enzymes by releasing free radicals, producing oxidizing chemicals, increasing pH/osmolarity of phagolysosome

Inflammation

Triggered by any tissue damage Prevents spread of damaging agents, disposes of cell debris and pathogens, alerts adaptive immune system, sets stage for repair

Central Ischemic Response

Triggered by insufficient blood flow to brain increase firing of central chemoreceptor for massive SNS signal venoconstriction, vasoconstriction to maintain MAP, redistribute blood to vital organs (heart,lung,brain)

Specifically identify what holds tropomyosin over the active sites on actin in skeletal muscle?

Troponin I (TnI)

Cardiac muscle has actin-linked regulation of contraction Select one: True False

True

Norepinephrine can contribute to contraction and relaxation in smooth muscle. Select one: True False

True

The central chemoreceptors directly sense high CO2 levels Select one: True False

True

When you sleep, your cardiac output decreases Select one: True False

True

Capillary Anatomy

Tunica Intima Low pressure, built for exchange small diameter, thin walled single layer of endothelial cells with basal lamina flat, thin squamous cells joined at edges forming small pores=clefts=fenestrations number/size of pores depends on tissues kidney, intestine, liver: large pores, unlimited exchange-fenestrated capillaries cardiac/skeletal muscle tissue: small pores=limited exchange brain: pores absent blocking entry of many small molecules-blood-brain barrier 3 tissues have no capillary beds, use sinusoids instead in bone marrow, liver, spleen

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Type 1

Type 1 Slow Twitch Fiber (Red Muscle) Slow, Small diameter, long contraction duration, oxidative aerobic respiration, numerous mitochondra, dark red with myoglobin, fatigue resistance

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Type 2A

Type 2A Fast twitch oxidative-glycolytic (white muscle) Fast, medium diameter, short duration contraction, extensive SER for fast Ca2+ release Glycolytic oxidative with endurance training moderate mitochondria count, fatigue resistant, low myoglobin count

Skeletal Muscle Fiber Type 2X

Type 2X Fast twitch glycolytic Fast, largest diameter, short duration contraction, low mitochondria count, pale color, glycolytic, more anaerobic than others, easily fatigued

ANS Post-ganglionic axonal fiber

Type C

Delayed hypersensitivities

Type IV slow onset 1-3 days Mechanism depends on helper T cells cytokine-activated macrophages and cytotoxic T cells cause damage Ex: allergic contact dermatitis- poison ivy Agents act as haptens TB skin test needs this reaction

Up vs Down regulation of hormones

Up: Intermittent exposure of submaximal hormone concentration. Hormones can recruit own receptors to enhance cell sensitivity Down: Occurs with sustained excess of hormone, and lessens effect of chronic exposure to excess hormone

Transcytosis

Using a vesicle to transport a substance across a cell

Symporters-Na+-Glucose

Usually Secondary Active Transport. One substance with and one against gradient

Vascular Health

Vascular Health decrease atherosclerosis-fixed volume of BV and reduces ability to change diameter Stiffens wall, narrows lumen lowers arterial compliance contributes to elevated pulse pressure reduces overall sensitivity of baroreceptors

Histamines

Vasodilation, vessel leakiness, runny nose, itchy hives, watery eyes.

Hydrogen Sulfide

Vasodilator derived from garlic

If the ventricles have uncoordinated contractions leading to ineffective pumping, this is known as

Ventricular Fibrillation

Exocytoses

Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane to eject molecules. Can be constitutive/regulated depending if immediately released/stored before release

Clotting Factors

Vitamin K dependent-Factor VII, IX, X, II Heparin- II, X both- X, II

How cells react to hypertonicity

Volume decrease, shrivel (crenulation)

How cells react to hypotonicity

Volume increase, swelling and rupture (lysis)

Peripheral vs Autonomic

Voluntary/Conscious vs Involuntary

Ganglionic cell types

W-transmit rod vision X-visual image/color color analysis in retina RGB cones=white when stimulated by one color, other cone inhibits Y-transmit instantaneous changes in visual image

Peripheral Muscle Fatigue Factors

Within Muscle Elevated Pi Decreased Ca2+ K+ imbalance

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) MOA

a subunit dissociates from G-protein and receptor a subunit stimulates/inhibits enzyme protein kinase activated amplifier enzymes activated amplifier enzymes activate secondary messengers secondary messengers amplify effect of original signal

Nerve impulses essentially consist of

a wave of action potentials

Postsynaptic Cell Function

a) Receptor for NT; either ionotropic or metabotropic b) LG gated channels; Na+LGC, K+ or Cl- c) Na+ VG channels to depolarize resulting in EPSP; K+ or Cl- VGchannels resulting in IPSP d) Summation of PSPs - spatial or temporal e) Generation of AP at axon hillock f) Degradation of NT on post synaptic membrane (Acetylchonersterase, COMT)

Presynaptic Cell Function

a) Synthesis of NT(acetyltransferase, TH); degradation of NT (depending on type of NT; monoamine oxidase) b) Source of AP that activates Ca+2 VG channels necessary for NT exocytosis c) Mitochondria production of ATP for NT exocytosis; salutatory conduction d) Na+/Ca+2 exchanger to return Ca+2 to ECF e) Na+/K+ leak channels, Na+/K+ATPse

A zombie (the walking dead) has stiff contracted limbs, making walking and grabbing brains quite hard to accomplish. What is likely missing from the skeletal muscle of the zombie leading to the stiff limbs? Select one: a. ATP b. DHPR c. Actin d. Ca2+

a. ATP

If you were to take a muscle relaxer (targeting skeletal muscle), which if these is unlikely to occur Select one: a. ATP is removed from the cytosol b. Myosin is weakly bound to actin c. increase in SERCA activity d. Tropomyosin blocks binding sites on actin

a. ATP is removed from the cytosol

Which of the following groupings is CORRECT? Select one: a. Acetylcholine, Na+ ligand-gated channel, EPSP b. Ri, cAMP, PLC c. steroid, Rm, gene transcription d. epinephrine, beta, IP3 e. Gq, IP3, protein kinase A

a. Acetylcholine, Na+ ligand-gated channel, EPSP

(Pick 3) Which of the following groupings is INCORRECT? Select one or more: a. Acetylcholine, voltage-gated channel, EPSP b. steroid, Rn, gene transcription c. acetylcholine, Gq, cAMP d. epinephrine, beta, cAMP e. Rm, IP3 and DAG, PKC f. metabotropic, Gs, tyrosine kinase

a. Acetylcholine, voltage-gated channel, EPSP c. acetylcholine, Gq, cAMP f. metabotropic, Gs, tyrosine kinase

A car accident victim is brought into the ER. A metal bar inflicted wounds in his spinal cord and he complains about pain in his left arm. ER testing revealed loss of fine touch sensation in the left arm but retention of crude touch sensation as well as thermal sensation. Although he has pain, he has no loss of motor function. There are no other sensory or motor changes observed in his right arm or his legs. The ER physicians suspect spinal cord injury and send him down for an MRI. What would sensory tests for gentle stimuli like itch or tickle sensations in his left arm show? Select one: a. All negative, meaning, all intact and functioning. b. Tickle sensations are functional but itch sensations are not. c. Partly negative, some parts functioning, some not functioning d. Itch sensations are functional but tickle sensations are not.

a. All negative, meaning, all intact and functioning.

You are a marine physiologist and caught a weird-looking sea animal, put it in sea water and transported it back to the lab for electrophysiology experimentation. You examined the multicellular organism under a specialized microscope and isolated its neurons, recorded the ionic concentrations (mEq/L) inside and outside of the neuron, and the resulting RMP with an electrophysiological probe. The data collected are shown below: ECF ICF Eion [K+] 4 140 [Mg+2] 163 20 [Na+] 1.2 0.004 + 152 mV [Ca+2] 3 0.005 + 85 mV RMP - 60 mV Spike of AP +30 mV (Pick 3) Based on all Eions, which ion is primarily responsible for the spike of AP? Select one or more: a. Ca+2 b. K+ c. Mg+2 d. Cl- e. Na+

a. Ca+2 e. Na+

Your patient has a lot of albumin in their blood. Which Starling Force would be most affected? Select one: a. Capillary Oncotic Pressure b. Capillary Hydrostatic Pressure c. Interstitial Oncotic Pressure d. Interstitial Hydrostatic Pressure

a. Capillary Oncotic Pressure

(Pick 2) Which of the following statements regarding sensory coding are FALSE? Select one or more: a. Frequency of action potentials is inversely proportional to stimulus intensity. b. Sensory coding involves which sensory receptor is involved. c. Duration of a series of action potentials is directly proportional to stimulus duration. d. The frequency of action potentials determines the amplitude of a generator potential. e. Neurotransmitter release varies with the pattern of action potentials arriving at the axon terminal.

a. Frequency of action potentials is inversely proportional to stimulus intensity. d. The frequency of action potentials determines the amplitude of a generator potential.

