Pol Sci 366 Final

Bureaucratic authoritarianism

o 1960s and 1970s?) Characteristics of Bureaucratic Authoritarianism are based on Guillermo O-Donnell's Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism. Characteristics include being an authoritarian regime and usually military rules as an institution, rather than rule by a single individual. Dictators attempt to rule long term and restructure politics so as to repress and control various social sectors. Bureaucratic Authoritarianism also includes an important role for large and technocratic public bureaucracies. By the 1960s and 1970s, growing inflation, economic stagnation and political polarization contributed to a new wave of coups ushering in a period of brutal "bureaucratic authoritarian" (BA). These were New systems often involved in more collective military rule in contrast to traditional "caudillo" one-man dictatorships. Systems also differed from caretaker military regimes that promised to restore democracy soon. Some countries were able to avoid military dictatorships. Though the BA regimes promised to restore growth by standing above populist political pressures, by 1982 the region experienced the most severe economic crisis at least since the Great Depression. The 1980s debt crisis destabilized many existing BA regimes and helped to lead to a new, more extensive wave of democratization. Within a decade of the debt crisis, every Latin American country except Cuba and Mexico would become nominally democratic. Military Coup- Junta o Argentina · Post-peron military periods were early experiment with Bureaucratic Authoritarianism · Isabel Peron · Moved further to right, as she appeared to cede power to her unpopular Minister of Social Welfare Jose Lopez Rega. Military given free hand in crack down on guerillas and military forces and paramilitary Triple-A killed at least 1,100. Revoked privately negotiated wage increases and faced worsening economy with 355% inflation and massive decline in wage. Guerillas continued to gain strength. Most expected coup of Latin America occurs in 1976. · 1976 Coup- Jorge Videla · The military diverts a helicopter carrying Isabel Peron to an Air Force base where she is put under arrest, and later sent into exile in Spain. A military junta led by General Videla quickly gained control and began a brutal "Dirty War" against the guerillas and others, killing at least 10k. · Four dictators · Gen Jorge Videla (1976-81) o Launched Dirty War offensive against guerillas, leftists and Peronists. T least 10,000 killed or "disappeared". Disappearances meant no controversy over "trials" as had happened in Brazil. Eventually achieved complete victory over guerillas through a campaign of terror. Made early moves towards neo-liberal policies such as economic stabilization to reduce inflation, privatization of many state enterprises and serious reduction of tariffs. Received political boost from World cup held and won in Argentina. Recession and banking failures by 1981 led to decline in support. · Gen Leopoldo Galtieri (1981-82) · He faced growing human rights movement the mothers of the plaza de mayo. The economy worsened, with GDP declining 5%. He decreed a salary freeze even as inflation hit 130%. Conditions led to the largest anti- gov protest in years. Galiteri nonetheless believed political ties with United States were improving since the election of Reagan and that he would back move to re-claim wrongly stolen Falklands. o Falkands/ Malvinas War (1982) - Galtieri orders an invasion of British- controlled Falkand and South Georgia Islands. British counterattack retook the islands and 649 Argentinian soldiers died twice as much as the British and the junta was discredited. Military was split by war. The Navy and Air Force left the junta leaving the army to rule by itself. · Gen Reynaldo Bignone (1982-1983) · Military split. Debt crisis hit Argentina and country able to make payments on $50 billion debt. Inflation hit 434% by 1983 the highest rate in the world at the time and public responded with huge anti-gov demonstrations. He called for elections in 193 after signing amnesty for any human rights crimes committed by military leaders. As rumors filter out that the military had made an amnesty pact with the Peronist frontrunners, human right campaigner Raul Alfonsin surges in popularity and the UCR (Radicals) won the election handily. End of Bureaucratic Authoritarianism and all four dictators convicted. o Brazil · Joao Goulart · Reforms but were blocked by congress including progressive taxation, increased education and social welfare funding and land reform. Had basic reform Plan decreed rent control , raised coporate taxes to fund basic literacy programs, pushed to give illitreates and enlisted men the vote, sought to nationalize private oil refineries and began land redistribution and created a National Peasant Congress. o Counter-Mobilization § Opponents responded by organizing lrg public protests by "Families Marching with God for Freedom". Elements of military announced they would seek to stop "advance of communism and anarchy". His reformes were mild compared to other countries but tolerance was low. Wanted to prevent another Cuba US launched "Operation Brother Sam" which assured military leaders they would receive immediate recognition if the carried out a coup. · 1964 Military Coup · Call for general strike by Goulart loyalist failed to gain widespread support with only seven killed in various skirmishes. Foulart fled to Uruguay without fight. Congress declare his office vacant and Mazzilli briefly returned, before military begins direct rule by decree. Branco then takes over. Passes institutional acts. · Humberto Castelo Branco- 1stthrough 3rdinstitutional acts · Arsta da Costa e Silva (1967-1969) o Indirectly elected through a purged Congress. Attempted limited a political opening under a new constitution. Popular mobilization against the government surged. Students, workers and setors of the Church organize mass demostrations. Then he cracks down with 4th('67) and 5yh ('68) institutional Acts. · Emilio Garrastazu Medici (1969-1974) o Brazilian Miracle · Ernesto Geisel (1974-1979) · Joao Baptisa de Oliveira Figueriredo · Then Jose Sarney with PMDB wins that had opposition to military. Ends Bureaucratic Authoritarinsm in Brazil. However, Bolsonaro defends the Military Period. · Geddes reading? o Chile · Arturo Alessandri Coup · Carlos Ibanez Coup · Marmaduque Grove · Pinochet 1973 Coup · By end of the first two years, collective rule by junta transformed into personal dictatorship of Pinochet. He was givent the title of "President" in 1975. Pinochet even used his troops to oust the head of the Air Force. · Reading?

Recent turn away from the Pink Tide

o Pink Tide (late-1990s through mid-2010s) : The wave of left-of-center governments between 1998 and 2004 came to be known as the "Pink Tide". These movements ranged from the much more radical one associated with Venezuela's Hugo Chavez to the more moderate and market-oriented one seen under the Socialist governments in Chile. Some governments included El Salvador, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. o Post-Pink Tide? (current) · End of the Pink Tide? · By the mid-2010s, numerous left-of center parties face major setbacks.. Losses included the impeachment of Brazil's Dilma Rousseff and conservative electoral victories in Argentina and chile. Meanwhile, under Hugo Chavez's successor, Nicolas Maduro, Venezuela faced economic collapse and high inflation as a result of falling oil prices and economic mismanagement. Though the 2018 victory by leftist Andreas Manuel Lopez Obrador in Mexico provided a counter example. Economically, the left had failed to re-orient the economies away from dependence on commodity exports. Much of the earlier success of Pink tide governments depended on the sale of agricultural products and minerals to China, making them vulnerable to a slowdown in that country. The left was also seen as gailing to clean up corruption effectively. In particular, leaders both from the elft and right were caught taking bribes paid by Brazil's Odebrecht construction company, a scandal that reverberated across the region. Turn away from Pink tide. Moving to something else? · Could talk about causes: corruption scandals, downturn of economy in part because of slow growth in Chinas · Examples- o Bolsonaro is a big one: Economic decline and falling political support in Brazil (2014-2015) led to end of pink tide. Corruption scandals caused end of pink tide. This is seen with the left Lula. Lula was convicted and sentenced to 12 years imprisonment for accepting bribes in the Petrobras scandal in the form of over $1 million in improvements to a beachfront house he claimed was not actually his. The superior Electoral court then rejected his candidacy and Lula ended run for presidency less than one month before the first round vote. He endorsed former PT mayor Haddad in his place. Bolsonaro, a right-wing populist with the social liberal party (PSL), took the lead instead. o Pinera: During Lagos socialist party presidency, public works minister arrested in 2002 payoff scandal. Chile has seen fewer corruption scandals than most other countries. During Michele Bachelet's presidency there were corruption scandals while not personally accused had a negative impact on her popularity throughout the rest of her term. Accusation of her family in a land deal with their small company. Weakened economy amid lower copper prices further undercut her support. These scandals along with a weakened economy allow for chile vamous, RN candidate to win the presidency and turn away from the pink tide- MINOR SCANDALS BUT CHILE PROVIDES ON GOV HONESY, SOCIALIST PARTY OF ALLENDE NOMINALLY COMES BACK o Macri in Argentina: Peronists hit sa series of corruption scandals during Menem's presidency. . De la Rua of the radical party faced with his own corruption scandals. Radicals had used bribery to pass legislation in 2000 overhauling Peronist-era labor laws. Vice president and Frepaso leader Alvarez quits in protest but would be declared innocent. Cristina Kirchner and her left-leaning FPV She was accused of manipulating the value of the peso, for which she would be investigated under her successor. While Argentines had benefited from her and her husband's progressive economic policies there was still a turn from the pink tide seen with the election of PRO candidate Mauricio MAcri NOT INVESTIGATING THE BOMBING IRAN NOT INVESTIGATING AVOIDING INTENTION, SUITCASE GATE · RECENT TURN AWY FROM PINK TDE EXS:BRAZ BOLS- ECON DEC & FLING POL SUP IN BRAZL(14/15) LED END PINK TIDE, CORRUPT SCNDALS, LULA- SENT 12 YRS IMPR FOR PTRBRS SCNDL BRIBES W/ $1 MIL IMPR TO HS, SUP CT REJ CNDCY & ENDED RUN FOR PRES BFR 1STRND VTE, ENDSRD PT HAD, PSL BOLS TAKES LEAD, CHILE PINERA- LAGOS PUB MIN ARRST PAYOFF SCNDL, MIN SCNDL BUT CHIL BIG ON GOV HONSTY SO BIG DEAL, BACHELET SCANDLS NOT PERS ACCUSED BUT HD IMPCT ON POP, FAM IN LND DEAL, WEAKND ECON FRM LWR COPPR PRICS LWRD SUP, SCNDLS & WKND ECON ALLW FOR CV/RN CAND TO WIN, MACRI ARG- CRIST KIRCH A LOT SCANDALS- SUITCSE GATE, IRANIAN BMBNG COVERUP & FED PROS INVESTGTNG FND DEAD, FCD ACCUSTIONS OF MANIP VALUE OF PESO & PER SERIES OF CORRUP SCNDLS DUR MENM'S PRES? DE LA RUA?

