Plant Diversity Exam 3
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II. A. 1) Identify at least three primary characters that distinguish angiosperms from gymnosperms and discuss the significance of these features. Why have angiosperms been so successful compared to other plant groups?
*fruits, flowers, and distinct life cycle characteristics -double fertilization with endosperm formation -have vessels in wood (some have lost this) -female gametophyte of 7 cells with no archegonium -male gametophyte of 3 cells -flowers - bisexual stobili (highly modified cone) -fruit -carpel (seed no longer exposed to environment the flowering plants became dominant worldwide about 90-80 MYA. Their success can be attributed to various adaptations for drought resistance, such as the evolution of the deciduous habitat, as well as the evolution of efficient and often specialized mechanisms for pollination and seed dispersal
I. 7) What features do the gymnosperm phyla share? What features distinguish gymnosperms from angiosperms?
*ovule exposed at pollination (naked seed) - right on microphyll, not on stigma and growth down ovary *microgametophyte (pollen) - 5-6 cells at maturity, 2 are sperm, lacks antheridium *megagametophyte - 1000's of cells at maturity, retains archegonium *sporophytes all have secondary growth (bifacial vascular cambium) -trachieds in general
3. Discuss the significance of heterospory -- why was it essential to the evolution of the seed and what advantage does it confer?
+ protected gametophyte + microgametophyte doesn't need very much energy to form sperm + out crossing promotes genetic diversity - male and female gametes could be too far away - must have two plants to reproduce Heterospory produces megaspores and microspores which give rise to megagametophytes and microgametophytes. Seed production is an extreme from of heterospory that was modified to form an ovule that will develop into a SEED.
3) Distinguish between an annual and perennial plant, and evergreen versus deciduous trees.
-Annual = A plant whose life cycle is completed in a single growing season -Perennial = A plant in which the vegetative structures live year after year -Evergreen = Leaves are lost and replaced, but not all simultaneously -Deciduous = Leaves are lost at the same time and then developed from buds when the season becomes favorable for growth
1) Describe the mature microgametophyte, name the cells involved, and know what each does during pollination and fertilization.
-most efficient male gametophyte: 2 cells for sperm, 1 cell for pollen tube -vegetative nucleus: the cell that develops into the pollen tube -generative cell: dividends to form two sperm -additional info: pollen exile (sporopollenin wall), self recognition, aperture(where tube grows from)
I. 3) What are the parts of an embryo, and what is significant about the hypocotyl?
-radical (root end/apical meristem) can push through micropile to get nutrients and water -hypocotyl (transition from root protostele to stem eustele) -cotyledon (seed leaves) first leaes to come out of ground and start photosynthesizing -epicotyl (becomes shoot, apical meristem)
I. 4) List and explain the significance of the seven steps that lead to evolution of an ovule.
1. retention of the megaspores within the megasporangium which is fleshy and called the nucellus in seed plants (the megasporangium no longer releases the spores) 2. reduction in the number of megaspore mother cells in each megasporangium to one 3. survival of only one of the four megaspores produced by the spore mother cell, leaving a single functional megaspore in the megasporangium 4. formation of a female gametophyte inside the single functional megaspore, the formation of an endosporic (within the wall female gametophyte that is no longer free living and is retained within the megasporangium) 5. development of the embryo, or young sporophyte within the female gametophytes retained within the megasporangium 6. formation of an integument that completely envelops the megasporangium, except for an opening at its apex called the micropyle 7. modification of the apex of the megasporangium to receive microspores, or pollen grains..................................................................... Red Reduces Single Endoscopy into Developing Microscopic Pollen
I. 6) Discuss the features of progymnosperms including a functional knowledge of secondary growth. What is their relationship to gymnosperms?
340-340 MYA (all extinct now) -did NOT have seeds -some species homosporous, others heterosporous -first eustele -first bifacial vascular cambium ******** Like the true gymnosperms, progymnosperms commonly had secondary growth of their vascular tissues (i.e. they produced wood), and some grew to be tall trees. Unlike the gymnosperms however, they did not produce seeds, but rather released their spores as do ferns. Primary Growth: caused by apical meristems (group of constantly dividing initial cells). Extends the length of the plant (taller/deeper) Secondary Growth: Increases the girth (width) of plants. Does this by lateral meristems = cambium e.g. vascular cambium and cork cambium
II. E) ** Primary growth and meristems
526-529, 538-541, 580-583
II. E) ** Roots
534, 558-560, 564-569, 572-578
II. E) ** Shoots and Stems
579-583, 607-612
II. E) ** Leaves
588-593, 602-604, 607-612
1) Understand the terms apical meristem, initial, derivative, and primary growth and how these relate to growth of the primary plant body and the basic plant tissues.