As a werewolf runs, his sarcomeres shorten. Which component shortens within the sarcomere Select one: a. I band b. A band c. M line d. Actin

a. I band

(Pick 2) The primary motor cortex _____. Select one or more: a. Is directly connected to pyramidal transmission b. Is topologically mapped for the body periphery c. Is located posterior to the central sulcus d. Controls the activity of the smallest diameter motor neurons in the body e. Is directly associated with the operation of the stretch reflex

a. Is directly connected to pyramidal transmission b. Is topologically mapped for the body periphery

I'm looking at cardiac muscle under the microscope, what do I see that tells me it is NOT skeletal muscle? Select one or more: a. It has intercalated discs b. Nuclei are centrally located c. It has multiple nuclei d. It is striated

a. It has intercalated discs b. Nuclei are centrally located

Which is TRUE regarding single unit smooth muscle. Select one: a. It leads to peristalsis b. It requires autonomic nervous system stimulation c. Cells act as separate units d. It can be found in the iris and ciliary bodies of the eye.

a. It leads to peristalsis

A car accident victim is brought into the ER. A metal bar inflicted wounds in his spinal cord and he complains about pain in his left arm. ER testing revealed loss of fine touch sensation in the left arm but retention of crude touch sensation as well as thermal sensation. Although he has pain, he has no loss of motor function. There are no other sensory or motor changes observed in his right arm or his legs. The ER physicians suspect spinal cord injury and send him down for an MRI. Based on your analysis, what would his symptoms most likely indicate to be the level of damage? Select one: a. Left, thoracic level only b. Right, thoracic level and below c. left, thoracic level and below d. Right, thoracic level only e. right, all levels f. left, thoracic level and above

a. Left, thoracic level only

(Pick 2) Which of the following are FALSE regarding the flexor-crossed extensor reflex? Select one or more: a. On the ipsilateral side of the stimulus, flexors are inhibited and extensors are activated b. Nociceptors mediate the response c. It is polysynaptic d. On the contralateral side of the stimulus, flexors are activated and extensors are inhibited e. It exhibits reciprocal inhibition and innervation

a. On the ipsilateral side of the stimulus, flexors are inhibited and extensors are activated d. On the contralateral side of the stimulus, flexors are activated and extensors are inhibited

(Pick 2) A child cries after stepping onto a broken glass. The mother picks up the child and puts her on her lap while she rubs the child's now bandaged foot with her hand. As a result, the child is comforted from the pain because of the phenomenon called pain gating. This occurs because _______. Select one or more: a. Rubbing the painful area stimulates the DCML 1st order neuron activating the release of GABA from the pain inhibitory complex in the dorsal horn b. By presynaptic inhibition, hyperpolarization of the 2nd order neuron results in IPSP c. inhibition of substance P exocytosis halts pain signal transmission between the 1st and 2nd order neurons d. postsynaptic inhibition at an axo-axonal synapse of the pain pathway results in hyperpolarization

a. Rubbing the painful area stimulates the DCML 1st order neuron activating the release of GABA from the pain inhibitory complex in the dorsal horn c. inhibition of substance P exocytosis halts pain signal transmission between the 1st and 2nd order neurons

(Pick 4) Pain killers can act to inhibit the pain transmission pathway by inhibiting Ca+2 voltage-gated channels. Which of the following statements is TRUE about these Ca+2 voltage-gated channels? Select one or more: a. They are intrinsic water-filled porous proteins. b. They are located on the post-synaptic membrane. c. Analgesics (pain killers) bind to these Ca+2 voltage-gated channels as agonists. d. When open, they contribute to reduction of neurotransmitter exocytosis. e. When inhibited, they reduce synaptic transmission by pre-synaptic inhibition. f. they open after pre-synaptic neuronal membrane depolarization caused by Na+ influx g. They allow calcium influx when open as membrane depolarizes.

a. They are intrinsic water-filled porous proteins. e. When inhibited, they reduce synaptic transmission by pre-synaptic inhibition. f. they open after pre-synaptic neuronal membrane depolarization caused by Na+ influx g. They allow calcium influx when open as membrane depolarizes.

(Pick 3) When excess water is retained in the plasma, a part of the extracellular fluid, which of the following occur to reach osmotic equilibrium? Select one or more: a. Water diffuses from the ECF to ICF, reducing ICF osmolarity b. Water diffuses from the ICF to ECF, reducing ECF osmolarity c. ECF volume decreases and plasma osmolarity increases d. Hyperosmotic volume contraction e. Hypoosmotic volume expansion f. ECF volume increases and plasma osmolarity decreases

a. Water diffuses from the ECF to ICF, reducing ICF osmolarity e. Hypoosmotic volume expansion f. ECF volume increases and plasma osmolarity decreases

Tetrodotoxin (TTX), a fish toxic substance, blocks the opening of Na+ voltage-gated channels resulting in the reduction of synaptic transmission. After TTX exerts such action, immediate reduction of _____ in the pre-synaptic neuron occurs. Select one: a. action potential firing b. neurotransmitter synthesis c. neurotransmitter reuptake d. postsynaptic potential firing e. Ca+2 influx f. neurotransmitter exocytosis

a. action potential firing

Lateral inhibition 1. has greater importance in DCML transmission than anterolateral transmission 2. is of great importance to neural impulses terminating in the SSI 3. is of great significance in "two-point" tactile discrimination 4. is of great significance in retinal impulse transmission Select one: a. all statements are true b. statements 1 and 3 only are true c. all statements are false d. statements 1, 2 and 3 only are true e. statements 1, 3 and 4 only are true

a. all statements are true

(Pick 2) Steroid hormones ______. Select one or more: a. are derived from cholesterol b. are water soluble c. use membrane-bound receptors d. include the reproductive hormones e. travel via synapses to reach their target organs

a. are derived from cholesterol d. include the reproductive hormones

(Pick 3) Representation in the _____ (sensory, motor) cortex is _____ (smallest, largest) for those structures involved in the most complicated movements, the fingers, hands _____ (as well as, but not) the face. Select one or more: a. as well as b. but not c. smallest d. largest e. sensory f. motor

a. as well as d. largest f. motor

Which of the following is NOT an essential component of a polysynaptic reflex? Select one: a. brain b. effector c. association neuron d. motor neuron e. receptor

a. brain

In the dark, rods constantly release glutamate as its Na+ channels are kept open by an intracellular secondary messenger ________. Select one: a. cGMP b. DAG c. cAMP d. IP3 e. Ca+2

a. cGMP

(Pick 2) A person with myasthenia gravis (a chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disease) suffers from weakness of the skeletal muscle. Muscle contractile strength may be increased when he is treated with the following EXCEPT ________. Select one or more: a. cholinergic antagonist b. Nicotinic agonist c. a muscarinic antagonist d. an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor e. an acetyltransferase activator

a. cholinergic antagonist c. a muscarinic antagonist

(Pick 2) In mammalian neurons, an excitatory post synaptic potential can be achieved by ________. Select one or more: a. depolarizing the membrane by closing K+ channels b. hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic membrane by opening Ca+2 channels c. hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic membrane by opening K+ channels d. depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane by opening Na+ channels e. depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane by opening Cl- channels

a. depolarizing the membrane by closing K+ channels d. depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane by opening Na+ channels

The movement of acetylcholine across the synaptic cleft occurs by _______. Select one: a. diffusion b. bulk transport c. exocytosis d. facilitated diffusion e. active transport

a. diffusion

Your patient has edema and was told to exercise to reduce this condition. How does exercise promote getting rid of edema Select one: a. increase VR b. decrease CO c. decrease HR d. Increase PNS stimulation

a. increase VR

(Pick 4) Post-synaptic stimulation can be decreased by ______. Select one or more: a. inhibition of the acetylcholine transferase activity b. increasing neurotransmitter-receptor binding on the post-synaptic membrane c. closing the Ca+2 voltage gated channels on the pre-synaptic membrane d. reducing neurotransmitter exocytosis e. using a neurotransmitter agonist f. activation of acetylcholinesterase activity g. decreasing neurotransmitter re-uptake into the pre-synaptic cell h. temporal and spatial summation on the post-synaptic membrane

a. inhibition of the acetylcholine transferase activity c. closing the Ca+2 voltage gated channels on the pre-synaptic membrane d. reducing neurotransmitter exocytosis f. activation of acetylcholinesterase activity

If an extraterrestrial cell is exposed to an isotonic solution containing twice as much Ca+2 as the ICF Ca+2 concentration, Ca+2 diffuses _______. Select one: a. into the cell making the interior charge more positive. b. into the cell making the interior charge more positive.out of the cell making the interior charge more negative c. out of the cell making the interior charge more positive. d. into the cell making the interior charge more negative

a. into the cell making the interior charge more positive.