The debt crisis and moves towards neo-liberal economics

o The 1980s debt crisis left Latin American countries desperate for new loans to stabilize their economics and avoid further collapse. This situation ensured that international institutions such as the IMF and World Bank had an outsized influence in setting economic policy in the region. Under the influence of the political and economic ideas of neoliberalism, these institutions began to demand major cutbacks in government programs and eventually a reorientation of the economy away from ISI towards a focus on exports. At the same time, the economic crisis destabilizing many existing BA regimes and helped to lead to a new, more extensive wave of democraticization. Within a decade of the debt crisis every Latin American country except Cuba and Mexico would become nominally democratic. Could mention Brady Plan? Important thing of brady plan was Us realized there needs to be some debt relief , economic austerity BIGGEST NEOLIBERALs PINOCHET SALINAS AND MEMNEM, COLlOR IN BRAZIL BUT DOESN'T LAST VERY LONG § Chile- moderate because counter reaction was center-left coalition · Move to neo-liberalism: During Pinochet's presidency rejected previous "gradualism" introducing "shock treatment" program of free-market reforms in 1965. Early model of "neo-liberalism designed by the "Chicago Boys" trained at Milton Friedman's University of Chicago economics department. Made sharp cuts in government spending, reduced maximum tariff from 750% under Allende to just 35%. Government promote non-traditional exports such as flowers, fruit wine and other specialty products. Copper was soon no longer the majority of export earnings. All but 324 state-owned firms privatized and sold in large blocs of shares leading to low sale prices and concentrated ownership. · Effect: shock program led to deep recession for the first couple of years. GDP fell 13% and industrial production more than 28% in 1975. Recession led many who had initially supported the coup to break with regime such as Eduardo Frei and other Christian Democrats for the PDC. So did key members of the Catholic Church. Ricardo Lagos Escobar from the socials party. He had free trade agreement with the US passed, gov programs of unemployment insurance and expanded healthcare insurance system. Socialist party Michele Bachelet, signed free trade deal with China and other agreements, decree giving the elderly free health care and increased pensions for poorest retirees. She passed universal pension system in 2008. · Pinochet respndedby accepting IMF orthodozy and asserting more military control over economy · Banking deregulation and overvalued exchange rates had led to crisis, government spent 200 bil peson propping up failing banks. Chile was among the hardest hit by debt crisis , GDP decline 14% that year and unemployed climbed to 30%, Chicago boys forces to resign · Argentina Radical centrist Alfonsin was elected. PERSON WHO REALLY EMBRACED CONSENSUS IS MEMNEM INSTEAD HE EMBRACES IT, IM GOING TO ENTER TRADE AGREEMENTS IM GOING TO PRIVATIZED ADOPT THE DOLLAR AS CURRENCY, PERONISM ALWAYS SPLIT WITH LEFT AND RIGHT WING Effect: Kirchners are pink tide counter reaction to neoliberalism of menem, Nestor was an FPV president which is left leaning faction of the Peronists. He nationalized utilities to help control prices and provide employment. Launched food program for poor in 2003, modeled on Lula's zero hunger program. He criticized the IMF and US for impoverishing 15 million Argentines with their neoliberal demands for major cutbacks in gov programs. Economy began dramatic turnaround. Cristina attempts to raise rev for anti-pov programs with a tax increase of 44% on soy and other agri-exports but protests and is defeated. Passed a "Universal Child Allowance" modeled on Bolsa Familia. She faced many scandal accusations but at same time many Argentines had benefited from her and her husband's progressive economic policies. Menem prosec? Menem AND CARLOS SALINAS ARE BIGGEST LEADERS IN THE PINK TIDE · Brazil · Move to neo-liberalism: Fernando Collor (1990) who Introduced orthodox "color shock plan". Began a controversial large-scale gov layoff and privatization program. Much of the program soon reversed by courts and legislature, Collor's removal of price controls led to hyper-inflation, inflation hit 1,585% by 19991. Collor responded by freezing back accounts, restricting withdrawals to 50k New Cruzeiros, freeze lost color support of wealthy and middle class, corruption increased as business, people bribed their way out of this freeze, color scandals emerg, corruption and economic collapse led to mass demonstrations and his impeachment, he resigns hours before Senate set to remove him. Removal of price controls seen as neoliberal · Effect: move to the left, pink tide counter reaction to Collor's neoliberalism , ITamar Francopicks center-left cabinet of psdb and PT, Cardoso centrist social welfare programs , Lula social programs to address sever poverty like Lauched Fome Zero (Zero Hunger) and Bolsa Familia to supply 1.5 million of Brazil's pporest with food aid, raised min wage and Rouseff- "brazil without poverty" program which expanded the Bolsa Familiy and health and educaton programs to help 18 mil Brazilians. She also implemented several minimum wage increases during her first term. DEBT CRISIS & MVES TWD NEOL ECON- 1980 DEBT CRS LED LA DESP FOR NEW LOANS TO STAB ECON & AVD COLL, IMF & WRLD BNK INFL ECON UNDER NEOL DMNDED MJR CUTBCKS IN GOV PRGMS & EXPT LED ECON AWy FROM ISI, IMF- KEYNES TYPE FND, REAC TO NEOLIB- THRU NEOL POL HELPD RESTR GRWTH IN REGN & EXPND EXP BUT CRIT OF MOD OVR TIME, GRWTH RTES SUBS LESS THAN PRIME OF ISI(50s/60s), EX: CHILE PINCHT- REJCT "GRAD" INTR "SHCK TRTMENT" PROG OF FREE-MKT REFS, CHIC BOS, SHP GOV SPND CUTS, RED MAX TARF FROM 750 -30% FRM ALLEND, PROM NON-TRD EXPTS NOT MAJ OR COPPR EXPT, 324 STT-OWND FIRMS PRV & SOLD IN LRG SHR BLOCS LED LW SLE PRCES & CONC OWNRSHP, BNKNG DER & OVRVAL EXCHNG RTES LED CRIS, 200 BIL PESOS PROP FAIL BNKS, AMONG HRDEST HIT, CHIC BOYS FRCED TO RESGN ARG MENEM-VID ERLY MOVS TWRD NEO-LIB POLS, ECON STAB TO RED INFL, PRIV OF STT ENTRPRS & RED OF TARIFFS, MENEM RLLY EMBRCD WC, ENTR TRD AGRMNT ADPT DOL AS CUR, PRVE NO LNGER NATLSM, EXPECT TO BREAK W/ WC BUT MRE R-WING PER NOT TRAD, BRAZ COLLOR- DOESN'T LST VRY LONG, INTR ORTH "CLR SHCK PLAN", LRG-SCL GOV LAYOFF & PRIV PROG? REM OF PRIC CONTRLS LED HYPER-IFL OF 1,585%, RES W/ FREEZ BNK ACCNTS, REST WITHDRAW TO 50K NEW CRUZ, FREEZE LOST SUP, CORRUP INCR & PPL BRIBE WY OUT OF FRZ, HIS OWN SCANDS EMERG AND IMPCH/RESGNS MEX PORTILLO-INF REST PRESS TO DEVAL PESO, TOOK LOANS OUT W/ OIL COLLAT BUT OIL PRIC COLL INC INF BUT RESTS DEVAL PESO UNTIL NEXT ELEC, HURTD DECL INSLVNT, REELEC DEC MEX INSLVNT BEGIN DEBT CRIS, MIN WAGE $8 -2- TAKE OUT MEX EX? MENEM &SALINAS BIGST LDRS IN PNK TDE IN WC

· Jorge Videla

· (1976-1981) MIL GEN LAUN DW AGNST GUER, LEFT & PER, NEO-LIB POL OF ECON STAB TO ERD INFL, PRIV STT ENTRPR & SER RED OF TARIFFS, POL BOOST FROM W CUP NAT HLPD, RECSSN, BNKG FLR LED TO DEC IN SUP, RES OF BNKNG DEREG AND IRRESP ECON POL & BANK COLL, 2017 AFTR END OF MIL RULE CONVIC & SNTCD TO LIFE IMPRIS FOR HR CRIMES, HIM ND BIGN 011 TRIAL FOR STLNG BBIES, AND ARRSTED DUR DW .... Military general president who launched Dirty War offensive against guerillas, leftists and Peronists. At least 10,000 popl were killed or "disappeared" during this time and the disappearances meant no controversy over "trials" as had happened in Brazil. He eventually achieved complete victory over guerillas through a campaign of terror. He made early moves towards neo-liberal policies such as economic stabilization to reduce inflation, privatization of many state enterprise and had a serious reduction of tariffs. He received a political boost from 1978 world cup held in and won by Argentina. Led to people rallying around flag and nationalism helped? A recession and banking failures by 1981 led to decline in support. This was a result of banking deregulation and other irresponsible economic policies that starts bank to collapse. In December 2010, 27 after the end of military rule, ex dictator Jorge Videla convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for human rights crimes. HE and Reynaldo Bignone were also put on trial in 2011 for stealing the babies of women who had been arrested during the Dirty War. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for aggravated homicide, false arrests, torture, and robbery. Relreased after just 4 years. Re-jailed after Menem's amnesty overturned by federal courts in 2007. In 2013, at age 87, died while imprisoned for crimes against humanity. Dictatorship unapologetically, tried to pretend if squint enough following the constitution. Everytime brazil has put someone on trial, big outcry, we'll just disappear. Atmosphere of terror withing the country ans silence. Depoliticization, sayig the wrong thing could lead you to disappearing, effective in getting rid of the montoneros. Economically he institated austerity policies, would have embrased as enthusiastically as his neighbor to West. Budget cuts ro reduce inflation of the Peron years. A lot of this led to economic decline. Mothers of the disappeared, attention to the problem had grown throughout his period. Many people protesting disappeared killed or arrested, had a way of protesting the disappearance. Were not directly pointing at government just bring awareness to issue. Arresting them would be dmitting guilt so allowed movement to grow. There was domestic and international attention on issue, everyone kind of knew that the dictators were responsible. The junta, the executive committee of officers say maybe Videla is too much of a hardliner maybe o for a softliner, Junta pushes out Videa for Roberto Viola.He is apart of the fourth military period after peron. Sentenced to life imprisonment for aggravate homicide, false arrest, torture and robbery. Released after just 4 years. RE-jailed after Menem's amnesty overturned by federal courts in 2007. In 2013, at 87, died while imprisoned for crimes against humanity.