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2) Discuss the function and location of the root cap and root hairs (also covered with non seed plants)
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II. Angiosperms
A monophyletic group treated as a phylum in the taxonomic hierarchy (Phylum Anthophyta). Angiosperms continue the trends in reduction of the gametophyte generation and increasing protection of the next sporophyte generation by enclosing seeds in an additional layer ("vessel") called a carpel. Carpels, singly or in fused groups, form ovaries that mature into fruit. Fruit, and highly specialized and modified strobili called flowers, have evolved in response to both biotic and abiotic forces to make angiosperms the most species rich and morphologically diverse group of embryophytes.
I. Gymnosperms
Although gymnosperms have been recognized as a group for a very long time, it has only been in the last 15-20 years that substantial evidence has accumulated suggesting that extant gymnosperms are a monophyletic group (the alternative view was a paraphyletic group leading to angiosperms similar to how bryophytes are a paraphyletic group leading to vascular plants). There are several extinct gymnosperm groups, however, and inlcuding extinct diversity makes gymnosperms a paraphyletic group. That is, extant gymnosperms are monophyletic, but extinct plus extant gymnosperms are paraphyletic (see fig 18-7, 18-10a,b). Botanists recognize four extant, monophyletic groups of gymnosperms that the textbook treats as distinct phyla: 1) Cycadophyta 2) Ginkgophyta 3) Coniferophyta 4) Gnetophyta Because the first plants to have seeds were gymnosperms, understanding the characteristics of this group can help us appreciate the significance of the seed.
I. 2) What is the relationship between a megasporangium, an ovule, and a seed?
An ovule in an integumented megasporangium. The difference between an ovule and a seed is fertilization. Order of parasitism: megaporangium = nucellus (2n) > megagametophyte (1n) > embryo (2n) The ovule is the female gametophyte which after fertilization transforms into a seed. A seed on the other side a seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protection outer covering known as the seed coat. It is the product of the ripened ovule which occurs after fertilization. OVULE: -It contains the female gametophyte. -It possess unfertilized egg. SEED: -It contains the embryo. -It possess the fertilized egg.
I. 1) What is an ovule? What is a seed? What are several advantages of seeds?
An ovule: -becomes a seed -is and integumented megasporangium -is an immature seed An ovule is a structure in seed plants containing the female gametophyte with egg cell, all surrounded by the nucellus and one or two integuments A seed is a mature ovule. A seed consists of an embryo, stored food, and a seed coat. The seed has greater survival value. Protection and stored food available to the embryo give seed plants great selective advantage over other plants.
2) What are the root and shoot meristems and where are they located in the embryo?
Apical meristems (at tips of plant), root = radicale, shoot = epicotyl
II. B. 2) Discuss some of the different pollinators of flowering plants, such as bees, birds, wind, etc. and describe some of the special modifications or characters associated with these kinds of pollinators. Recognize specific characteristics of flowers pollinated by bees, etc.
Beetles and pollination sight: wide target/landing platform, drab colors, large flowers or clusters of flowers smell: strong fruity smells (more important than vision) Ovaries inferior to prevent being eaten habitat: common in tropics Flies and pollination sight: dark colors smell: like a circus, putrescine and cadaverine subject to empty ovaries, pitfalls, etc. habitat: increases with increase elevation and latitude bees and pollination sight: blue, yellow or bright colors (not typically red), uv patterns (bee purple--go to darker spots) smell: sweet, fragrant, aromatic scents shape: bilateral, nectar guides help them orient for landing pollination: restricted access configurations force them to enter flowers in specific ways, makes pollination more effective habitats: develop search images with best rewards, become flow constant- great memory waggle dance helps other bees locate good flowers habitat: worldwide, except at colder latitudes and altitudes butterflies/moths and pollination sight: similar visual cues to bees, butterflies like red, orange, or yellow, moths like light colored flowers smell: similar to bees, moths favor flowers with high fragrance and landing pads shape: tubular flowers for long mouthparts habitat: both are tropical, moths found in desert and mountain ranges birds and pollination sights: strong visual: red, orange, yellow smell: weak pollination: long stigma on flowers with sticky pollen, attaches to birds hummingbirds: upside down flowers to help in extraction habitat: temperate latitude, tropics bats and pollination sight: large eyes for visual orientation long tongues smell: well developed sense of smell, musky habitat: tropical wind and pollination lack fancy colors, odors, shapes perfect or imperfect flowers stamens and stigmas exposed habitat: effective in high altitude/latitude, low diversity locations, ineffective in diverse tropical environments water and pollination oily and filamentous pollen can move across the surface of the water
Economic importance of cycads and gnetophyta
Cycads have segopalms which offer horticultural use. Gnetophytes: ephedrin from ephedra Conifers: lumber, dominant