Which of the following channel proteins require a hormone or a neurotransmitter to open their gates? Select one: a. ligand-gated channel b. leak channel c. mechanically-gated channel d. intracellular messenger-gated channel

a. ligand-gated channel

(Pick 3) The cerebellum is important for prevention of distortion of efferent activity through _______. Select one or more: a. modulation of inhibitory signals coming from Purkinje cells b. planning of braking action to prevent overshoot of the muscle movement c. maintenance of visual mapping d. maintenance of equilibrium e. activation of appropriate emotions

a. modulation of inhibitory signals coming from Purkinje cells overshoot of the muscle movement b. planning of braking action to prevent d. maintenance of equilibrium

Which of the following does NOT directly affect the rate of diffusion? Select one or more: a. molecular size b. ATP c. temperature d. concentration gradient e. lipid solubility

a. molecular size b. ATP

When acetylcholine is released by the vagus nerve what receptor does it bind to in the heart Select one: a. muscarinic b. nocireceptor c. nicotinic d. adrenergic

a. muscarinic

Which of these would not contribute to plasma oncotic pressure Select one: a. none of these b. albumin c. hemoglobin d. gamma globulin

a. none of these

Which one of these is not taken into account by Fick's Law Select one: a. none of these b. capillary surface area c. concentration gradient of molecule d. membrane thickness

a. none of these

(Pick 3) In mammalian systems, the Na+/K+ ATPase pump _______. Select one or more: a. pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in b. is an antiporter and a carrier protein c. functions as a Na+ driven active transporter d. is an enzyme and a channel protein e. directly requires energy

a. pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in b. is an antiporter and a carrier protein e. directly requires energy

(Pick 3) Serotonergic neurons descending from the (brain location) __________ into the dorsal horn may activate inhibitory neurons that release the neurotransmitter (NT) ____________ to reduce the exocytosis of substance P from the first order sensory neuron of the pain pathway. This neural processing demonstrates (neuronal synapse) ____________ inhibition. Select one or more: a. raphe magnus b. hypothalamus c. post-synaptic d. periaqueductal gray e. GABA f. substance P g. pre-synaptic h. glutamate

a. raphe magnus e. GABA g. pre-synaptic

During an athletic event, he suffers from severe dehydration and is accidentally given a 7.5 % glucose IV solution. After equilibration of the sugar solution, the athlete starts to gasp for breath. The one obvious reason for his respiratory distress is due to the infused sugar solution that is hypertonic to the patient's plasma concentration resulting in the ___________________________ of the red blood cells. (B4, B8 ) Select one: a. shrinkage b. lysis c. lack of change in volume or shape

a. shrinkage

The movement of acetylcholine across the synaptic cleft occurs by ________. Select one: a. simple diffusion b. exocytosis c. facilitated diffusion d. bulk transport e. active transport

a. simple diffusion

The endothelium is composed of: Select one: a. simple squamous epithelium b. smooth muscle c. elastin d. simple columnar epithelium

a. simple squamous epithelium

Which of these could contain pacemaker cells Select one or more: a. single unit smooth muscle b. multi-unit smooth muscle c. cardiac muscle d. skeletal muscle

a. single unit smooth muscle c. cardiac muscle

Which would be the fastest to contract? Select one: a. skeletal muscle b. cardiac muscle c. they are all the same d. smooth muscle

a. skeletal muscle

Ca2+ ATPase family members are deleted in cardiac muscle, which of these would result Select one: a. slow relaxation b. tetany c. short contraction d. more than one option is correct

a. slow relaxation

A blood work up was ordered for your patient and an anticoagulant was added to the blood tube. Which one of these was the most likely to be added: Select one: a. sodium citrate b. warfarin c. histamine d. calcium

a. sodium citrate

In order to carve your pumpkin, you need to forcefully push the carving knife through the side of the pumpkin. So, as you push harder to increase the force of contraction, multiple motor units are stimulated simultaneously. What would NOT be part of making this happen? Select one: a. temporal summation of agonist muscles b. relaxation of antagonistic muscle c. spatial summation of agonist muscles d. recruitment of motor units within agonist muscles

a. temporal summation of agonist muscles

Cell bodies of efferent neurons would NOT BE located in _________> Select one: a. the dorsal root ganglia b. the CNS c. ventral horn d. autonomic ganglia

a. the dorsal root ganglia

At point 4, ________. a. the hyperpolarizing effect of K+ efflux must be offset to fire another action potential b. no action potential can absolutely be fired c. a stimulus weaker than the initial stimulus can elicit an AP d. the re-setting / closure of fast acting Na+ voltage gated channels (inactivation gates) is completed

a. the hyperpolarizing effect of K+ efflux must be offset to fire another action potential

Which of these binds to tropomyosin Select one: a. troponin T b. troponin I c. troponin C d. myosin

a. troponin T

Norepinephrine is synthesized from ______. Select one: a. tyrosine b. arginine c. glutamine d. choline e. acetyl coA

a. tyrosine

Destruction of the right pre-central gyrus of the cerebral cortex results in loss of ___________. Select one: a. voluntary movements of the left side of the body b. loss of reasoning and logical behavior c. sensations from the left side of the body d. sensations from the right side of the body e. voluntary movements of the right side of the body

a. voluntary movements of the left side of the body

Secondary messengers can

activate protein kinases (de)activate enzymes produce cascade effect repress/activate genes Increase ICF Ca2+ which binds calmodulin/troponin binds regulatory proteins that trigger exocytosis bind to ion channels enters fertilized egg to initiate development

Smooth Muscle Relaxation-Cellular metabolism byproducts

adenosine, lactic acid, increased K+, CO2, decreased O2, elevated body temp all lead to vasodilation

Self-Antigens

all cells are covered with variety of proteins located on surface that are not antigenic to self, but may be antigenic to others in transfusions or grafts MHC-Major Histocompatibility Complex Contain groove that can hold piece of self-antigen or foreign antigen T-Lymphocytes only recognize antigens on MHC proteins

Medulla Oblongata/Pons function

all sensory/motor pathways travel through here contains reflex control centers allowing complex visceral control/coordination

(De)phosphorylation of Plasma membrane Receptor System leads to

alteration of K (affinity of receptor for hormone) pH Osmolarity Ion concentration substrate levels

Secondary visual cortex function

analyzes information from primary visual cortex including steropsis-binocular depth perception and sends to association areas for identification

Autonomic Ganglion contains

axonal end of preganlionic neuron dendrive/cell bodies of postganglionic neuron some interneurons/support cells

What is the optic nerve

axons of ganglionic cells leaving the eye

You discovered a new organism and are studying its chemical and electrical properties. You started the project by measuring the ionic concentrations (mEq/L) inside and outside the organism and its membrane potentials. Using the data shown below, calculate Eion of K+ as _________ mV. K+ 14/140 ECF/ICF Select one: a. +80 b. -60 c. -80 d. +60 e. 0

b. -60

(Pick 2) Movement of Na+ into the neuron via fast acting Na+ voltage-gated channels is responsible for the change in membrane potential occurring between points _____ as a result of _____ feedback. a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4

b. 2 c. 3

During cardiac muscle contraction, which occurs first? Select one: a. ATP is hydrolyzed b. Ca2+ is released from the SER c. Tropomyosin is moved by troponin d. Myosin binds actin binding site

b. Ca2+ is released from the SER

(Pick 2) Which of the following statement is TRUE? Select one or more: a. CNS neurons release acetylcholine onto muscarinic receptors b. Cholinergic neurons contain acetylcholine transferase in their presynaptic terminals c. Acetylcholine can bind to metabotropic receptors. d. Na+/Ca+2 exchanger pumps Ca+2 into the presynaptic neuron

b. Cholinergic neurons contain acetylcholine transferase in their presynaptic terminals c. Acetylcholine can bind to metabotropic receptors.