· Carlos Menem

· (1989-1999) PJ PRES, 1STTERM-"FREJUP" COAL 49%, CMPGN AGNST ALF'S PARD OF NON-GENS BUT EXP AMNS IN OFF, MOR MIL REVOLTS LED TO RND OF PRDONS INCL ALL DICTTS, BEG W/ A "SHCK PROG" OF AUST & PRIV HIS ORTH WAS UNEXP SD PJ, REINTR PESO DOL AT 1:1 RAT "CONV PLAN", PSH EXT PRIV PROG, ENTEL TELECOM SLD TO FOR INV & ARG AIRLNE SOLD TO SPAIN, PSH REG REG TRD AGR LED TO MERCSUR & ALIGNS ARG W/ US WHN SNT MIL TO AID US IN GULF WAR & CRO SOM & HAITI, ECON RBND & INF FELL TO 3.9% & ECON GRW 34% BTWN 91-5, CHNGS CONST TO ALLW SING CONS REELEC, 2NDTRM- "ME OR CHAOS" WON SHY OF MAJ, PJ PCKD UP MAJ OF CONG, PREV MENM'S PROGS BY PRES DECR, LFT STRNGTN BY GRNG INEQUL & RAD'S AGRMNT TO ALLW MENEM REELEC LFT FREPASO #2 PRTY, ECON WRSND & DOL LED HI COST OF LIVNG & INF LED OVERVAL PESO & WORS TRD DEF, MID CLS SHRUNK & UNEMP RCHD 17% '97, PER OF CORRUP SCNDLS- FIN MIN CAVLO RESGNS PROT GOV CORRUP, FREP & UCR ALLI WIN MIDTRMS, WNTD 3RDTERM BUT PROP REJ W/ APPR RTNG FEL 17%, NXT PJ CAND OPP MENM BT RUA WINS, HE PROS CORR MNM & INDCT MEMBRS OF HIS ADMN, PLCD UNDER HOUS ARRST FOR ILL ARMS SLES BT SOON RLSD BY MNM-APPT CRTS, WASHINGTN CONS POLS, 03 ELEC- LED "FRNT FOR LOY" FAC CME IN 1ST, 2ND WIF FRMER MS UNIV FRM CHILE, POLLS SHW MENM TRAILNG UNDER 30% SUP TO KIRCH'S 60% HE PULS OUT 4 DYS BFR ELEC He was a Peronist president from 1989 to 1999. During his first term he won with the Peronist-led "Frejupo" coalition with 49%. He campaigned against Alfonsin's pardon of non-generals, but expanded amnesty in first months of taking office. Further military revolts in 1989 and 1990 led Menem to issue a new round of pardons, including releasing all of the former dictators. He began with a "shock program"of austerity and privatization. As a Peronist, his orthodoxywas unexpected. He reintroduced the peso, this time pegged to the dollar at a 1 to 1 rationunder "Convertibility Plan". Menem pushed an extensive privatizationprogram. ENTEL telecommunications sold to Spanish, Italian and French investors. Aerolineas Argentinas sold to Spain's Iberia airlines. He pushed for regional trade agreements beginning in 1990 leading to the 1994 Mercosur formation and he aligned argentina with the United States. He sent military to aid US in Gulf War (1991) as well as Croatia, Somalia, and Haiti (1994). The economy rebounded and inflation fell to just 3.9% in 1994 and the economy grew 34% between 1991 and 1995. He got the constitution changed to allow a single consecutive reelection. In his second term he argued "it's me or chaos" and won reelection by just shy of a majority . He won with 50% and Peronists picked up a majority of Chamber of Deputies and Senate. Previously, much of Menem's program had been implemented by presidential decree. The UCR replaced as #2 party by left-wing National Solidarity Front (Frepaso). Left's strengthened helped by growing inequality and Radical's agreement to allow Menem's re-election. The economy gradually worsened and dollarization led to high cost of living. Inflation led to overvalued peso and worsening trade deficits. The middle class shrunk in size and unemployment reached 17% by 1997. The administration hit a series of corruption scandals. The Finance Minister Domingo Cavallo resigned in protest of government corruption. Frepaso and UCR form Alliance for Work, Justice and Education (ATJE); won 1997 midterm elections. Menem initially floated the idea of a third term but proposal rejected as his approval fell to 17%. In the 1999 election the Peronist candidate, Eduardo Duhalde, was himself an opponent of Menem from within the party. Fernando de la Rua began to prosecute corruption under Menem and indicted members of the previous administration. Menem himself was placed under house arrest for illegal arms sales in June 2001, but soon released by the (Menem-appointed) courts. Menem and anti-Menem faction of Peronist presidencies during two weeks, 5 presidencies Unable to agree on a single candidate, Peronists made the first round of the 2003 elections a free-for-all and a total of 19 candidates competed. The top two candidates were both Peronists. Carlos Menem came in first , who led the "Front for Loyalty" faction with 24.5%. In peronist tradtion both candidates wives during the 2003 election playe a key role in the campaign. Menem's second wife (after a messy 2001 divorce), Cecilia Bolocco was a former Miss Universe from Chile. Despite the first place finish, polls consistently showed Menem trailing with under 30% support to more than 60% for Kirchner. Despite first place finish, polls consistently showed Menem trailing with under 30% support to more than 60% for Kirchner. Rather than face humilitation, Menem pulled out of the race four days before the May 18 election, allowing Kirchner to win unopposed. Not your traditional Peronist, supporting the US in the Guld War, things are looking really good very quickly, biffest economic reform in 2011 over program of carlos menem, dollarization at first helped to win reelection, economy started to go south and by end has an 8% approval rate, Menem drops out against Kirchner, Washington consensus policies, Salinas more than Menem became a symbol of the Washington consensus During, 2003 Election menem led "Front for Loyalty" faction that came in first, his second wife was a former miss universe from Chile, despite first place finish, polls showed Menem trailing under 30% support to more than 60% for Kirchner, rather than face humilitation, he pulls out of the the race 4 days before election, allowing Nestor to win unopposed

Vicente Fox

· (2000-2006)During Salinas' presidency he appointed a PAN member for Guanajuanto governor ( though after refusing to recognize win by the charismatic Vicente Fox). PRI faces challenge in 2000 from PAN's Vicente Fox, who runs an "American-style," campaign emphasizing his plain-spoken personality. The charismatic former Governor of Guanajuato Vicente Fox essentially took over the PAN using his own "Amigos de Fox" to gain the nomination from more traditional party leaders. After trying and failing to reach agreement with PRD on a common candidate, he hired awaykey Cardenas advisors who advocated the "voto util" (useful cote) to rally around Fox to get rid of the PRI rather than splitting the opposition. Foz ran the first "American-style" campaign in Mexico, using plain language, wearing cowboy boots, and adopting the smiple slogan: "Ya!" (Now or enough). Meanwhile the PRI had its first open nomination process leading to a divisive battle the PRI had its first open nomination process leading to a dvisble battle the ended up nominating Zedillo's Interior Minister, Francisco Labastida. A dry technocrat in the age of televised campaign, Labastida ran a lackluster campaign and did poorly in debates, overconfident that the improving economy and Zedillo's personal popularity would help the PRI. Fox elected as first non-PRI president in 71 years and won with 42.5%. Though lacking a Pan congressional majority, Fox manages to implement several important reforms. This included passing a subidized health insurance plan in 2001 for those outside the formal sector by 2010. He secures legislation opening many government filesand begins "Oportunidades," which expanded Progresa program of conditional aid to the poor. He also investigated PEMEX money financing PRI. Though the PAN was soon charge with recievng money from US supporters. But a number of high-profile efforts fall short during his presidency. He had a campaign promise to solve the Chiapas rebellion in five minutes," fails after Congress unilaterally modifies an agreement with the EZLN. Negotiations to change the Federal Labor Law fail to reach any agreement. Proposals for a major tax reform initiative is blocked by Congress, as well. Fox attempts to have close ties with U.S. prove difficult. Hope for migration accorddashed by the September 11, 2001 attacks. Mexico opposes the US on the War in Iraq in the Security Council and there were growing protests over end of agricultural quotas under NAFTA. UThe US also voted to extend border fence 700 miles by the final days of Fox's term. With US recession and growing competition from China, economy started to weaken after 2001. After hoping to win a majority in Congress in 2003 midterm elections, political disappointments and economic difficulties result in the PAN losing seats in both the Senate and Chamber of Deputies. Political and social conflicts only increase after 2003. Growing clashes and strikes by the nation's mining and steel workers occurred. Police repression of an Oaxaca teachers' strike leads to. Give month takeoverof the town square. Police attempts to arrest flower vendors in San Salvador Atenco ends in violent clashes in 2006 and charges of police sexual abuse. After Lopez Obrador defied a judge's order and moved ahead with an access road to a hospital in Mexico City, the Fox administration charged him with a criminal offense.

· Álvaro Uribe

· (2002-2010) Colombia First President. Founder of Democratic Center right wing party after having a fallout with his former protégé Juan Manuel Santos. The Party of U (Social Party of National Unity) is a conservative party that was formed to elect Uribe's chosen successor, Juan Manuel Santos. Santos remained with the party after he and Uribe split politically and the party backed the independent candidacy of German Vargas Lleras. The conservative party as a center-right party, it formed coalitions both with Uribe during his presidency and Santos until 2014. The 1990 constitution from Gaviria's presidency prohibited all re-elections but has since been amended by Uribe. Columbia First President who during his first term won election with majority on first round, the first person to do so under the 1991 Constitution with 53%. Had left the Liberal Party to run as an independent. As a man whose father had been killed by the FARC, Uribe ran on platform of cracking down rebels, paid for by one-time war tax. Although he proposed a second such tax in his re-election campaign. After FARC bombing on Bogota kills 20, Uribe declared limited state of emergency. Uribe ruled to a large extent by decree. As an independent, Uribe lacked Congressional support. Uribe's strategy on the battle for control of Colombia. Uribe negotiates disarming of the right-wing paramilitary organization, the AUC, in 2003. Congress agrees to minimize penalties and shield paramilitaries from extradition. Subsequent AUC demobilization and decreasing violence increases Uribe's popularity. Also during his first term, he lost a series of 2003 referndums to approve sever austerity measures and give him increased control over the economy. Economy however began to be improved in spite of debt reaching 50% of GDP. FARC came under targeted attack by military (because of Uribe or just military?). FARC political leader Ricardo Palmera arreste and later sentenced to 35 years in prison in 2014. Kidnapping and capture of FARC leader Rodrigo Granda in Venezuela in December 2004 leads to international incident. He. also Amended 1991 constitution to allow re-eelction. Also prohibited sitting governors and mayors from running for president before 2014. Clause apparently aimed at Bogota's popular leftist mayor. There was dramatic improvement in Colombia's security. During his second term, he won re-election overwhelmingly with 62.4% , with left wing candidate coalition finishing second with 22 %. HE signed a free trade agreement with US in 2006, but approval of US Congress still pending. The Measure has faced concerns over alleged human rights abuses including the killing of hungreds of labor activists in recent years. A 2007 scandal emerged when several allies linked to right-wing paramilitary groups. Maria Consuelo Araujo forced to resign as foreign minister after her father, Senator Alvcaro Arauj, is arrested for helping to kidnap a political rival. He sends Colombian troops across border into Ecuador in March 2008, killing a high-ranking member of FARC's Secretariat for the first time along w for the first time along with 16 other guerillas. Ecuador and Venezuela break diplomatic relations until Uribe promised not to repeat attacks. Colombian security forces win release of Ingrid Betancourt and 14 other hostages in 2008 operation against FARC. Uribe's public approval rating rises to 91.5%. Opposition calls for investigation over bribery charges involving measure approved by Congress to allow Uribe to run for a third term. Later ex-representative Yidis Medina claimed that Uribe bribed her to vote for measure. Constitutional Court rejected measure in February 2010, barring further re-election. Uribe's handpicked his ex-Minister of Defense, Santos, to succeed him wins overwhelmingly on second round against a moderate left-of-center candidate. Uribe's former intelligence head Jorge Noguera convicted of ties to paramilitary death squads and sentenced to 25 years in prison in 2011. Uribe breaks with Santos over negotiations, and some even within Santos's cabinet oppose amnesty for FARC guerillas during Santos' presidency. He negotiates a peace accord with FARC in 2016, only to have it unexpectedly rejected by 50.2% of votes in a referendum. Alvaro Uribe had campaigned against the accord arguing against provisions giving partial amnesty and political representation to FARC. Less than a week after the peace accord's defeat, Santos wins the 2016 Nobel Peace prize for his efforts. After renegotiation both FARC and Uribe, a new, revised accord to end the 52 year old civil war was signed in November 2016. This time Santos avoided a new referendum , instead winning approval from Congress in spite of strong opposition from Alvaro Uribe. After leading in the first round with 39.1% Ivan Duque, an ex-senator backed by Alvaro Uribe wins the presidency in 2018.