II. C. Embryogenesis, the mature embryo, seed dormancy and germination
Chapter 22
II. E) Secondary Growth
Chapter 26
II. A. 4) How might the presence or absence of different floral parts affect reproduction?
Dioecious plants guarantee outcrossing (depending on plant, either male or female parts will be missing) sexual reproduction, monoecious plants promote more asexual reproduction wind pollinated plants lack sepals and petals because they don't need to attract pollinators and don't want flowers in the way of transporting pollen plant-pollinator relationships can influence presence or absence of floral parts (showy parts, aka the perianth)
4) Discuss the process and significance of double fertilization. What is endosperm and what is its function? Describe the differences in seed food reserves between angiosperms and gymnosperms. What is the advantage of a small embryo sac + endosperm as found in angiosperms compared to the large megagametophyte found in gymnosperms.
Endosperm = A tissue containing stored food that develops from the union of a male nucleus and the polar nuclei of the central cell; it is digested by the growing sporophyte before or after maturation of the seed; found only in angiosperms Gnetophyta: 1 sperm and egg = zygote 1 sperm and second cell (egg like) - aborts No benefit Angiosperm: 1 sperm and egg = zygote → embryo 1 sperm and 2 polar nuclei (3N tissue) → endosperm (provides food to the embryo) Does not make food unless fertilization happens Seed food reserves - 7 cell gametophyte vs. 1000+ cell gametophyte Avoids the issue of investing energy into a large gametophyte that is never fertilized. Only spends energy on successes
I. 10) How are the extant gymnosperm phyla related to each other, and to angiosperms?
Extant gymnosperms are a monophyletic (if you include extinct, they are paraphyletic) polytomy however, not understood how the four groups relate to each other Anthophyte hypothesis states that gnetophytes could be the closest relatives to angiosperms (but this is based on morphological characteristics and is doubted) Angiosperms alone are also considered a monophyletic group, their exact relation to gymnosperms is sister group
Seed Plants
Extant seed plants are a monoohyletic group and seeds are (not surprisingly) a significant synapomorphy for the spermatophytes (seed plants). This innovation in the reproductive cycle opened new environments and opportunities for plants, and allowed those with seeds to become the predominant terrestrial vegetation. Seed plants still produce spores, and they still have an alternation of generations (sporic) life cycle, even though the spores and gametophyte generation are less obvious. The spermatophytes are divided into two additional monophyletic groups, the gymnosperms (plants with naked seeds; pine trees and relatives) and angiosperms (plants with seeds enclosed in fruits; all flowering plants like roses, tulips, grasses, maple trees, and so forth)
II. C. 2) What kinds of fruits are likely to be dispersed biotically? Abiotically?
Fleshy fruits: biotically Dry (dehiscent and indehiscent): abiotically Abiotic: non-living mechanisms Biotic: living mechanisms
II. C. 1) In plants, what is the difference between an ovary and a fruit?
Fruit: a matured ovary, along with accessory tissue that becomes united with the ovary during its maturation (parthenocarpic fruit can mature without fertilization or seed development) functions: house egg, protection (initially unpalatable and bitter)
I. 11) Gnetophyta have several angiosperm-like features. What are they? Are these features examples of homology or homoplasy?