Regarding a pacemaker cell, which is TRUE: Select one: a. Depolarization past threshold occurs due to the opening of Na+ channels b. Closing of K+ channels contributes to pacemaker potential c. They are contractile cells d. They have a RMP of -60mV

b. Closing of K+ channels contributes to pacemaker potential

Which of these utilize passive transport? Select one or more: a. Na+/Ca2+ exchanger b. DHPR c. SERCA d. K+ channel

b. DHPR d. K+ channel

A car accident victim is brought into the ER. A metal bar inflicted wounds in his spinal cord and he complains about pain in his left arm. ER testing revealed loss of fine touch sensation in the left arm but retention of crude touch sensation as well as thermal sensation. Although he has pain, he has no loss of motor function. There are no other sensory or motor changes observed in his right arm or his legs. The ER physicians suspect spinal cord injury and send him down for an MRI. Although the victim was severely hurt, his pain symptoms are not as excruciating as they appear to be. Pick a mechanism that justifies his discomfort level. Select one: a. Serotonin inhibits the pain inhibitory complex in the dorsal horn. b. Endorphins suppresses cortical pain. c. Glycine inhibits the pain pathway at the third order neuron. d. GABA-releasing interneurons inhibit substance P release by post-synaptic inhibition at the dorsal column

b. Endorphins suppresses cortical pain.

Which would NOT increase the contractility of the heart Select one: a. Increase VR b. Increase ESV c. Increase SNS stimulation d. Increase intracellular Ca2+ levels

b. Increase ESV

(Pick 2) Which of the following control events best illustrate negative feedback control? Select one or more: a. Increased arterial blood pressure results in increased heart rate. b. Increased body temperature results in increased sweating. c. Increased cellular Na+ influx results in decreased activity of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump. d. Increased plasma volume results in increased urinary water loss.

b. Increased body temperature results in increased sweating. d. Increased plasma volume results in increased urinary water loss.

You are a marine physiologist and caught a weird-looking sea animal, put it in sea water and transported it back to the lab for electrophysiology experimentation. You examined the multicellular organism under a specialized microscope and isolated its neurons, recorded the ionic concentrations (mEq/L) inside and outside of the neuron, and the resulting RMP with an electrophysiological probe. The data collected are shown below: ECF ICF Eion [K+] 4 140 [Mg+2] 163 20 [Na+] 1.2 0.004 + 152 mV [Ca+2] 3 0.005 + 85 mV RMP - 60 mV Spike of AP +30 mV Based on all the Eions, which ion is primarily responsible for the RMP? Select one: a. Cl- b. K+ c. Na+ d. Mg+2

b. K+

The T-tubules in cardiac muscle compared to T-tubules in skeletal muscle Select one: a. Are smaller b. Located at the Z line c. More terminal cisternae d. Contain more connections to SR

b. Located at the Z line

Which of the pairings below is LEAST correct? Select one: a. beta receptor - G protein b. MAO - acetylcholine c. autonomic post-ganglionic neurons - C fiber type d. autonomic sacral nerve - parasympathetic e. Adrenal medulla - epinephrine

b. MAO - acetylcholine

Physiologically, the basal ganglia (nuclei) are generally associated with _________ (S=sensory, M=motor) functions and include the caudate and putamen nuclei, and the ______ (H=hypothalamus, N= substantia nigra) ________ (W=as well as, B= but not) the deep cerebellar nuclei. Select one: a. SHW b. MNB c. MHB d. MNW e. SNW

b. MNB

A car accident victim is brought into the ER. A metal bar inflicted wounds in his spinal cord and he complains about pain in his left arm. ER testing revealed loss of fine touch sensation in the left arm but retention of crude touch sensation as well as thermal sensation. Although he has pain, he has no loss of motor function. There are no other sensory or motor changes observed in his right arm or his legs. The ER physicians suspect spinal cord injury and send him down for an MRI. Which of the following is revealed by his MRI? Select one: a. DCML, AST and LST remain intact b. Only the DCML is affected. c. DCML and LST are intact. d. Only AST and LST are affected.

b. Only the DCML is affected.

Which of these is NOT involved in active transport Select one or more: a. Na+/Ca2+ exchanger b. Phospholamban c. SERCA d. VG Ca2+ channel

b. Phospholamban d. VG Ca2+ channel

(Pick 2) ___________, the fluid bathing the red blood cells, is the smaller volume of the two sub-compartments making up the __________, the larger compartment being the __________. Select one or more: a. Plasma, ISF, ECF b. Plasma, ECF, ISF c. ISF, ICF, ECF d. ECF, TBW, ICF

b. Plasma, ECF, ISF

You discovered a new organism and are studying its chemical and electrical properties. You started the project by measuring the ionic concentrations (mEq/L) inside and outside the organism and its membrane potentials. Using the data shown below, you calculated the resting membrane potential at - 60 mV. K+ 14/140 ECF/ICF Na+ 120/10 ECF/ICF Ca2+ 1.2/0.004 ECF/ICF When the unicellular organism was electrically stimulated in an isotonic solution containing 40 mEq/L Ca+2 and 10 mEq/L Na+, no AP was observed. Which of the following would be TRUE? Select one: a. There are Ca+2 leak channels on the membrane but they are already saturated b. There may be no voltage-gated channels for Ca+2 on the membrane c. Increased Ca+2 influx may make the RMP more negative d.ECF [Ca+2] would decrease the chemical gradient

b. There may be no voltage-gated channels for Ca+2 on the membrane

(Pick 2) Which of the following are TRUE with photoreception? Select one or more: a. When light strikes the retina, release of glutamate increases b. Vitamin A is necessary for the regeneration of rhodopsin c. Action potential is solely elicited by retinal ganglion cells d. Increased light intensity increases the degree of depolarization e. Decreased levels of cGMP cause opening of Na+ channels and therefore hyperpolarization

b. Vitamin A is necessary for the regeneration of rhodopsin c. Action potential is solely elicited by retinal ganglion cells

You are a marine physiologist and caught a weird-looking sea animal, put it in sea water and transported it back to the lab for electrophysiology experimentation. You examined the multicellular organism under a specialized microscope and isolated its neurons, recorded the ionic concentrations (mEq/L) inside and outside of the neuron, and the resulting RMP with an electrophysiological probe. The data collected are shown below: ECF ICF Eion [K+] 4 140 [Mg+2] 163 20 [Na+] 1.2 0.004 + 152 mV [Ca+2] 3 0.005 + 85 mV RMP - 60 mV Spike of AP +30 mV Based on the data provided, would a Na+/K+ ATPase pump seen in mammalian neurons work the same way in the sea animal? Select one: a. No, Na+ is pumped in and K+ pumped out b. Yes, Na+ is pumped out and K+ pumped in c. No, Na+ is pumped out and K+ pumped in d. Yes, Na+ is pumped in and K+ pumped out

b. Yes, Na+ is pumped out and K+ pumped in

The major control for balance and posture in the body as well as muscular coordination is located in the _____. Select one: a. pons b. cerebellum c. cerebrum d. medulla e. hypothalamus

b. cerebellum

(Pick 2) If a hypothetical cell is exposed to an isotonic solution containing twice the concentration of Ca+2 as the ICF Ca+2, Ca+2 may not diffuse inward because of lack of Ca+2 ______. Select one or more: a. uniporter pumps b. channels c. carrier proteins d. symporter pumps driven by Na+ e. antiporter pumps driven by Ca+2

b. channels c. carrier proteins

Mrs. M, a middle-aged woman, had been complaining of severe headaches before collapsing at work and being transported to the hospital. The attending physician briefly conducted an external examination and checked her vital signs and reflexes before requesting a CAT scan and a blood work up. Based on his initial examination, he suspected that Mrs. M has suffered a hemorrhage in her left thalamic nuclei. The CAT scan reveals that the hemorrhage is only affecting the left lateral geniculate nucleus. Given the location of the hemorrhage, what sensory defect would most likely occur? Select one: a. lack of fine motor skills on the right arm and below b. loss of nasal visual field of left eye and temporal visual field of right eye c. loss of fast and slow pain on the right side at the neck level and above d. gross motor skills on the right side at all levels are fine e. loss of thermal sensation on the left side from the brainstem and below f. loss of proprioception on the right side at the cervical level only g. all reflexes are functioning

b. loss of nasal visual field of left eye and temporal visual field of right eye

(Pick 2) Negative feedback mechanisms ______. Select one or more: a. are not homeostatic. b. may have a receptor, a control center, and an effector. c. can be demonstrated when cold temperatures decrease your body temperature below normal and you shiver. d. respond by making deviations from normal even larger. e. are rare in healthy individuals.