· Michelle Bachelet

· (2006-2010; 2014-2018) A CPPD and socialist party president. She received 46% of the vote on the first round, won the second round against a billionaire former senator with the National Renewal-led "Alliance for Chile" coalition. She and her parents had been arrested and tortured during the Pinochet regime. Her father, a former general and head of Allende's Food Distribution Office, died in prison of a heart attack after torture. She had been a physician and Ricardo Lago's Health Minister and Defense Minister. With appointed senators eliminated, CPPD won narrow majority of both houses of Congress. After her election she appointed women to hald her cabinet posts as part of a promised policy of "gender parity". In May, one month after her inaugural, faced a massive "March of Penguins" protest by high school student's seeking education reforms. AS many as 800,000 participate in the marches, strikes, and school takeovers. Bachelet responded with June proposal meeting most of the students demands, leading student assembly to end strike. She signed a free trade deal with China in August 2006 follwed by agreements with Brunei, Colombia, New Zealand Panama, Peru and Signapore. She passed decree giving the elderly free health care and increased pensions for poorest ertirees. During her presidency, Pinochet died December 10, 2006 at age 91. Death came shortly after courts agains stripped his immunity and place him under house arrest for the fifth time. With Pinochet gone, CPPD became increasingly divided and with less popular support. She made the controversial decision in January 2007 to provide free "morning-after" pills to girls as young at 14 without parental consent. She was criticized for problems of crowding and delaying with initial opening of "Transantiago" bus and metro system in Santiago in March 2007. In aftermath of student protests and Transantiago debacle, polls showed her approval dropping to 35% by October 2007. The copper prices fell to hald their previous price after the international financial crisis in late 2008. In 2008, passed universal pension system, partially reversing Pinochet's earlier privatization. Crime became a major public concern, amind increasing media coverage of issue even though crime rate had not actually risen appreciably. Emphasizing the crime issue, right gained a majority of mayoraltiesin August 2008 elections. Her ersonal approval rating rose dramatically in last year of office, reaching nearly 85% near the end of her term. Overall record of Concertacion in combatting poverty had been mixed over its twenty years in office. Absolute poverty declined from 45% in 1987 to 17% in 2004. But its 0.57 Gini Coefficient Is basically unchanged since democratization, with Chile ranking in inequality 127 out of the 147 countries surveyed by the UNDP. The 2010 Chilean earthquake was 8.8 magnitude with an epicenter midway between Santaigo and Concepcion stricl on February 27,2010, causing 1200 deaths and destryong 500k homes. The failure to adequately issue tsunami warnings for coastal cities led to public criticism of the outgoing Bachelet administration. During her presidency there was a closing gap of annual GDP growth rates between Chile and Latin America. In her second term, she was a Nueva Mayoria and socialist party president. She fell short of the majority with 46.7% on the first round in 2013 , she regained the presidency by a large margin in runoff with 62.2%. She had been nominated by the Nueva Mayoria coalition that replaced Concertacion. Pinochet's legacy continued to cast a shadow as her opponent, Pinera's Labor Secretary Evelyn Matthei, had a father who was a former air force general who joined the dictator's junta. In contrast Bachelet's father had been arrested and tortured adter the coup. Two weeks adter Bachelet took officein 2014 a new 8.5 earthquake struck the coast. This was folloed by 8.3 one 6 motnhs later. Congress passed a major tax reform in 2014 though the bill was less progressive than Bachelet's original proposal. She signed a "Permanent March Bonus" of up to $125 to help 7 million low income families with school expenses. Shortly before the election, Pinera had passed a one-time March bonus, which Bachelet had promised to make permanent. She opened files to public in 2014 of those who went missing during the Pinochet years. A separate investigation concluded in 2015 that it was "highly probable" that Chilean poet Pablo Neruda's death 12 days after Pinochet's 1973 military coup was the result of positioning by the regime. Amended the constitution in 2015 to replace binomial electoral system with open list proportional representation to aid election of smaller parties. Also added a 40% minimum quota for party nominations of either gender. Accusations emerged in 2015 that Bachelet's family used their influence and insider information in a lucrative land deal involveing her son and his wife's small company, "Caval". Fraud and tax evasion charges were brought against the daughter-in—law in 2017. Though Bachelet was not personally accused, scandal had a major negative impact on her popularity through the rest of her term. Weakened economy amid low copper prices further undercut her support. In response to student protests since 2011, Bachelet signed January 2018 measure to provide free college education to the majority of the population. Higher education had been public and free prior to Pinochet. After securing recognition of civil unions in 2015, Bachelet attempted to pass a constitutional amendment allowing gay marriage in her last year of office. The billultimately failed along with series of other proposed amendments on taxes, pensions and educational reform. However, a controversial bill to allow abortion in cases of rape, unviability, or fanger to the mother's life was adopted. Raised corporate tax rate to 27%.

· Felipe Calderón

· (2006-2012)A PAN president. This conflict set the stage for a highly divisive campaign where the PAN's Felipe Calderon characterizing AMLO as a Hugo Chavez-style radical, and Lopez Obrador accusing Fox of using government resources to favor Calderon. With memories still fresh of what the PRD saw as a stolen election in 1988, the announcement that Calderon had won the vote by less than one percent led to massive protests. After the electoral commission refused the requests of recounting the vote from protests, Lopez Obrador declared himself the "legitimate" winner, staging an alternative inauguration on November 20, and setting up his own parallel government to monitor Calderon. After a partial recount, Calderon is narrowly declared the winner by 0.6% points, and less than 36% of the vote at 35.89% of the vote. His swearing-in ceremony in front of Congress was marked by loud protests and scuffles between PAN and PRD deputies. In one of hist first moves in office, Calderon declares war on drug traffickers. He sends 3,000 troops initially to Tijuana followed by 40,000 more sent throughout the country. He negotiates the "Merida Initiative" in 2008 for $1.6 billion in US aid to Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean to combat drug traffickers. He made substantial cuts in spending, with executive branch salary cap saving $2.3 billion. Only the military budget increased. Interior Minister Juan Camilo Morino killed along with seven others when their plane crashed in downtown Mexico City in 2008. The government declared the crash was an accident, suspicions that durg traffickers were repsonisble increased after a 2011 helicopter crash killed Interior Minsiter Jose Francisco Blake Mora. Interior Minsters are similar to a Vice President and are in charge of the police. Rodolf de la Guardia Garcia, second in charge of fighting drugs, arrested in 2008 for receiving montly payments from Sinaloa Cartel. After March 2010 killing of three US consular officials in Ciudad Juarez Calderon called upon US to do more combat its domestic drug sales and stop the flow of its guns into Mexico. The PRD-led government in Mexico City legalized abortion during first 12 weeks of pregnancy in April 2007. One of the first religious ones? Facing major protests in 2007 as US demand for ethanol drove up corn prices, Calderon agreed to back a "Tortilla Pact" with business sector to control prices. Mexico hard hit by world recession, with Mexico's GDP contracted 6.0% in 2009. Contributing to downturn was a swine flu outbreak that year, causing dozens of deaths, closing public facilities, and reducing tourism. Downturn also coincided with the congressional midterm elections, helping the PRI to win 45% of seats in both houses. Economy rebounded by the second half of Calderon's term, as manufacturing began to return to Mexico in response to increasing Chinese labor costs. Though 5.5% growth in Mexico in 2010 slowed to 4.0% growth by 2012. Also, He moved to reduce the power of labor unions. He broke one of the country's oldest, most democratic, and combative unions by closing Mexico City's public electric company in 2009. He passed 2012 reform weakening labor protections (although increasing protections for women). In spte of the arrests and killing of numerous high profile cartel leaders, the Calderon years see a surge in drug-related killings. From 62 in 2006 just prior to drug war declaration, then 2,837 in 20007, 6844 in 2008, 11,753 in 2009, 19,546 in 2010, 24,068 in 2011, and 18,061 killed by October 31, 2012. Kidnappings also surged during drug war including at one point, ex-presidential candidate Diego Fernandez de Cevallos. In 2011, after Mexican poet Javier Sicilia's son was killed by narcos, he leads a series of marches joined by thousands calling for an end to the Drug War. Marches mark a major turn in public opinion against the drug war and growing reports of disappearances and human rights violations. Symbolically, during Calderon's term Telmex head Carlos Slim was officially named the richest person in the world by Forbes Magazine. With $53.5 billion, Slim has an estimated 7% of Mexico's GDP, underlining the levels of inequality in the country. Also on the list was Sinaloa Cartel leader Joaquin "Chapo" Guzman, with an estimated $1 billion. Former first lady Margarita Zavala (wife of Felipe Calderon) also ran but dropped out after her campaign failed to garner much support .