Homoplasy (because we can't trace back common ancestor to angiosperms and gymnosperms) -broad leaves -vessels in the xylem: allow increased speed and efficiency because they have no end membranes -no archegonia -nectar in cones -double fertilization wood has vessels, not just tracheids (all other gymnosperms have tracheids-vessels develop differently than they do in angiospperms) no archegonium - cell that is part of female gametophyte becomes egg without having a container gnetum has angiosperm like leaves (perfect flowers - not found in any other gymnosperms) double fertilization Gnetophyta 1 sperm + 1 egg = zygote 1 sperm + egg-like cell = egg that aborts (no benefit - just as effective if had never fused)
1) What are hormones used for in plants? Provide some examples?
Hormones are chemical signals active in minuscule amounts - they can either be produced directly in the cell they are affecting or be transported to other cells They control fruit ripening (ethylene), in deciduous plants they cause leaves to drop in the winter, cause plants to grow towards light by lengthening cells (auxins), break dormancy and promote seed germination (gibberellins), etc.
II. A. 6) Recognize and discuss the features that distinguish eudicots from monocots. Are these monophyletic groups? Why are there other angiosperm families that are not classified as eudicots or monocots? Diagram a phylogeny showing how eudicots, monocots, and primitive angiosperms are related to each other.
Monocots: flower parts: usually in threes, pollen: monoaperature (1 pore), cotyledons (1), leaf venation: usually parallel, primary vascular bundles in stem: scattered arrangement (antactostyle), rare true secondary growth with vascular cambium Eudicots: flower parts: usually in 4s or 5s, pollen: triaperature, cotyledons 2 (plesiomorphic trait), leaf venation: usually net like, primary vascular bundles in stem: in a ring (eustele), true secondary growth with vascular cambium is commonly present Both are monophyletic. Several evolutionary lines of angiosperms arose before the split between monocots and eudicots, these have the most archaic features (share some with monocots and eudicots)--they are called basal grade angiosperms (paraphyletic) SEE PIC
II. B. 1) Discuss the differences between out crossing and self pollination and provide some examples that illustrate the advantages of each.
Outcrossing: cross pollination between individuals of the same species Adv: produces more unique genetic variants, in the long run, these are better adapted to habitat change and thus the proliferation of the species Self-pollination: pollination of an individual plant by itself Adv: still produces some genetic variant, always better in the short run, independent of pollinators (back up plan)
gymnosperm seed
Ovule, nucellus, papery layer, stony layer, fleshy layer (not always present)
II. A. Flowers and characteristics of Angiosperms
Pages 457-465 and 477-487
II. B. Pollination and co-evolution
Pages 487-500
II. A. 3) Understand and identify the structure or function of these floral terms: pedicel, peduncle, inflorescence, locule, placentation, perfect, imperfect, monoecious, dioecious, synoecious, complete, incomplete, superior vs inferior ovaries
Pedicel: a stem that attaches a single flower to the inflorescence Peduncle: a stalk supporting an inflorescence Inflorescence: a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches Locule: a chamber within an ovary (gynoecium or carpel) of the flower and fruits Placentation: is the attachment of ovules Perfect: both female and male parts in the same flower Imperfect: separate male and female parts Monoecious: male and female parts in separate flowers on the same plant Dioecious: male and female parts on separate plants Synoecious: having male and female parts in the same flower Complete: having all four whorls Incomplete: having fewer than 4 whorls (one or more whorls missing) Superior: ovary positioned over the perianth (hypogenous) Inferior: ovary positioned below the perianth (epigynous)
1) What is the role of polarity in the early stages of embryo development?
Polarity means simply that the organism has one end that is different from the other. It is an essential first step in the development of all higher organisms because it fixes the structural axis of the body, the "backbone" on which the lateral appendages will be arranged. Polarity is created because once the zygote divides once, the two resulting cells have differing chemical concentrations.
3) Differentiate between pollination and fertilization. Describe these events in flowering plants. Distinguish between the site of pollination in angiosperms vs gymnosperms.
Pollination: for angiosperms = the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma, for gymnosperms = transfer of pollen from a pollen-producing cone directly to an ovule -parasitic male gametophyte: pollen grain starts to feed on the nucellus (haustorial) Fertilization: syngamy (fusing of egg and sperm) or the fusion of two gamete nuclei to form a diploid zygote -sperm actually meets the egg
I. 5) Distinguish between pollination and fertilization.
Pollination: for angiosperms = the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma, for gymnosperms = transfer of pollen from a pollen-producing cone directly to an ovule -parasitic male gametophyte: pollen grain starts to feed on the nucellus (haustorial) Fertilization: syngamy (fusing of egg and sperm) or the fusion of two gamete nuclei to form a diploid zygote -sperm actually meets the egg
1) Distinguish between primary growth and secondary growth. Where are the meristems located responsible for these different kinds of growth?