b. may have a receptor, a control center, and an effector. c. can be demonstrated when cold temperatures decrease your body

If the ventral root of the spinal nerve was cut, what would the result be in the region supplied by that nerve? There would be complete loss of _______. Select one: a. afferent information b. movement c. proprioception and movement d. pain sensation and crude touch sensation e. proprioception

b. movement

Resting membrane potential (RMP) is a characteristic of all body cells. It is primarily dependent on all of the following except ________. Select one: a. negatively charged ICF proteins b. non-permeant ions c. Na+/K+ ATPase activity d. high K+ permeability

b. non-permeant ions

Referring to the figure below, during a nerve action potential, a stimulus is delivered at the dip at the end. In response to the stimulus, a second action potential _______. a. of normal magnitude will occur because all action potentials are self-propagating b. of normal magnitude will occur, but it will decrement in time c. of smaller magnitude will occur d. will absolutely not occur

b. of normal magnitude will occur, but it will decrement in time c. of smaller magnitude will occur

What is happening between halfway up and the peak. a. closing of slow acting Na+ voltage-gated channels b. opening of fast acting Na+ voltage-gated channels c. closing of fast acting K+ voltage-gated channels d. opening of slow acting K+ voltage-gated channels

b. opening of fast acting Na+ voltage-gated channels

Where would you find the highest pressure? Select one: a. femoral vein b. renal artery c. glomerular capillaries d. right atria

b. renal artery

Which of these areas would not be affected by the lymphatic system: Select one: a. none of these b. skin c. gastrointestinal tract d. lungs

b. skin

Which of these does not activate clot dissolution Select one: a. urokinase b. thromboxane A2 c. tPA d. streptokinase

b. thromboxane A2

Choose the correct answer regarding the dihydropyridine receptor Select one: a. is located on the sarcoplasmic reticulum b. undergoes a voltage driven conformational change c. releases calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum d. binds norepinephrine and epinephrine

b. undergoes a voltage driven conformational change

Histamines are produced by

basophils and mast cells

Rods provide

black/white color/peripheral vision

Hemorrhage

blood loss- appearance-cutaneous vein collapse, skin pale, moist, cyanotic/bluish, rapid respiration lowered arterial systolic/diastolic pressure lower VR, EDV, SV=lower COxTPR=Lower MAP arterial pulse-rapid/feeble, shallow/week

You are a marine physiologist and caught a weird-looking sea animal, put it in sea water and transported it back to the lab for electrophysiology experimentation. You examined the multicellular organism under a specialized microscope and isolated its neurons, recorded the ionic concentrations (mEq/L) inside and outside of the neuron, and the resulting RMP with an electrophysiological probe. The data collected are shown below: ECF ICF Eion [K+] 4 140 [Mg+2] 163 20 [Na+] 1.2 0.004 + 152 mV [Ca+2] 3 0.005 + 85 mV RMP - 60 mV Spike of AP +30 mV Based on your undertanding of mammalian physiology and the above data, EK+ and EMg+2 are ________mV and __________ mV respectively. Select one: a. +28, -94 b. +94, -28 c. -94, +28 d. -28, +94

c. -94, +28

The golgi tendon organ and associated reflex _____. Select one: a. Sends afferent impulses to the spinal cord b. Is a polysynaptic reflex c. All of the choices are correct d. Detects the amount of tension in a muscle e. Prevents damage to the muscles and tendons

c. All of the choices are correct

As a result of a motor vehicle accident, Mr P suffered a traumatic blow to his lower back. While all vital signs were normal, CT scan and MRI confirmed that he had a damaged lumbar cord specifically at the level of the cord marked as X and Y as shown below. Sensory and motor functional damage was assessed. X-left dorsal gray matter Y-Left Ventral white matter (Pick 5) Which of the following deficits would be expected for Mr P to suffer from? a. Proprioceptive sensation on his left at the specific cord level only b. Voluntary movement on his left at the level of the cord and below c. Cross extensor reflex on the left at the specific cord level only d. Fine touch sensation on his left at the level of the cord and below e. Inverse stretch reflex on the right at the specific cord level only f. Cross extensor reflex on the right at the specific cord level only g. Inverse stretch reflex on the left at the specific cord level only h. Voluntary movement on his left at the specific cord level only i. Stretch reflex on his left at the specific cord level only j. Stretch reflex on his right at the specific cord level only

c. Cross extensor reflex on the left at the specific cord level only d. Fine touch sensation on his left at the level of the cord and below g. Inverse stretch reflex on the left at the specific cord level only h. Voluntary movement on his left at the specific cord level only i. Stretch reflex on his left at the specific cord level only

Which of these is a main contributor to muscle fatigue: Select one: a. Accumulation of arachidonic acid b. Release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum c. Depletion of glycogen d. Accumulation of Na+ in the T tubule

c. Depletion of glycogen

Which of the following characteristics is shared by simple and facilitated diffusion? Select one: a. requires a Na+ gradient b. requires metabolic energy c. Occurs down an electrochemical gradient d. is saturable e. is inhibited by the presence of galactose

c. Occurs down an electrochemical gradient

Which of these is NOT a function of skeletal muscle? Select one: a. Heat production b. Vocalization c. Pupil dilation d. Respiration

c. Pupil dilation

Which of these would you NOT likely find in the sarcoplasm Select one: a. Ca2+ b. actin c. SERCA d. glycogen

c. SERCA

(Pick 2) For autonomic pathways, _______. Select one or more: a. Parasympathetic pre-ganglionic fibers tend to be relatively short b. Short unmyelinated fibers carry signals to parasympathetic ganglia c. Short myelinated fibers carry sympathetic signals to paravertebral ganglia d. Post-ganglionic fibers tend to be unmyelinated C type

c. Short myelinated fibers carry sympathetic signals to paravertebral ganglia d. Post-ganglionic fibers tend to be unmyelinated C type

Local anesthetics, such as lidocaine and procaine, prevent or relieve the perception of pain by directly interrupting the conduction of an action potential (nerve impulse). These drugs bind to a specific receptor site on the _____ and block ion movement through them. Select one: a. mechanically-gated channels b. intracellular messenger-gated channels c. Voltage-gated channels d. ligand-gated channels

c. Voltage-gated channels

A car accident victim is brought into the ER. A metal bar inflicted wounds in his spinal cord and he complains about pain in his left arm. ER testing revealed loss of fine touch sensation in the left arm but retention of crude touch sensation as well as thermal sensation. Although he has pain, he has no loss of motor function. There are no other sensory or motor changes observed in his right arm or his legs. The ER physicians suspect spinal cord injury and send him down for an MRI. Why are the motor functions not affected? Select one: a. Reflex pathways travel through the damaged area, so must not be functional. b. Reflex pathways are integrated at the spinal cord and must always be functional. c. Voluntary motor pathways do not travel through the damaged area. d. Voluntary motor pathways travel through the damaged area but exit ventrally.

c. Voluntary motor pathways do not travel through the damaged area.

Destruction of the right pre-central gyrus of the cerebral cortex results in loss of _____. Select one: a. Sensations from the left side of the body b. loss of reasoningand logical behavior c. Voluntary movements of the left side of the body d. Sensations from the right side of the body e. Voluntary movements of the right side of the body

c. Voluntary movements of the left side of the body

COMT is to catecholamines, _______ is to acetylcholine. Select one: a. adenylyl cyclase b. MAO c. acetylcholinesterase d. acetylcholinetransferase e. phosphodiesterase

c. acetylcholinesterase

(Pick 2) Tickling the right foot with a cube of ice will cause __________. Select one or more: a. and a subsequent flexion of the right leg b. extension the right leg c. and a subsequent extension of the left leg d. Flexion of the right leg

c. and a subsequent extension of the left leg d. Flexion of the right leg

Norepinephrine binds to _____ receptors on the heart. Select one: a. muscarinic b. alpha c. beta d. nicotinic

c. beta

An extraterrestrial cell is negatively charged inside the plasma membrane. Based on your understanding of mammalian membrane transport, theoretically, if ISF Ca+2 is in lower concentration than inside the cell, Select one: a. the ion's diffusion potential due to its electrical gradient is directedinward(with respect to the cell) b. the ion's diffusion potential due to its chemical gradient is directedoutward (with respect to the cell) c. both of the choices should work