· Sebastián Piñera

· (2010-2014; 2018-) Coalicion por el Cambio and RN president. During his first term , he won with 44% of the vote on the first round of voting against former president Frei and two other candidates on the left. He won on the second round to become the first candidate on the right to win in Chile in 52 years. He had built a $1 billion fortune by introducing credit cards in Chile, later becoming the owner of the Chilevision TV network. He took office just two weeks after the earthquake and the inauguration itself was marred by a aftershock registering a magnitude of 6.9. He Began term seeking to raise $30 billion to re-build country from the earthquake and its aftershocks. His response to the Quake.in 2010 there was a dramatic rescue of 33 miners. Who ha been trapped in a mine for 69 days which boosted his popularity. The government promised to improve mine safety in aftermath of the rescue. In response to a two-month hunger strike to support imprisoned Mapuche indigenous activists seeking to re-claim ancestral land from frosty companies and farmers, Pinera in 2010 promises $4 billion in development aid to the region. But repressive Pinochet-era "anti-terrorism law" continued to be applied to Mapuche protestors. The Mapuche had famously resisted Spanish and Chilean rule during the 300 year "War of Arauco" ending in the 1880s, possibly the longest war in world history. Unversity and high school students launched new protest in May 2011 demanding greater public education funding and end to school voucher system. Pinera's made reform proposals in July and August, but these only led to more protests. Subsequent negotiations broke down, with government blaming radical student leaders. There was a proposal to build five hydroelectric dams along two rivers in Patagonia provoked strong reaction from environmentalists. Rapid passage controversial in a country used to more consensus-oriented politics. His approval rating dropped to just 32% in aftermath of this move and the student protests. He faced criticsm for series of inappropriate actions and statements, or "pinericosas". Most controversially, joking on avisti to Mexico tha "when a lady says 'no' it means maybe, when she says 'maybe' it means yes and when she says 'yes' she is not a lady". He visited and signed a bilateral trade pact with Vietnam in March 2012. The Opposition Concertacion expanded in 2013 to form the "New Majority" coalition, including the Communist party and other left-of-center parties. Shortly before the election of Bachelet, Pinera had passed a one-time March bonus, which Bachelet had promised to make permanent. In his second term, he is a Chile Vamos and RN president. HE announced in June that he will not cut the corporate tax rate Bachelet had raised to 27%, as he had promised during the campaign. He explained that the additional revenues would be necessary to fund his promised reforms to health, education and retirement programs. He proposed a series of reforms to country's privatized social security system. This came in spite protests by an estimated 2 million Chileans in 2017 calling for the system's re-nationalization. Constitutional amendment to guarantee gender equality passed Chamber of Deputies in 2018 and an issue currently before the Senate. This is an issue currently before the Senate. Facing increasing migration from Venezuela, Haiti and elsewhere, he tightened visa requirements. The International Court of Justice rule in 2018 that Chile is not obligated to negotiate whether Bolivia lost its access to the sea after Chile's victory in the 1897 to 1884 War of the Pacific, but it has been trying to regain it since. He welcomed the ruling but did not reject the possibility of further negotiations. Though Chile does grant Bolivia duty-free access to its northern port of Africa? the two countries have not. Exchanged ambassadors since 1962. In a move to protect its vast coastline, Chile in 2018 becomes first country in the world to ban businesses from using plastic bags. He repealed a statue of limitations in 2019 on sex crimes involving children. Measure came as a sex abuse scandal involving 200 children hit the Catholic Church. 2019 protests against Santiago Metro fare increases soon turn into weeks of massive marches across Chile against income inequality, as well as rioting that led to at least 19 deaths. While rejecting calls for his resignation, Pinera responded by apologizing, firing his cabinet, and introducing reforms, including increasing pensions, cutting medical and utility prices, raising the minimum wage, and increasing taxes on top income earners. As protests continue into November, Pinera was forced to cancel planned climate and trade conferences.

· Juan Manuel Santos

· (2010-2018) Party of U president. Alvaro Uribe founded the Democratic Center, a right wing party after having a fallout with his former protégé Juan Manuel Santos. The Party of U (Social Party of National Unity) is a conservative party that was formed to elect Uribe's chosen successor, Juan Manuel Santos. Santos remained with the party after he and Uribe split politically and the party backed the independent candidacy of German Vargas Lleras in 2018. The liberal party was one of the two dominant political parties in Colombia from its founding in 1848, it is officially social democratic, but was in coalition with the Party of the U under Santos. The conservative party as a center-right party, it formed coalitions both with Uribe during his presidency and Santos until 2014. Party of U president. Uribe's handpicked his ex-Minister of Defense to succeed him wins overwhelmingly on second round against a moderate left-of-center candidate. He wins with 69.1% against a green party candidate. He quickly resovled diplomatic crisis with Venezuela's Hugo Chavez leftover from last days of Uribe's term. Uribe had accused Chavez of supporting FARC and ELN guerillas, and cutoff diplomatic relations. Relations restored days after Santos's inauguration after Chavez agrees not to support guerillas. Uribe's former intelligence head Jorge Noguera convicted of ties to paramilitary death squads and sentenced to 25 years in prison in 2011. Los Urabeños (later known as EL Clan de Golfo), a paramilitary group formerly with the AUC launces a series of attacks in the north after government killed their leader in January 2011. Colombian priest Oscar Albeiro Ortiz would be convicted of running the Cacique Nutibara paramilitary death squad in 2013. During his term, Senate in May 2011 approved law to restore land and grant compensation to those who had been displaced by years of violent conflict. With paramilitaries and other groups engaging in land grabs, just .4% of population had come to control half of the land. The US Congress approves a free trade agreement with Colombia in October 2011. Agreement had been held up for five years dur to concerns over the repression and even killing of labor activists in the country. He re-starts form negotiations with FARC in November 2012, held in Havana and mediated by Norway. Uribe breaks with Santos over negotiations, and some even within Santos's cabinet oppose amnesty for FARC guerillas. An estimate 260k diedand some 7 mil displaced during five decades of violence. Colombia won 2013 ruling of Internation Court of Justice over disputed San Andres islands with Nicaragua, including rights to potentially oil rich area of the Caribbean. Santos oustsBogota mayor and former M-19 guerilla Gustavo Petro in 2013 for violating the free market and endangering public health by partially reversing the privatization of the city'sgarbage collection (what city or all cities?). President forced by the courts to reverse his order by the following April. In his second term, after coming in second with just 26% in the first round, Santos wins re-election by reduced margin with 51%. Oscar Zuluga, who led the first round 29%, had campaigned against peace negotiations with FARC. His party, Democratic Center, had been founded by Alvaro Uribe, among others. Zuluaga leading in polls until is campaign was hit with scandal involving hacking government computers to find out about the FARC negotiations. FARC negotiations suspended after rebels kidnap General Ruben Dario Alzatein November 2014. After he was released by FARC in December, the negotiations resume . There was incidents of Armed Conflict, FARC and ELN from 1997 to 2014 https://www.businessinsider.com/economic-challenges-of-colombias-peace-plan-with-farc-rebels-2016-8. Colombian courts, with Santos's backing legalize Gay Marriage in 2016 of his second term. He negotiates a peace accord with FARC in 2016, only to have it unexpectedly rejected by 50.2% of votes in a referendum. Alvaro Uribe had campaigned against the accord arguing against provisions giving partial amnesty and political representation to FARC. Vote in pro-accord regions may have been reduced by arrival of Hurricane Matthew the same day, while earlier Gay Marriage ruling had led to religious groups mobilizing and joining anti-accord coalition. Santos and FARC agree in aftermath to maintain ceasefireand negotiate further. Less than a week after the peace accord's defeat, Santos wins the 2016 Nobel Peace prize for his efforts. After renegotiation both FARC and Uribe, a new, revised accord to end the 52 year old civil war was signed in November 2016. Some 500 revisions were made, including having FARC surrender its assets to be given as compensation to victims of the war. Controversial provision remains giving partial amnesty for war crimes if guerillas confess, but the "restricted liberty" punishment clarified. FARC would continue to be given 5 seats in each legislative chamber, another controversial holdoverfrom the first proposal. This time Santos avoided a new referendum , instead winning approval from Congress in spite of strong opposition from Alvaro Uribe (was he in congress at the time?). Following the terms of the peace accord, Santos signs extensive land redistribution measure in May 2017. Former rebels form a political party, the Commoners' Alternative Revolutionary Force (FARC) in August 2017. This came one month after the group officially disarmed. Santos admitted his 2010 presidetnial campaign received $1 million from Odebrecht, a Brazilian firm at the center of numerous bribery scandals in the region that was seeking a lucrative highway building contract. This was followed by a "Paradise Papers" revelation in November 2017 that Santos controls two offshore companies in Barbados. With levels of violence much lower, polls show that corruption is the most important public concern for the first time.

· Enrique Peña Nieto

· (2012- ) President who was a part of centrist party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). PRI dominated the political system and held the presidency from 1929 to 2000, returning in 2012. PRI President from 2012 to current day. The telegenicex-governor of the State of Mexico Enrique Pena Nieto returned the PRI to the presidency. He won with 39.1% with the opposing PRD gaining 32.4% of the votes. He reorganized federal police force and de-emphasized fighting drug trafficking, focusing more on other crimes. Formed 10k member national "Gendarmie" force of soldiers with general police duties. He also moved in 2014 to disarm vigilante "self defense" groups that fought drug traffickers in Michoacan. He passed extensive education reform law over objections of teacher's union in 2013. Measures included new standards for teacher hiring and advancement. The day after passage, he arrested the powerful head of the teacher's union for embezzlement, and she remained in prison to nearly the end of his term. She was corrupt. In the face of rising obesity rates, he added 10% tax on sat drinks and 5 % tax on junk foods. Obesity rates tripled in years since NAFTA, surpassed the US to have the worlds highest rate (32.8% of population) by 2013. He pushed through 2013 reform bill to bring more economic competition to Mexico in broadcasting and telecommunications. These secotrs were controlled by large monopolies and oligopolies, particularly Televisa and Carlos Slim's America Movil. He signed a controversial law in 2014 opening petroleum sector to foreign investment, He shared oil profits with investors, while keeping production Mexican-held. He amended the constitution in 2014 to allow re-elections for members of Congress for first time since the Revolution. Meanwhile, Pena Nieto's proposal to abolish the nation's municipalpolice forces were met with great skepticism since the state police replacingthem were not seen as any less corrupt. After capturing Joaquin "Chapo" Guzman in 2014, the notorious Sinaloa cartel leader escaped from prison through a mile long tunnel in 2015. Government further embarrassed by revelation that while on the run, Chapo had been interviewed by US actor Sean Penn. Chapo had previously escaped in 2001 after bribing prison guards. He was re-captured in 2016, Chapo was then extradited to US. He was hit by corruption scandal after 2014 revelation that First Lady Angelica Rivera had acquired a $4 million Mexico City home from a Chinese company that had been awarded a $3.7 billion high speed railway contract. Ivera has insisted that she paid for the home from her earnings as a former telenovel star. Under pressure she sold the house and Pena Nieto canceled contract, and appointed a special investigator though one with his own links to figures involved in the scandal. In two separate rulings in 2015, the Mexican Supreme court legalized the personal use of marijuana and gay marriage. He backed further implementation of both measuresin 2016. He apologized to the nation after holding a public meeting with US presidential candidate Donald Trump in August 2016, a figure extremely unpopular in Mexico. Donald trump's Election video. The Trump administration announced that it agrees to renegotiate, rather than abandon, NAFTA in April 2017. Though multiple reports characterize the subsequent negotiations as slow and difficult. Administration hit by a new corruption probein 2017 Brazilian construction firm Odebreht. Close aid of Pena Nieto accused of receiving $10 million in bribes. Two major earthquakes hit Oaxaca and Mexico City with a magnitude of 8.1 and 7.1 respectively in September 2017. After initial decline early in his administration, violence continued to climb in his last few years in office. Homicides increased by 22% in 2016 and another 23% in 2017. Killings of journalists and women have garnered particular domestic and international attention. He accused the PRD of betraying the country by cooperating with PRI, Andres manuel lopez Obrador "AMLO" left in 2014 to form Morena and run for a third time for president, establishing a strong early lead in the polls. With Pena Nieto's approval rating falling as low as 12% by 2017, the PRI struggled under Jose Antonio Meade, who had held various cabinet positions under Pena Nieto and Calderon. Former PAN Deputy Ricardo Anaya formed an unusual right-left coalition with the PRD. Governor of Nuevo Len Jaime Rodriquez Calderon (El Bronco) ran a right-wing populist campaign literally promising to cut off the hands of thieves. Former first lady Margarita Zavala (wife of Felipe Calderon) also ran but dropped out after her campaign failed to garner much support.