Primary Growth - elongating growth in shoots and roots from apical meristems - increase in length Produced by apical meristems at tips Secondary growth - increase in girth Produced by lateral meristems (cambium) Vascular Cambium - major growth Cork Cambium - bark: includes phloem and cells made by cork cambium
II. A. 5) Describe the trends in floral evolution-- that is, describe the features of "primitive" flowers and compare these to features of "advanced" or ("derived") flowers.
Primitive flowers: flowers with many parts (indefinite #, infinity), elongate receptacle, all 4 whorls present (complete), parts separate, superior ovary, radial symmetry Advanced flowers: flowers with few parts (finite #), shortened receptacle, missing 1, 2, or 3 whorls (incomplete), parts fused (petals, stamens, both), inferior ovary, bilateral
2) Discuss modifications of stems such as tubers, stolons, rhizomes, bulbs, and corms.
Rhizome = horizontal stem that contains nodes with lots of roots A tuber (ex. potato) is a root-like stem that is specialized for food-storage. Tubers arise at the tips of stolons (stems growing along the surface of the ground)of plants grown from seeds. Seed pieces (cut up tuber--containing at least one "eye") can be used for propagation. In this case, tubers arise at the ends rhizomes (underground stems) A bulb is a large bud consisting of a small, conical stem with numerous modified leaves attached to it (ex. onion) Corms consist primarily of thickened, fleshy stem tissue. Their leaves are commonly thin and much smaller than those of bulbs (ex. garlic)
Seed Origin
SEE DIAGRAMS ON STUDY AID
I. 9) Each of these gynmosperm groups is also significant either from an evolutionary, ecological, or economic perspective. Discuss the significance of each group.
SEE PIC
II. A. 2) Diagram a typical flower with the following structures labeled and define their functions: receptacle, sepals, petals, perianth, stamens (filament + anther), androecium, pistil (carpel; ovary, style, stigma), gynoecium.
SEE PIC -receptacle:thickened part of a stem from which the flower organs grow. In some accessory fruits, for example the pome and strawberry, the receptacle gives rise to the edible part of the fruit. -sepals: green parts that surround and protect the flower bud and extend from the base of a flower after it has opened -petals: modified leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators (together= corolla) -perianth: sepals and petals -stamens (filament(long stalk) + anther): pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. -androecium: whorl made up of male reproductive units called stamens -pistil (carpel; ovary, style, stigma): female reproductive part of a flower, carpel is composed of an ovary, a style, and a stigma, -gynoecium: parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds
I. 8) Each of the four living gymnosperm phyla listed above are morphologically distinctive. Be able to recognize each group visually or by written descriptions, and discuss any features unique or specific to each group.
SEE PIC Cycadophyta: -250 MYA -dioecious (tree will only be male or female) -kind looks like palm tree -male: long skinny strobilus hanging from tree -female: short flat cones, or ovule bearing leaves -sperm has flagella -pollen tube haustorial Ginkgophyta: -200 MYA -diecious -sperm has flagella -pollen tube haustorial -male: 1/2 inch cones -female: paired ovules -long shoot/short shoot dimorphism Coniferophyta (Pinophyta): MOST -numerous (550 species) -ecologically important (cold temperate forrests) -economically important (lumber; soft wood because no vessels, resin, turpentine) -Tallest = 347' -Widest = 32 ' at base -Oldest = 5000 years old -Dioecious or monecious -leaves are needlelike or scale like -sperm lack flagella Gnetophyta: -gnetum: tropical, broad leaves, trees or cines -ephedra: arid regions, shrubs with photosynthetic stems -welwitschia: coastal africa, two long leaves with intercalary meristem (not at tips, like grass) ALL -cones are compound -vessels in xylem* -no archegonia* -nectar in cones* -double fertilization *features associated with flowering plants normally
2. The generalized sporic life cycle (fig 17-8) is still present and applicable to seed plants. Explain how this life cycle 'works' in gymnosperms and angiosperms. Where are the gametophytes and what characteristics do they have in each of these groups? (specific life cycles in the text are great learning aids- use them!)