c. both of the choices should work

(Pick 2) Nitric oxide is a lipid-soluble neurotransmitter derived from arginine. As such, it diffuses into vascular smooth muscle cells ultimately increasing the concentration of the secondary messenger ________ which activates a protein kinase that opens _______ channels resulting in vasodilation. Select one or more: a. IP3 b. Ca+2 c. cGMP d. cAMP e. K+ f. Na+ g. DAG

c. cGMP e. K+

Adrenergic neurons produce and release NTs collectively called catecholamines. Activation of autoreceptors such as alpha2 hyperpolarizes these adrenergic neurons. This type of synaptic modification is called _________. Select one: a. pre-synaptic inhibition b. feedback facilitation c. feedback inhibition d. pre-synaptic facilitation

c. feedback inhibition

Which of these is a similarity between smooth and cardiac muscle? Select one: a. tonic contractions b. striations c. gap junctions d. lack of troponin

c. gap junctions

Dr. Bennett-Toomey is carrying her baby as you are taking your quiz. This is an example of ____________________________ contraction. Select one: a. tonic b. isotonic c. isometric d. phasic

c. isometric

(Pick 2) Norepinephrine is degraded by the enzyme____________ in the _______________ neuron. Select one or more: a. acetylcholinesterase b. pre-ganglionic c. monoamine oxidase (MAO) d. acetylcholine transferase e. catechol-o-methyl transferase (COMT) f. post-gnanglionic g. glia

c. monoamine oxidase (MAO) f. post-ganglionic

(Pick 2) The rate of conduction of an action potential along a nerve is increased by ______. Select one or more: a. decreasing the diameter of the nerve b. increasing the concentration of K+ in the ICF c. myelinating the nerve d. inhibiting the Na+/K+ ATPase

c. myelinating the nerve d. inhibiting the Na+/K+ ATPase

(Pick 2) In an _____ ganglion cell, light hitting the center of the receptive field _____ the ganglion cell, while light hitting the surround of the receptive field _____ the ganglion cell. Select one or more: a. on-center/off surround, hyperpolarizes, depolarizes b. off-center/on-surround, depolarizes, hyperpolarizes c. off-center/on-surround, hyperpolarizes, depolarizes d. on-center/off surround, depolarizes, hyperpolarizes

c. off-center/on-surround, hyperpolarizes, depolarizes d. on-center/off surround, depolarizes, hyperpolarizes

In an autonomic motor unit ______________. Select one: a. post-ganglionic neurons have muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. b. all pre-ganglionic neurons are adrenergic that bind either α or β receptors on the effector organs. c. post-ganglionic neurons are either cholinergic or adrenergic. d. all pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic neurons are cholinergic that bind nicotinic receptors on the effector organs.

c. post-ganglionic neurons are either cholinergic or adrenergic.

If you enter a room and smell a strong odor, but the odor soon seems to fade away, you have experienced __________. Select one: a. a change in room temperature b. a change in concentration of the substance you smelled c. sensory adaptation d. damage to your sensory receptors

c. sensory adaptation

Which of these organs does not often rely on intrinsic factors to help regulate circulation in that area Select one: a. heart b. skeletal muscle c. skin d. brain

c. skin

Axon function

carries action potential to other nerve cells or effectors

Secondary order neurons

carry signal from spinal cord/brainstem to thalamus decussate in spinal cord or brain stem end in contralateral thalamus where synapse with third order neurons, either ventroposterolateral nucleus of thalamus for body, ventroposteromedial nucleus for face

First order neurons

carry signals from receptors into spinal cord via dorsal root cell body located in the dorsal root ganglion sensory fibers classified by diameter/myelination nerves carry information from specific areas determined by dermatome mapping

How are neurotransmitters removed from the synaptic cleft?

catabolic enzymes, such as AcHE (acetylcholinesterase) Reuptake pumps in presynaptic membrane, which then can be recycled/degraded by enzymes in axon terminal, MAO breaks down norepi CNS uptake= glia cells uptake/breakdown NT (Glutamate)

Depolarizing stimulus action potential

causes local reduction in membrane potential leading to action potential as positive ions move into the cell

Motor output subcortical processing in

cerebellum

Axon terminal function

contain neurotransmitter vesicles that transmit information to other nerve cells at synapses

Anteriolateral pathways

contains Aδ and C fibers slower than DCML pathways less precise information

Corticospinal tract function

controls movement of axial/appendicular skeletal muscles below head level

Where is the somatosensory cortex located?

cortical gray matter of parietal lobes of cerebrum

What is the most important output from the motor cortex

corticospinal tract

Epithelial Tissue Location

cover body surface, cover and line internal organs, compose glands

What happens to nasal halves of retina fibers

cross over carrying information from temporal visual field

Anterior spinothalamic tract transmits

crude touch, sexual, pressure, tickle, itch and is composed of Aδ fibers

What does the DCML pathway collect information from

cutaneous receptors (Meissner, Pacinian corpuscles, Ruffini endings/Merkel cells), muscle spindle, ligaments, tendons (golgi tendon organ), joint capsules

A 75-kg cross-country athlete has approximately __________ liters of plasma volume and an ICF volume of ___________ liters. (B2) Select one: a. 3, 15 b. 3, 45 c. 10, 11.25 d. 3.75, 30

d. 3.75, 30 75kgx0.6=45kg(Percent of weight from BW) 45/3=15kg ECF Portion of Fluid 15/4=3.75kg Plasma Portion of ECF 1kg H2O=1L H2O 45/3=15kgx2=30= ICF Volume

________ is the labeled point on the action potential that is closest to the electrochemical equilibrium of K+. a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4

d. 4

In phototransduction, these events occur: (1) phosphodiesterase is activated, (2) leaky Na+ channels close, (3) cGMP levels decline , (4) rhodopsin is activated, (5) glutamate release decreases, (6) transducin is activated. Arrange the aforementioned events 1-6 in the correct temporal order as they occur in the rods upon exposure to light. Select one: a. 1 2 3 4 5 6 b. 5 2 3 1 6 4 c. 4 6 3 1 2 5 d. 4 6 1 3 2 5 e. 2 4 6 1 3 5

d. 4 6 1 3 2 5

Your patient has a blood pressure reading of 140/65. This means that their MAP is Select one: a. 83 mmHg b. 115 mmHg c. 100 mmHg d. 90 mmHg

d. 90 mmHg (140+65x2)/3

Nociceptors ______. Select one: a. Are widely distributed in the nerve tissue of visceral organs b. Tend to adapt rapidly c. Are among the most specialized of the receptors d. Are generally stimulated by factors that can cause tissue damage

d. Are generally stimulated by factors that can cause tissue damage

Every bad horror movie has someone running away from a scary creature only to then see the person collapse after few minutes and get caught by the creature. Which option is NOT likely the cause of the person's collapse? Select one: a. Decrease in myoplasm pH b. Decreased Ca2+ levels within leg muscles c. Psychological d. Decreased Pi in the myoplasm

d. Decreased Pi in the myoplasm

Which region of the sarcomere only contains thick filament? Select one: a. I band b. Z line c. A band d. H zone

d. H zone

Injury to the cerebellum would be expected to results in _______. Select one: a. inability to discriminate sensations b. Inability to execute voluntary movements c. Exaggerated reflexes d. Inability to execute smooth movements

d. Inability to execute smooth movements

Phosphorylation of the myosin head in smooth muscle leads to Select one: a. The head becoming unbound from actin b. relaxation of the muscle c. none of the listed answers d. Latch bridge formation

d. Latch bridge formation

Degradation of adrenergic neurotransmitters occurs pre-synaptically by the enzyme _____________ . Select one: a. acertylcholinesterase b. COMT c. glia d. MAO e. acetyltransferase

d. MAO

A student enters a well heated classroom wearing their winter jacket. After about 30min he begins to feel ill. What might be contributing to this? Select one: a. Increased cardiac output b. Pooling of blood in the capillaries c. Vasoconstriction of their blood vessels d. Prevention of evaporative heat loss

d. Prevention of evaporative heat loss

Where does atrial repolarization take place on the EKG? Select one: a. T wave b. P wave c. Q-T segment d. QRS wave

d. QRS wave

Which of these is NOT located on the sarcolemma Select one: a. DHPR b. Na+/Ca2+ exchanger c. Na+/K+ ATPase d. RYR

d. RYR

The Ca2+/Na+ exchanger is broken in smooth muscle, how would the muscle be affected? Select one: a. Contraction would be faster b. Not affected at all c. Less Ca2+ would be in the sarcoplasm d. Relaxation would be slower

d. Relaxation would be slower

Dracula's heart does not beat. Which of component of the electrical conduction system contributes the most to the heart beating. Select one: a. Purkinje fibers b. Bundle of His c. AV node d. SA node

d. SA node

(Pick 3) Which of the following characteristics is shared by active transport and facilitated diffusion? Select one or more: a. Require metabolic energy b. are inhibited by the presence of galactose c. Occur against an electrochemical gradient d. Utilize carrier proteins. e. Transporters undergo conformational change. f. are saturable g. Require a Na+ gradient

d. Utilize carrier proteins. e. Transporters undergo conformational change. f. are saturable