Mauricio Macri

· (2015) PRO PRES, CONS MYR WON 2ND RND, FREE MKT REFS TO "NORM" ECON AFTR KIRCH, USED EMERG DEC PWRS TO BYP CONG AND ELIM HIS PRED CONTR MED LAW & APPTS TO FILL 2 SUP CT VAC, MACRI COAL NRW MAJ IN CH OF DEP, INV PANAMA PPRS OF ASSTS, LIFT REST ON BUY/SELL DOL & OTHR CUR CNTRLS, PERSO FELL 35% AGNST $, INF 30%, WGE NEG W/ UNIN TO CAP SAL INC TO 30% COMB INF, PUB SEC UNINS STRIKE, CUT THSNDS FED JOBS, RED PERS INCME TAXES & ELIM AGR EXP DUT, KIRCH TRY USE FOR SOC PROGS, EXP TAX CTS LED INC PRICES OF BEEF AND OTHR FD PRODS DOM, VULT FNDS $7.7 BIL DL FOR NEW BNDS, IMM CONC BOL & POOR CNTRS LED DCREE RESTR IMM, ACCS FST TRK TRMP TWR, SUP HIL, ECON GRW & INF FELL, HIS "CAMB" COAL SCRED VIC IN MIDTRM, COAL GND CNTRL IN CONG, PNSN RFRM SVNG $3.4 BIL YR LED PRT FRM WRKRS W/ CUTS, CRIST IND IN BMB, SNTE SEAT GVE IMMUN, , SEN REJ BILL TO DECRIM ABRT, 1ST CNTRY TO LEG ABRT?, NEW ECON DWNTURN SHRNKNG 2.5% FOR YR, HGHR UNEMP RT INF 47.6% HGHST IN 27 YRS, AUS MSRS, 57.1 BIL IMF LOAN FOR BLOUT TAX HIK & BDGT CUTS, BRK W/ MRK POL TO PRIC CNTRLS, FERN TICK WON MAC ONLY 33%, WNTD ARG BCK INTO FREE MKT ECON FRM KIRCH YRS & FREENG OF ECON? STSH $ IN SUSP BNK ACCNTS, PPL BLMD KIRCH SCND & LSS ORTH ECON POLS FOR ECON PRO president that started in 2015. After the Fernandez-backed Governor of Buenos Aires Daniel Scioli took a surprisingly narrow lead in the first round of voting, conservative mayor of Buenos Aires Mauricio Macri managed to win November 22 runoff with 51.3%. He promised to introduce free-market reforms to "normalize" the economy after the Kirchner era. In first month, used emergency decree powers to bypass Congress and eliminate his predecessor's controversial media law while making appointments to fill two Supreme Court vacancies. This was an attack on freedom of media because it was a way to get less media against her? Opposition FPV held most of the Senate seats, while Macri's coalition has a narrow majority in the Chamber of Deputies. Federal prosecutors opened investigation into whether Macri knowingly failed to report his assets after Panama Papers reveal his participation in two firms based in the Bahamas. He lifted restrictions in December 2015 on buying and selling dollars as well as other currency controls imposed by previous administration. The peso fell 35% in value against the dollar, as inflation reached 30%. To combat inflation, pursued wage negotiates with unions to cap salary increases to 30%. Protsting price increases, public sector unions began striking by February 2016. He cut thousands of federal jobs while reducing personal income taxes and eliminating agricultural export duties. Kirchner used them to try and pay for the expansion of social programs. Export tax cuts led to increasing prices of beef and other food products domestically, though. In February 201. He wants to get in good relations with other financial institutions, set up with vulture funds. Macri reached a $7.7 billion deal with so-called "vulture funds" to pay them for ? Deal allowed Argentina to issue $11.68 billion in new bonds. Did start to raise concerns about immigrants from places like Bolivia and other poor countries, was a country of immigrants but started to put restrictions on immigration. Citing crime, Macri issues February 2017 decree restricting immigration from poorer countries. Media reports accused Macri of a deal of fast-tracking a Buenos Aires Trump Tower just a day after speaking to the president-elect in November 2016. He had an up and down relationship with Trump. Had some relaitons with Trump but Macri had publicly supported Hillary Clinton in tthe US election , in spite of having known Trump for years through business dealings. Once elected quickly congratulated the president elect this converstion and then fast-tracks a trump tower project. As economy started to grow and inflation fell, Macri''s "Cambiemos" coalition scored a major victory in 2017 midterm elections. Money started to come back by the midterm elections and his coalition gained enough control in congress. The victory allowed passage of a pension reform saving $3.4 billion per year, but that led to protests and riots by workers and retirees facing substantial cuts. Cristina Fernandez was indicted in 2017 and 2018 on charges including covering up for Iran in the 1994 bombing. But her seat in the Senate has so far given her immunity, unless there was a vote to revoke it. Additional allegations came after her former chauffeur in August 2018 revealed his notebook citing delivery of campaign payments from government contractors to the Kirchner's residence. However Cristina insisted her chauffer was lying. After a highly divisive debate, Argentine Senate by a vote of 38 to 31 rejected bill passed by Chamber of Deputies to decriminalize abortion in August 2018.Argentina became first country to legalize abortion? Macri had promised not to veto if passed. Argentina's economy suffered a new, severe downturn by 2018, shrinking 2.5% for the year, Higher unemployment rates by 2018? Inflation hit 47.6%, the highest in 27 years. Required a whole series of austerity measures. In response to crisis, government secured a record $57.1 billion IMF loan in October 2018. In exchange for the bailout, lawmakers approved austerity measures of tax hikes and further budget cuts. Up for reelection and facing continued inflation, Macri broke with his market-oriented policies to institute price controls on 60 products in April 2019. With inflation high and not wanting to carry out even more austerity furthers price controls. Ticketof Cristina and Alberto won 47% of the 2019 vote in the primary round against Macri's ticket only garnering 33%.In the primary round everyone can run. Argentine elections have a "primary round" in which all parties compete and the top vote getter of each party get to run in the "first round". Looked pretty clear Macri was going to lose. While campaign did succeed in reducing the gap and margin improved lost his bid for reelection in the first round vote since the Fernandez ticket won. The Peronists are schedule to take office on December 10. Political uncertainty ensured that the economy would continue to decline as the official first round approached. If results hold in the first round, the Peronists will defeat Macri without needing a second round. His focus was to move Argentina back into a free market economy from the years of Kirchner, which Kirchner? He was expected to win by many in first round but facing a lot of opposition in congress. Alot of leaders around Latin America were found to be stashing money in suspicious bank accounts and Macri was one of them. Mainly his emphasis was on freeing u the economy? Restriction of the buying and selling of pesos. Inflation started to increase, leads to strike against policy and Macri government. Kirchner had baggage of scandals and many Argentinians blamed her and less orthodox economic policies.

· Jair Bolsonaro

· (2019-)After the Superior Electoral Court rejected his candidacy, Lula ended run for presidency less than one month before the first round vote. He endorsed former PT mayor of Sao Paulo Fernando Haddad in his place. Jair Bolsonaro, a right-wing populist with the Social Liberal Party (PSL(, took the le ad instead. Polls had shown Lula beating Bolsonaro in a runoff 52% to 32%. Bolsonaro's lead came in spite of a history of controversial views. A former lower ranking officer during the dictatorship, Bolsonaro has frequently defended the military period, including its torture and killings. With Brazilians increasingly concerned with rising crime rates, promised to give police "carte blanche to kill". He advocated purging country of left-wing "criminals" including the MST, and said he would ensure Lula would "rot in jail" while threatening Haddad with prosecution as well. He promised to open up the Amazon to development, including by removing protections for the region's indigenous communities and allowing conversion of rainforest to agricultural land. He also frequently used slurs against women and homsexuals. He was stabbed September 6 while on the campaign trail by a lone attacker who was later declared insane, Bolsonaro quickly recovered and may have gained further public sympathy as a result. Liberal Party President starting in 2019. After outperforming polls and nearly winning the first round vote three weeks earlier with 46% , Bolsonaro's Runoff victory was widely expected. He won with 55.1% and in one of his first moves after election, named Sergio Moro, a primary federal judge in the Operation Carwash scandal, to be his Attorney General. Critics decried the move as a payoff, since Moro had been responsible for convicting Lula, Bolsonaro's main rival in the election. Further suspicions came as the Intercept website in June 2019 posted transcripts of a record conversation between then-judge Moro and the Lula's prosecutor strategizing how to respond to criticism of the case, seemingly in violation of judicial neutrality. There was concern regarding the former army officer's commitment to civilan rule raised after Bolsonaro called for a commemoration of the 55thanniversary of the 1964 coup. His pick for vice president as well as ¼ of his cabinet appointments have been retired generals. After being mocked for corruption during Carnival in 2019, Bolsnaro denounced the event and tweeted a video showing one man urinating on another during the celebration. In a major legislative victory, Bolsonaro won Congress approval of reforms to Brazil's costly public pension system In 2019. Efforts to so under Temer in order to improve investor confidene in the government's finances had repeatedly failed. Reforms come as government slashes spending, including with controversial cuts to social sciences, humanities, arts and climate science programs. The president faces numerous scandals involving his sons. Flavio Bolsonaro, a current senator, investigated by prosecutors for embezzlingstate government and campaign funds on behalf of his family. In January the Brazilian newspaper O Globo reported that Flavio had employed the wife and mother of a death squad leader accused in the assassination of Rio councilmember and human rights activist Marielle Franco in March 2018. Fears of nepotism led to congressional pushbacks as the president unsuccessfully sought to make his son Eduardo US Ambassador and later head of the PSL. Eduardo further generated controversy after suggesting in October 2019 that authoritarian rule might be needed to deal with growing opposition from the left. Another son, Carlo, tweeted in September 2019: "The transformation Brazil wants will not happen at the speed we yearn for through democratic means". International outcry in August 2019 comes after a massive series of fires apparently set by slash-and-burn farmers, ranchers, and miners strike the Amazon rainforest a region Bolsonaro had long promised to develop economically. As Brazil sought to complete a EU-Mercosur trade deal, fires led to threats of European sanctions and a war of words after Bolsonaro insuled French President Emmanuel Macron's wife on Facebook. Even before the fires, government scientists reported that the region's deforestation had increased by 88% during the previous year, leading Bolsonaro to fire the head of the agency responsible for the study. Attacks have increased by an estimated 150% against the region's indigenous population (estimated to be nearly one million), including the assassination of a number of high-profile indigenous leaders, while government weakened legal protection of their lands. Bolsonaro's approval rating has fallen to as low as 29% in aftermath of Amazon fires and other scandals.