SEE STUDY AID PIC Gymnosperms: Microgametophyte - [pollen] 5 cells at maturity, 2 are sperm (lack antheridium) Megagametophyte - [archegonium] 1000's of cells, archegonia retained Angiosperms: Microgametophyte - [pollen] 3 cells at maturity, 2 are sperm (lack antheridium) Megagametophyte - [embryo sac] 7 cells, lacks archegonia
3) What is seed dormancy? What factors are necessary for seed germination in general? What other ecological or environmental factors may be required, depending on the plant?
Seed dormancy is basically a state of suspended animation where seeds lay dormant (no metabolic processes) until germination will likely be successful. Water, Temperature, Oxygen Some seeds require abrasion, long periods of water, fire, light etc. before they will germinate
1) How does the apical meristem of the shoot differ from that of the root? What is produced by the shoot apical meristem? What are nodes and internodes? (also discussed with non-seed plants)
Shoot: Bear appendages including leaves, sporangium, other reproductive structures Apical Meristem can produce epidermal, ground and vascular tissue (totipotent) Apical meristem produces new growth downward, causing the stem to grow forward Maturation Elongation Cell Division Buds = one other place that you can find totipotency, apical meristem will produce hormone that prevents growth, eventually gets to a point where no longer recognizes hormone (grown so far away) and buds will grow Root: No appendages Some for storage, anchorage Root apical meristem produces a root cap as well as growth above. The root cap provides protection as it is constantly ground away by its contact with dirt as the root grows larger.
II. E. Plant Growth
This section includes selected topics from chapters 22-26 in addition to the reading assignments in the syllabus. Indicated pages may hep you in your study.
4) Discuss growth rings-- what they represent and their value.
Valuable in determining how old a plant is. -Big ring of xylem forms in the spring -Smaller ring forms in the summer -Dormant in the winter -Thinker ring = more water, thinner = less water and/or drought) Growth ring = A growth layer in the secondary xylem or secondary phloem Areas with seasons produce good growth rings (Temperate forests). Areas with little to no seasons produce woods without few distinctive growth rings (Tropical forests). This is because the size of the secondary xylem shrinks with additional growth from the spring to the fall as water becomes less available. Lightwood represents spring growth and darkwood represents fall growth. The widths of individual growth rings change from year to year by environmental factors such as rainfall, temperature, water availability etc.
2) Describe the vascular cambium, how it develops and what it produces.
Vascular Cambium In a Eustele, the outer phloem (seive elements) made from live parenchyma cells and inner xylem (trachieds) made from dead sclerenchyma cells expand laterally. This occurs because the cells between the xylem and phloem are totipotent and gain meristematic abilities. This line of cells extends all around the stele of the plant. The one cell thick circle then divides and 2ndary xlyem or phloem is produced (phloem externally and xylem internally) Bifacial= produces new cells on both sides
1. Explain the progressive reduction observed in the gametophyte generation of vascular plants. What advantages does the sporophyte have for reproductive success compared to the gametophyte?
We see less and less time being spent in the gametophyte generation. The amount of potential genetic products increases. A large gametophyte can only produce the same egg and the same sperm, which won't give diversity. For a multicellular sporophyte of 3 cells, 3*4 genetic variants can be produced. There is more possibility of meiosis. Another advantage is that of energy allocation. Resources are used efficiently when fewer females are produced.
1) Understand the value and definitions of the following leaf terminology: blade, petiole, veins, simple leaves (pinnate, palmate), compound leaves (pinnate, palmate), phylotaxy (opposite, alternate, whorled), axil -- what is typically fond in the leaf axil?
blade the broad, expanded part of the leaf petiole the stalk of a leaf veins a vascular bundle forming a part of the framework of the conducting and supporting tissue of a leaf or other expanded organ stipules pair, ALWAYS TWO, an appendage, often leaflike, on either side of the basal part of the leaf, or encircling the stem, in many kinds of flowering plants. can be leaf like, sharp, tendrils, etc phytomeres a succession of repeated developmental units, consisting of a node with its attached leaf (or leaves), the internode below the leaf (or leaves), and the bud (or buds) at the base of the internode simple leaves leaves in which the blades are not divided into distinct parts, though they may be deeply lobed pinnate (elm leaf) palmate (maple leaf) compound leaves a leaf with a blade derived into several distinct leaflets, often with their own small petiole pinnate-leaflets arise from either side of an axis (rachis-extension often with their own petiole) palmate-leaflets diverge from the tip of the petiole (lacking rachis) ex. marijuana stem or leaf stems have the axillary bud leaves are not 3D phyllotaxy the arrangement of leaves on a stem opposite: leaf arrangement in which leaves occur in pairs at the node alternate: leaf arrangement in which there is one bud or one leaf at a node whorled: arrangement of three or more leaves or floral parts in a circle at a node axil the upper angle between a swig or leaf and the stem from which it grows (axillary bud- stems always branch from where a bud was)
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2) Describe the mature megagametophyte, name the cells involved, and know what each does following pollination.