Your patient cut themselves severely in a kitchen accident. Which compensatory mechanism would be the first to decrease firing: Select one: a. central chemoreceptors b. peripheral chemoreceptors c. osmoreceptors d. baroreceptors

d. baroreceptors

In mammalian neurons, an excitatory post synaptic potential can be achieved by ______. Select one: a. hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic membrane by opening K+ channels b. hyperpolarizing the postsynaptic membrane by opening Cl- channels c. depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane by closing Ca+2 channels d. depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane by opening Na+ channels

d. depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane by opening Na+ channels

Which of these is the most likely the movement of a large lipid soluble hormone from a capillary to a tissue Select one: a. transcytosis b. diffusion through pores c. filtration through fenestrations d. diffusion through the cell membrane

d. diffusion through the cell membrane

Your friend forgot their water bottle on their run and by the time they were done, they were very dehydrated. Which of these is False regarding what your friend's body is doing to accommodate for their dehydrated state. Select one: a. venoconstriction b. decrease urination c. baroreceptor reflex response d. filtration of fluid from the capillaries

d. filtration of fluid from the capillaries

Which of these does not occur due to direct stimulation by the SNS Select one: a. increase HR b. Increase heart contractility c. Venoconstriction d. increase CO e. none of these

d. increase CO

Grandpa has high blood pressure, which of these would not contribute to this? Select one: a. stiff vessel walls b. atherosclerosis c. reduced sensitivity of baroreceptors d. increase arterial compliance

d. increase arterial compliance

Your patient was exercising for an hour and began to feel lightheaded. Which did NOT occur: Select one: a. blood pooling in the legs b. decrease in O2 to the brain c. low MAP d. increase in vasoconstriction

d. increase in vasoconstriction

You found the perfect pumpkin at the pumpkin patch! As you pick it up from the ground, you realize this is an example of __________________ contraction Select one: a. phasic b. isometric c. tonic d. isotonic

d. isotonic

Norepinephrine is inactivated in adrenergic synapses by _____. Select one: a. serotonin b. glia cells c. epinephrine d. monoamine oxidase e. acetylcholinesterase

d. monoamine oxidase

Which of the following would be cut to only cause blindness in the ipsilateral eye? Select one: a. optic tract b. lateral geniculate nucleus c. optic chiasma d. optic nerve

d. optic nerve

Which is a similarity between skeletal and cardiac muscle. Select one: a. summation b. sources of Ca2+ c. length of refractory period d. presence of inhibitory complex

d. presence of inhibitory complex

Excitatory bipolar retinal cells

depolarize bc Glutamate direct excitation from rod/cone increase ganglionic cell signal frequency

Gap Junctions Enable

direct cytoplasmic transfer of chemical/electrical signals

Sensory Homonculus

distorted representation of body on brain surface, proportionate area of cortex to number of receptors from that area large areas devoted to lips, face, finger small areas to trunk, eyes, nose

Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) degrades

dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine

Horizontal Retinal Cells

indirect path always inhibitory provides lateral inhibition prevents spill over NT effects

Amacrine Retinal Cells

indirect path begins signal analyzation

Pain gating

interfering with pain pathway via inhibiting release of substance P from pain neurons, DCML mechanical stimulation, acupuncture, and can occur within brainstem/spinal cord

What is visceral pain

internal organ pain

What thalamic nuclei are involved with the anteriolateral pathway

intralaminar nucleus for slow pain ventrobasal nuclei for tactile, fast pain

Association areaa

involved in complex processing with integration of different types of information

Primary visual cortex

large fovea representation organized in columns specific to each eye columns with simple cells that respond to bars of light, lines, edges in specific orientation columns with complex cells respond to linear/angular objects moving laterally across visual field, with some columns providing color information

Corticocerebellum location

lateral portions of anterior and posterior lobes

What causes visual agnosia (inability to recognize faces, objects, colors)

lesions in secondary visual cortices

Where do serotonergic nerves descend to in the enkephalin system

level of the incoming signal in spinal cord

Receptor-Channels are also known as

ligand gated ion channels

Site for memories and emotions

limbic system containing limbic cortex, subcortical cerebral nuclei, portions of thalamus and hypothalamus

Primary Lymphoid Organs-Thymus

located above heart contains T cells, scattered dendritic cells, epithelial cells, macrophages T Cell maturation site Atrophies after maturity

Peripheral Chemoreceptors

located in aortic/carotid bodies primary input to respiratory center in medulla limited input to CV center, indirect via respiratory Triggered by increase Partial pressure of CO2, lower partial pressure of PO2, pH Firing leads to mild SNS output from CV center

Bound to carrier

longest half life, slowest response time. Bound to liver synthesized globulins that protect them from enzymatic degradation. Inactive while bound, removal from plasma is irreversible.

Color blindness occurs because

loss of some cone function

Cones found in

macula lutea

Movement/Diffusion of Lipid Solubles across capillary wall

material soluble over cell membrane occurs all over cell, not just pores much greater surface area for exchange, rapid exchange between blood/tissue rate of movement based on degree of lipid solubility O2/CO2 lipid soluble, exchange flow-limited, diffuse easily/quickly, not limited by diffusion/number of open capillaries

Where is the 1st synapse of the DCML pathway

medulla in dorsal column nuclei

Cerebellum function

motor coordination, balance

Magnocellular vs parvocellulas ganglion cells

movement/from and fine detail

Ganglionic Receptive fields

on center-off surround off center-on surround

Ganglionic cells

only retinal cells w/ true all or none AP continuously fire AP (5-40/s) rate depends on photoreceptor input convergence determines ganglion cell reponse

Optic nerves meet at

optic chiasma with no synapse

What are optic radiations

outputs from lateral geniculate nucleus

Positive Feedback Example

oxytocin secretion in response to uterine contraction and cervical stretch

K (hormone-receptor affinity) can be altered by

pH Osmolarity Ion concentration substrate levels

What is referred pain

pain originating from deep structures (muscles/viscera) that is perceived from a superficial somatic structure (heart attacks felt like chest wall/left arm pain)

What is the effect of a group of substantia gelatinosa (interneurons) with inhibitory receptive fields associated with binding of GABA, glycine, and endogenous opioids to membrane receptors

pain suppression

Where do serotonergic nerves in the enkephalin system synapse

pain suppression complex (interneuron pool) of the dorsal horn (substantia gelatinosa)

What does the lateral spinothalamic tract transmit

pain, temperatures fast/acute pain through mechanical nociceptors/Aδ fibers (sharp pains) slow/chronic pain through polymodal nociceptors and C fibers (dull throbbing pain)

Motor output sensory information from

parietal cortex

Direct Retinal signal pathway

photoreceptor->bipolar->ganglion cone->bipolar->ganglion (fovea)

What causes tunnel vision

pituitary tumor at optic chiasm

Supplemental motor area function

planning of complex bilateral movement works with premotor/primary motor cortexes vocalization/complex postural movements

What does bulk/vesicular transport require

plasma membrane alteration to form vesicle, increased intracellular Ca2+ concentration

C fiber

post ganglionic fibers associated with autonomic (involuntary) motor output

Where is the main area of the somatosensory cortex located

posterior to central sulcus on post central gyrus (somatic sensory area I= SSI)

Dorsal Column Medial Lemniscal (DCML) Pathway carries information about

precise touch, high degree of localization, two point discrimination, lateral inhibition, differentiation between two stimuli, vibration, stereogenesis (object identification), pressure/stretch, proprioception, phasic and tonic conditions, visceral sensations

Motor output planning from

premotor cortex-simple supplemental motor cortex-more complex

Primary Motor Cortex Input from

premotor/supplemental regions sensory propioceptors/visual paths that provide feedback for output modification Direct input from Ia afferents of muscle spindle for stretch reflex

Where do optic radiations synapse

primary visual cortex in the occipital lobe

Prostaglandins vs Thromboxanes

prostaglandins are vasodilators while thromboxanes are vasoconstrictors

Corticospinal tract begins as

pyramidal tract fibers from primary motor, premotor, supplemental motor cortices Travels from cortex to brainstem (no synapse) Divides into lateral/ventral corticospinal tracts