· Workers' Party (PT)

· ): LEFT WING PRTY OF LULA AND ROUSF, LRGST PRTY IN LWR HSE, HAS 10.7% OF STS& LDS OPP? COAL TOT 30% OF BODY, LULA LDR OF UDI ORG PRTY FOR LNG TME RUNS &LSE UNTL? PPL VTNG IN PT 4 CONS ELECThe left-wing party of former presidents Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva (2003-2010) and Dilma Rousseff (2011-2016), is the largest party in the lower house (Chamber of Deputies), though has just 10.7% of seats and leads an opposition coalition totaling 30% of the body. Add from reading Interesting history, one of the leaders of Independent union Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, organize party the working party, for long time a left-wing party, for a long time that runs and looses at ballot box until59:40,people voting in the PT in four consecutive elections.

Latin American revolutionary movements and their aftermath

· Argentina - Montoneros o Left-wing movement of Guerilla Fighters to restore Peron.In aftermath of Gen. Juan Ongania's presidency, montoneros begin campaign. Begin as left-wing movement to restore Peron. Arose in aftermath of Cordobazo riots and repression. Executed a series of high-profile kidnappings and robberies most notably the 1970 kidnapping and killing of the former dictator General Pedro Aramburu. Became among the largest and richest urban guerilla movements in history. Peak of 10,000 members. Earned $150 million with kidnappings and bank robberies. Wiped out by "Dirty War" of late 1970s. During Juan Ongania, "montonoeros" guerillas begin campaign During levistingon, they grew during new wave of military repression During Lanusse, grew in spite of repression - Effect: went back and punished a lot Juan Peron stepped o fight against guerillas, who feel betrayed, repressed non-guerilla left? Isabel peron's presidency military given free hand in crackdown on guerillas. Guerillas continued to gain strength. Videla launched Dirty War offensive against guerillas, leftists and Peronists. At least 10,000 killed or "disappeared" and disappearances meant no controversy over "trials" as had happened in Brazil. Videla eventually achieved complete victory over guerillas through a campaign of terror. · Mexico: - Zapatistas: 2000 Guerillas with the Zapatista Army for National Liberation (EZLN) launched a series of attacks In the southern state of Chiapas seeking political and economic justice for the country's indigenous population and others. - Effect: While the military soon regained control and a cease-fire reached, communiques by Subcommandante Marcos among others help gain domestic and international sympathy. Campaign promise to solve the Chiapas rebellion "in five minutes" from Fox fails after Congress unilaterally modifies an agreement with the EZLN · Colombia - FARC:Guerillas: Farc and m-19 guerilla movements, During Ayala's presidency he issued the 1978 Security statute. In the aftermath of the 1977 general strike and a growing guerilla movement led by the M-19 and FARC. This measure gave greater power to the military in fight the guerillas and critics charged that the statue led to increased torture, arbitrary arrests and other human rights violations. He faced an international crisis after the M-19 who led the growing guerilla movement took over the Dominican Republic embassy where 16 ambassadors were held hostage including those of the Us, Mexico, Venezuela, and the Vatican. Ended crisis by allowing guerillas to escape to Cuba with and estimated $1 million in ransom. Four decades of violence involving guerillas, paramilitaries, drug traffickers, and government security forces displaces has created as an estimated 2 million internal refugees (out of a population of 45 million) and tens of thousand more who fled to Ecuador and other countries. Farc political leader Ricardo Palmera arrested n later sentenced to 35 years in prison in 2004. Kidnapping and capture of Farc leader Rodrigo Granda in Venezuela in 2004 leads to international incident. During Alvaro Uribe Velez's second term he signed a free trade agreement with the US in 2006, but approval of US Congress still pending. The measure has faced concerns over alleged human rights abuses including the killing of hundreds of labor activists in recent years. A 2007 scandal emerged when several allieslinked to right-wing para-military groups. Maria Consuelo Araujo forced to resign as foreign minister after her father, Senator Avaro Araujo, is arrested for helping to kidnap a political rival. - Effect: Santos negotiates peace accod with FARC in 2016, only to have it unexpectly regected by 550.2% of voters in a referendum. Uribe campaigned against the accord arguing agains provisions giving partial amnesty and poltical representation to Farc. Vote in pro-accord regions may have been reduved by Hurricane, while earler Gay marriage had led to religious groups mobilizing and joining anti-accord coalition. Santos and FARC agree in aftermath to maintain ceasefire and negotiate further. Peace accord defeat then wins nobel peace prize after renegotiating both with FARC and Uribe there is revised ccord. However, the movement is starting to be held accountable. Duque does not agree with partial amnesty and saying should be punished more. Duque Marquez's opposition to the FARC peace accords has put their future in doubt. - revolutionary movement held accountable, got partial amnesty, Duque saying they should be punished more.

Prosecuting human rights violations

· Argentina o Dirty War: An offensive against guerillas, leftists and Peronists launched by General Jorge Videla. At least 10,000 were killed or "disappeared" during this war. These disappearances meant no controversy over "trials" as had happened in Brazil. Eventually achieved complete victory over guerillas through a campaign of terror. Silent vigils by mothers and grandmothers of the missing in Buenos Aires's Plaza de Mayo focused domestic and international attention on the status of those who disappeared during the Dirty War. · Plaza de Mayo- human rights movement who gained international sympathy for their children and grandchildren who disappeared. Silent vigils by mothers and grandmothers of the missing in Buenos Aires; Plaza de Mayo focused domestic and international attention on the status of those who disappeared during the Dirty War. o Prosecuting Human Rights Violations: · Isabel Peron becomes president and there were a lot of dirty wars hat start during her term , human rights violations but no appetite to put her on trial. · Raul Alfonisn repealed Bignone's amnesty law and began prosecutions for human rights crimes. Military given the first chance at prosecutions, but claimed no crime committed. Sabato Commission formed and documented abuses. Initial prosecutions against 16 officers resulted in 15 convictions including the four main previous dictators. Paramilitary "Carapintadas" (painted faces) publicly march to warn against more prosecution. December 1986, Alfonisn proposed the "Punto Final" ( end point) bill that set deadline for filing changes. Prosecutors rushed to file charges against 200 more military leaders before the deadline. However, revolt at military base in 1987 demanded an end to prosecutions. Alfonisn agreed to fire his chief of staff and reduce the number of charges filed. Radical-led Congress agreed to end all prosecutions below rank of general. New, smaller revolts in 1988 led to a virtual halt to prosecutions below rank of general. New, smaller revolts in 1988 led to a virtual halt to prosecutions. Successor Carlos Menem would grant full amnesty all who had been convicted in 1990. During Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner's second term government stepped up prosecutions for Dirty War human rights crimes in 2012, putting 400 suspects put on trial, with 86 convicted by years end. o Ex-Dictators Prosecuted § Jorge Videla- Sentenced to life imprisonment for aggravate homicide, false arrest, torture and robbery. Released after just 4 years. RE-jailed after Menem's amnesty overturned by federal courts in 2007. In 2013, at 87, died while imprisoned for crimes against humanity. § Roberto Viola- Sentenced to 17 years in prison for human rights crimes. Released by Menem's 1990 amnesty after serving only 4 years. Died still free in 1994 at age 69. § Leopoldo Galtieri- After acquittal on human rights charges, convicted of incompetency for Malvinas/ Falklands War. Released after 1990 amnesty. Placed under house arrest under new human rights charges in 2002, but died soon after at age 76. § Reynaldo Bignone- Initially convicted of destroying documents to coverup human rights crimes, he was released after amnesty. Re-arrested in 2007 for abuses such as trafficking infants from 500 pregnant women during the Dirty War, he was convicted in 2012 and 2016, dying while still custody in 2018. · Brazil o Human Rights Violations: Anti-government guerilla movement grew during Emilio Garastazu Medici's presidency.The 1969 kidnapping of US ambassador Charles Burke Elbrik led to the release of 15 political prisoners and the publishing of the guerilla's manifesto in the press, radio, and TV. This revolutionary movement crushed by 1973 through arrests, torture and death squad activity. Response of agrarian reform and new constitution?New constitution implemented with President to be elected indeirectly through an electoral college. o Prosecuting Human Rights Violations: Lula released first official account in 2007 of those tortured and killed during the military dictatorship. Dilma Rousseff was a one-time Marxist guerilla group member and had been arrested in 1970 and tortured by the military regime. During Dilma Rousseff's first term established Truth Commission to investigate human rights abuses under military, which began May 2012. In spite of her own personal experience with torture by the dictatorship, refused to follow up on 2014 report with prosecution of 277 identifiet perpetrators, citing the need to ensure democratic stability. Anyone arrested? · Chile § Human Rights Violations: Pinochet consolidated power from 1973 to 1975. During this time he rounded up those with Allende government in a soccer stadium, and then killed them systematically. At least 3,527 would be killed or disappeared, 28,000 detained and 200,0000 exiled. Imposed a state of siege. Used DINA to gain control over other members of ruling junta as well. "Operation Condor" coordinates Chile with other authoritarian regimes in the region to kill opponents even while in exile including Pratt in Argentina and Letilier in DC. Went form collective rule to personal dictatorship. Wing of the formerly moderate Communist Party formed a new guerilla movement. Their failed 1986 assassination attempt against Pinochet led to more repression. In his second term, even the Reagan administration began to press Pinochet on human rights. To re-legitimize had plebiscite on one- man rule and "no" won. However passed amnesty law in 1978 and negotiated in leave in 1990 under his constitution. § Prosecutions:Paticio Aylwin established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate abuses. This released many political prisoners and granted victim's families renumeration. However, he backed down from investigating a Pinochet corruption scandal after the military mobilized to show its displeasure. Pinochet stepped down as Army Chief in 1998 but in taking position of "senator for life," he had double immunity from prosecution. Then there was British arrest and Frei took stand against it saying he should be tried in Chile rather than extradition request by Spanish judge. After 503 days of house arrest, released in 200 due to "failing health" although he appeared quite healthy when greeting supporters upon arrival in Chile. Still the government was able to win a 1994 conviction of two generals for the Letelier killing after Supreme Court ruling that. Amnesty law did not apply to international cases. § LAGOS § "Lagos's "National Commission on Political Imprisonment and Torture"documented torture of 28,000 Chileans. There was compensation of around $25,000 per year for victims quickly passed by legislature. During his term he filed over 170 charges against Pinochet, including 9 murder charges, through Supreme Court then ruled in July 2002 that dementia prevented Pinochet from being tried. A few days later Pinochet resigned from his senator-for life. In 2004, a lower court lifted immunity. Public support for Pinochet's prosecution increased after US congressional documents showed he had at least $13 million in 125 US bank accounts and personally moved millions while "mentally incompetent" undercutting beliefs of honesty among his supporters. Supreme court upheld Pinochet's immunity in 2005 for the murder of General Prats but allowed prosecution on other charges. Former DINA head Manuel Contreras convicted and sentence to 15 years in prison. Kissing called to testify for Schneider murder case but unlikely he will ever show up. o Mexico § Human rights violation: On September 26, 2014, 43 students from the Ayotzinapa Rural Teacher's College went missing after they were stopped by the police while traveling in commandeered busses to Iguala, Mexico for a protest. Popular outrage ensued as an investigation showed that the local plice had turned the students over to the Guerreros Unidos cartel. § Prosecutions: The Iguala mayor and his wife were later arrested by the federal government for ordering the kidnapping and presumed killing of the students (remain of only two have been found). What protesting for? With both the Mayor of Iguala and governor of Guerrero membersof the PRD, the Ayotzinapa scandal results in major fissions within the leftist party.