megagametophyte = embryo sac, 3 antipodals (no function), egg (1st fertilization, formation of embryo), central cell with 2 polar nuclei (2nd fertilization, formation of endosperm which provides nutrition), 2 synergies (all that is left of the archegonium, which doesn't exist in angiosperms), integument
gymno
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II. C. 3) Be familiar with the following terms and give examples: ovary, fruit, pericarp, endocarp, exocarp, mesocarp, simple fruit, agregate fruit, multiple fruit, accessory fruit, fleshy fruit, dry dehiscent fruit, dry indehiscent fruit
ovary the enlarged basal portion of a carpel or of a gynoecium composed of fused carpels fruit a mature, ripened ovary (or group of ovaries) containing seeds, together with any accessory parts that may be fused with it during maturation pericarp the fruit wall, which develops from the mature ovary wall (sometimes into three layers) endocarp the innermost layer of the mature ovary wall exocarp the outermost layer of the mature ovary wall mesocarp the middle layer of the mature ovary wall, or pericarp, between the end and exo-carps drupe a simple fleshy fruit derived from a single capel, usually one seeded, in which the inter fruit coat is hard and may adhere to the seed ex. almond, coconut simple fruit a fruit derived from one carpel (ovary) or several united carpels: 1 flower, 1 ovary ex: tomato, apple, grape aggregate fruit a fruit developing from the several separate carpels (ovaries) or a single flower: 1 flower, more than 1 ovary ex: raspberry, strawberry, magnolia multiple fruit a cluster f mature ovaries produced by a cluster of flowers, an inflorescence fused together: many flowers, many ovaries ex. pineapple accessory fruit a fruit or assemblage of fruits, with fleshy parts derived largely or entirely from tissues other than the ovary (pericarp) ex: strawberry, with a fleshy receptacle and fruits (achenes) embedded in its surface fleshy fruit fruit with a fleshy pericarp such as bananas, cherries, grapes, raspberries, etc. dry dehiscent fruit splits open at maturity and commonly contains several seeds ex. brazil nuts dry indehiscent fruit remains closed at maturity ex. nuts, like acorns
II. E) Hormones
page 638-659
II. E) Micro and Mega gametogenesis, Pollination and Fertilization in Angiosperms
pages 465-476
II. D. 2) Textbook Questions
pg 457 question 1, 2, 5 pg 476 question 1, 2, 3, 4, pg 477 question 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 pg 500 question 3, 4, 6
I. 13) Textbook Questions
pg. 430 question 3, 4, 5 pg. 456 question 1, 4, 5
II. B. 3) What are secondary chemicals? Why do plants produce them and how has man exploited them?
primary chemicals produced for basic metabolism sugars, carbs, proteins, oils large quantities, economically cheap, found in most plants secondary chemicals other uses besides metabolism (usually for plant protection), restricted for certain groups, small quantities, economically more expensive turbines (essential oils, flavorings), alkaloids (caffeine, most medicines), flavonoids (pigments, colors), tannins (tanning), steroids (yams can control estrogen)
1) Distinguish between the following root terms: primary, tap, lateral, fibrous, and adventitious
primary root the first root of the plant, developing as a continuation of the root tip or radicle of the embryo; the tap root taproot the primary root of a plant, formed in direct continuation with the root tip or radicle of the embryo; forms a stout, tapering main root from which arise smaller, lateral roots lateral roots a root that arises from another, older root. also called a branch root or a secondary root, if the older root is the primary root fibrous roots the opposite of a taproot system, it is usually formed by thin, moderately branching roots growing from the stem adventitious roots referring to a structure raising from an unusual place, such as buds growing at places other than leaf axils, or roots growing from stems or leaves
sperm
seed
di
two
angio
vessel