Where does the enkephalin system descend to to activate serotonergic nerves

raphe magnus nucleus in reticular formation

Ganglionic cell variation

receptive field size rod/cone proportion conduction speed (axon diameter)

Cytokines are

regulatory peptides for local and long distance communication

Enkephalin system is activated by pain signals from

reticular formation

Lymphatic System Function

return ISF fluid/protein that leaker out of capillaries back to veins transport dietary fat/fat soluble vitamins from GI system lymph-fluid entering lymphatic vessels Fluid in blood vessels-filtered into tissue beds via hydrostatic pressure-fluid now called ECF-picked up by bind end lymph capillaries-same fluid now called lymph fluid the same, dissolved substances differ Also picks up nutrients at digestive system too large to pass into regular capillary beds, serving an absorptive function

Muscle Fatigue

reversible inability to generate contraction energy

Smooth muscle sarcoplasmic reticulum

ryanodine receptors on SR membrane let Ca2+ out SERCA Primary Activated by Gq=protein coupled mechanism (PLC)

Axon Hillock and function

section of axon where axon leaves cell body where action potentials generated High concentration of VG Na+ channels (lowest threshold for activation)

Reflex Arc Components

sense organ/receptor afferent/sensory neuron CNS synapse efferent/motor neuron effector tissue-any muscle or gland

What three components are required for a homeostatic response

sensors:monitor regulated variable, controllers/integrating center: CNS/endocrine gland that responds to sensor signal and sends message to effectors:, effectors: muscles, glands, specialized cells that corrects imbalance

Indirect Retinal Signal pathway

signal modified en route by horizontal/amacrine cells

Smooth muscle microanatomy (compared to skeletal muscle)

slow L type VG Ca2+ channels instead of fast voltage gated Na+ channels caveolae instead of T tubules calmodulin instead of troponin as regulatory protein actin/myosin wrapped in spirals between dense bodies (smooth z-line equivalent) instead of visibly striated sarcomere Single Unit Muscles made of interconnected muscle cells working as a single unit-functional syncytium, connected by gap junctions single small, mono-nucleated, spindle shaped cells actin/myosin contractile filaments (lined up with each other in spiral configurations instead of parallel bundles) Much more actin than myosin, myosin binding site on actin exposed, ready to interact with myosin Myosin-heavy heads with binding sites for actin protrude from light tail chains myosin heads not in ready state/cocked

Aα motor neuron function

somatic motor neuron (skeletal muscle) that are myelinated

Where do most third order neurons in the DCML pathway project to

somatosensory cortex

Third order neurons that synapse at the ventral posterior nucleus project to

somatosensory cortex and frontal cortex

Neuromucular Junction

specialized synaptic junction between axon terminal of α-motor neuron and motor-end plate

What happens when spinal reflexes are inhibited

spinal shock for 3-4 weeks flaccid paralysis autonomic function loss sensation loss below injury no joint resistance to being moved reflexes return but senses,movement may not

What happens to temporal halves of retina fibers

stay on same side carrying information from nasal portion of visual field

Spinal cord pain gating system works by

stimulating pain suppression complex innocuous stimuli, rubbing painful areas activates large myelinated neurons that travel in the DCML so you feel rubbing collaterals from first order neurons entering DCML synapse in dorsal horn onto inhibitory interneurons causing GABA release

What activates the endogenous analgesia system

stressful, intensely painful situation, painsignals from reticular formation activating sympathetic division of ANS hypothalamic (periventricular nuclei) neurons release β endorphins into CSF, bathing higher centered neurons, suppressing pain aka cortical suppression

What neurotransmitters are released by 1st order nociceptive neurons

substance P and CGRP

Gamma Aγ efferent fibers

supply intrafusal fibers of spindle determines sensitivity of spindle to stretch

The circadian clock is in the

suprachiasmatic nucleus within the hypothalamus

Where do second and third order neurons synapse in the anteriolateral pathways

thalamus

Where does the 2nd synapse of the DCML pathway occur

thalamus

Slow pain pathway

thalamus (IL and VB), reticular areas, tectal areas of mesencephalon, periaqueductal gray, hypothalamus, basal areas of brain

Renshaw Cells

transmit inhibitory signal to surrounding motor neurons (lateral inhibition) to sharpen motor signals

Melatonin precursors

tryptophan, serotonin

Flexor Withdrawal/Pain/Nociceptive Reflex Fibers

type Aδ fiber from nociceptor synapses in dorsal horn of gray matter Synapses with 2nd order neuron carrying pain to thalamus collateral synapse with interneuron series ipsilateral flexion contralateral extension

Intrafusal muscle spindle innervation

type Ia (Aα) afferent fiber (nuclear bag fibers) with annulospiral rings on dendritic ends transmit information about muscle length and velocity of contraction type II (Aβ) afferent fiber (nuclear chain fibers) with flower spray dendritic ends transmit information about muscle length

Stretch/Myotatic Reflex Fiber

type Ia fiber directly synapses with Aα efferent fibers in ventral horn monosynaptic produces contraction of stretched muscle dynamic response Collateral synapses with interneurons Reciprocal innervation-inhibits α motor neurons to antagonist muscles producing IPSP at cord level Type II Aβ Fibers some branch to α and γ efferents, most ascend to DCML pathway static response of both to slow prolonged spindle stretch

Inverse Myotatic Reflex/Negative Stretch Reflex Fibers

type Ib fibers Fibers travel in DCML to cortex Collateral branches synapse on interneurons (polysynaptic) One Branch sends IPSP to inhibit α-motor neuron of the initiating muscle (muscle relaxation) One branch stimulates α-motor neuron of antagonistic muscle. antagonistic contraction results in muscle load equalization=muscle stability across a joint

Smooth muscle contains ______, a component of the ANS which have vesicles containing neurotransmitters.

varicosities

Histamines cause

vasodilation, bronchoconstrictions

Where do the smallest portion of third order neurons synapse in the anteriolateral pathway

ventral posterior lateral nucleus for nondiscriminating tactile responses and fast pain

Contralateral information after the thalamus is relayed to

ventroposteriorlateral nucleus in the ventrobasal complex

What is the thalamic nucleus associated with the body

ventroposterolateral (VPL)

What is thalamic nucleus associated with the face

ventroposteromedial nucleus

What receptors relay visceral pain

very few sensory receptors, nociceptors, autonomic nervous system sensors (mechanoreceptors)

Rods are

very sensitive (best in reduced light), good for night (scoptopic) vision

Flocculonodular lobe function

vestibulocerebellum input from vestibular apparatus in inner ear balance, especially with head position rapid motions with direction changes

Rod/Cone synaptic zone contains

voltage gated Ca2+ channels vesicles w/ glutamate (excitatory NT)

ANS Post-ganglionic axonal NT depends on

what division activated

What is the optic disc

where the nerves pass through the retina, blind spot in visual field

Sensory Coding involves

which sensory receptors are activated response of sensory receptor intensity/duration of stimulus information processing in sensory pathway

Cardiac blocks

§ 1st degree AV block = abnormal prolongation of AV conduction time § 2nd degree block = all QRS complexes preceded by P wave but not all P waves followed by QRS § 3rd degree block = atrial and ventricular rhythms entirely independent

Somatic motor unit

α‐motor neuron and all the myofibers (skeletal muscle cells) it innervates voluntary control cholinergic transmission nicotinic receptors coupled with Na+ ion channel no antagonistic innervation

Cardiovascular Abnormalities

○ atrial or ventricular paroxysmal tachycardia § causes: irregular firing of initiating signals, pathway problems, circuit rhythms § appears for a short while then disappears § ventricular condition more serious § predisposes person to more serious arrhythmias ○ atrial fibrillation = atrial rate greater than 350 beats/ min, totally irregular § many causes, often age related: HTN, mitral valve problem, smoking, alcohol § not usually life-threatening § danger: lack of blood moving causes blood clots tend to form in atria ○ ventricular tachycardia = elevated ventricular contractions up to 230 beats/min § very fat, often regular, assoc with heart disease, post heart surgery § more serious due to ¯ cardiac output (amount of blood ejected per beat) ○ ventricular fibrillation - most serious condition § totally uncoordinated contractions causes ineffective pumping § causes include: □ sudden electrical shock of heart □ ischemia of muscle, conducting system or both □ response to certain drugs § life threatening if not treated immediately § unconsciousness within 4-5 seconds of onset due to lack of blood flow to brain