· Augusto Pinochet

· Structure of Chilean Government based on the Constitution of 1980, passed during the Pinochet dictatorship, although since amended to some degree. The Independent Democractic Union is a right-wing party earlier associated with supporters of dictator Augusto Pinochet. Military president from 1973 to 1990. His consolidationof power occurred in 1973 to 1975. He rounded up those with Allende government in a soccer taium , and then killed them systematically. At least 3,527 would be killed or disappeared, 28,000 people were detained and 200,000 exiled. He imposed a state of siege which suspended the constitution and dissolved Congress. He banned Popular Unity parties and the CUT. He imposed 9 pm curfew and media censorship and the military took over the universities. There was scattered armed resistance by MIR, Revolutionary Left Movement, largely crushed. DINA, the National Intelligence Directorate, was a secret police established in 1974. Hewas advised by Walter Rauff, a Nazi war criminal who invented the mobile gas truck. Dina used to gain control over other members of the ruling junta as well. His opponents were killed even while in exile, often coordinate with other authoritarian regimes in the region through "Operation Condor". Former General Carlos Pratt was killed in Argentina in 1974 and former Ambassador Orland LEtelier Killed in Washington DC in 1976. He reverse Allende's land reform and other policies and re-privatized numerous firms. 259 of the 479 state-owner firms sold, oftej at low prices but copper remained government-owned. Rising military spending led to continued expansion of the government and a growing fiscal deficit. By the end of his first tow years, collective rule by Junta transformed into personal dictatorship of inochet. He was given the title of "President in 1975 and by 1978 Pinochet even used his troops to oust the head of the Air force. From 1975 to 1981 there was a move to neo-liberalism. He rejected previous "gradualism,"introducing "Shock Treatement" program of Free-Market reforms in 1975. The early model of "Neo-Liberalism" was designed by the "Chicago Boys," trained at Milton Friedman's University of Chicago economics department. It made sharp cuts in government spending and reduce maximum tariff from 750% under Allende to just 35%. The government promoted non-traditional exports such as flowers, fruit, wine, and other specialty products. Copper was soon no longer the majority of export earnings. All but 24 state-owned firms were privatized, they were sold in large blocs of shares, leading to low sale prices and concentrated ownership. The Shock Program led to a deep recession for the first couple of years. GDP fell 13% and industrial production more than 28% in 1975. The recession led many who had initially supported the coup to break with regime. Such as Eduardo Frei and other Christian Democrats of the PDC and so did key members of the Catholic Church. Pinochet responded by banning all political parties. Ex-PDC candidate Radomiro Tomic was arrested and ex-President Frei was poisoned during a hospital stay in 1982, though it would not be officially rule as murder until 2019 conviction of six accomplices of the regime. He alo intrudced the "Seven Modernizations" after a 1978 Plebiscite extending Pinochet's rule. This privatized health and social security systems and semi-privatuzed public education through a voucher program. IT also put in place highly restrictive labor laws. There was macro-economic successes by late 1970s where reformsled to an influx of foreign investment. Inflation fell form 500% at time of coup to around 10% by 1982. There was also 7% annual average growth rate achieved between 1976 and 1981. The US relatins improved with the election of Reagan and a new 1980 plebiscite passed a constitution written by Pinochet's regime. This confirmed Pinochet rule until 1990 and outlawed parties that threatened "the family, promote violence or... class struggle". There was a gradual decline in power from 1982 to 1990. A December 1981 banking system collapse forced the government to bailout four banks and devalue the peso. Banking deregulation an overvalued exchange rates had led to crisis. The government spent 200 billion pesos (15% of GDP) propping up failing banks. Chile was then among the hardest hit by 1982 debt criss. The GDP decline 14% that year, and unemployed climbed to 30%. By 1983 the "Chicago Boys" forced to resign. Pinochet responded by accepting IMF orthodoxy and asserting more military control over economy. Win of the formerly moderate Communist Party formed a new guerilla movement and a failed 1986 assassination attempt against Pinochet led to more repression. By his second term, even the Reagan administration began to press Pinochet on human rights. In 1989 Pinochet attempted to re-legitimize regime with snap plebiscite on continue one-man rule until 1997. Opposition quickly unified and mounted effective campaign and "No" won unexpectedly 55% to 43%. Pinochet negotiated an agreement to leave after 1990, but under terms of his 1980 Constitution. He stayed commander- in chief until 1998, to be made "Senator for Life" afterwards. The military designated 8 senators out of 47, reduced the original number by half and congress was chosen by binomial representation. Pinochet also had passed amnesty lawin 1978. During Aylwin's presidency right parties National Renewal (RN) and Democratic Independent Union (UDI) unified around candidacy of Piochet's finance minister. In his final year, Punochet pused out old justices and appointed 9 young justices to life terms. Mayors initially we all appointed by Pinochet. He backed down from investigating a Pinochet corriuption scandal after the military mobilized to show its displeasure. Aylwin kept to Pinochet's economic model , and general had left the economy in good shape, including a balanced budget, large foreign reserves, and low inflation. UDI was a pro-Pinochet Independent Democratic Union and made up the "Union for Chile Coalition" (UPC).Pinochet stepped down as Army Chief in March 1998 but in taking position of "senator for life," he had double immunity from prosecution. British Arrest of Pinochet occurred in October 1998 when he was visiting London. This was based on extraditionrequest Spanish judge Judge Baltasar Garzon for the murder of Spanish citizens. Pinochet was placed under house arrest as Blair government considered request. Frei took strong stand against arrest, saying he should be tried in Chile instead , however socialists within his coalition favored the arrest. After 503 days of house arrest, Pinochet was released in 2000 due to "failing health". Although he appeared quite healthy when greeting supporters upon arrival in Chile. He expanded the size of Supreme Court from 17 to 21 to reduce influence of Pinochet's appointees and passed mandatory retirement at 75 yeas of age for justices. With the 8-year terms of Pinochet's designated senator appointees running out in 1998, Frei was able to name two of nine designate seats. Ricardo Lagos filed over 170 charges against Pinochet, including 9 murder charges, through the Supreme Court then ruled in July 2002 that dementia prevented Pinochet from being tried. A few days later Pinochet resigned from his senator-for life seat. However, in August 2004 a lower court lifted immunity. Public support for Pinochet's prosecuation increased after US congressional documents showed he had at least $13 million in 125 US bank accounts. Pinochet continued to personally move around millions even while "mentally incompetent," undercutting belief in his honest among his remaining supporters. The supreme Court upheld Pinochet's immunity in March 2005 for the murder of General Carlos Prats, but allowed prosecution on other charges. With UDI trying to distance itself from Pinochet, deal made to reform constitution in 2005. Pinochet died December 10, 2006 at age 91. Death came shortly after courts agains stripped his immunity and place him under house arrest for the fifth time. With Pinochet gone, CPPD became increasingly divided and with less popular support. In 2008, Bachelet passed universal pension system, partially reversing Pinochet's earlier privatization. During Pinera's presidency there was a repressive Pinochet-era "anti-terrorism law" which continued to be applied to Mapuche protestors. Pinochet's legacy continued to cast a shadow as her opponent, Pinera's Labor Secretary Evelyn Matthei, had a father who was a former air force general who joined the dictator's junta. Bachelet opened files to public in 2014 of those who went missing during the Pinochet years. A separate investigation concluded in 2015 that it was "highly probable" that Chilean poet Pablo Neruda's death 12 days after Pinochet's 1973 military coup was the result of positioning by the regime. Public education had been public and free prior to Pinochet.

The "Pink Tide" counter-reaction to neo-liberalism

· The "Pink Tide" counter-reaction to neo-liberalism Add % of econ growth during pink tide in country examples o Through the neoliberal policies of the 1980s and 1990s helped to restore growth in the region and greatly expand exports, criticism of the model grew over time. Growth rates were often substantially less than in the heyday of ISI during the 1960s and 60s. Much of the gains that were achieved seem to favor the highest income earners, with inequality growing in most countries. By the end of the 1990s, the Latin American left began to see the resurgence of being marginalized, although these movements were generally much more moderate and electorally-oriented than those inspired by the Cuban Revolution in the 1960s and 70s. The wave of left-of-center governments between 1998 and 2004 came to be known as the "Pink Tide". These movements ranged from the much more radical one associated with Venezuela's Hugo Chavez to the more moderate and market-oriented one seen under the Socialist governments in Chile. Some governments included El Salvador, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. o Governments specifically there is a range between chile more moderate, etc. · Chile- moderate because counter reaction was center-left coalition · Move to neo-liberalism: During Pinochet's presidency rejected previous "gradualism" introducing "shock treatment" program of free-market reforms in 1965. Early model of "neo-liberalism designed by the "Chicago Boys" trained at Milton Friedman's University of Chicago economics department. Made sharp cuts in government spending, reduced maximum tariff from 750% under Allende to just 35%. Government promote non-traditional exports such as flowers, fruit wine and other specialty products. Copper was soon no longer the majority of export earnings. All but 324 state-owned firms privatized and sold in large blos of shares leading to low sale prices and concentrated ownership. · Effect: shock program led to deep recession for the first couple of years. GDP fell 13% and industrial production more than 28% in 1975. Recession led many who had initially sypported the coup to break with regime such as Eduardo Frei and other Christian Democrats fo the PDC. So did key members of the Catholic Church. · "Pink Tide" counter reaction: After Pinochet banned political parties and eliminateed opponents resulted in CPPD/ Christian Demcorat becoming President. CPPD is a center left coalition which is moderate.A AFTER ESPECIALLY WHEN THE SOCIALIST PARTY STARTS TO GET ELECTED, COALITIONS, LAGOS AND BACHELET ELLECTED, SOCIALIST PARTY OF ALLENDE CAME BACK · Brazil · Move to neo-liberalism: Fernando Collor (1990) who Introduced orthodox "color shock plan". Began a controversial large-scale gov layoff and privatization program. Much of the program soon reversed by courts and legislature, Collor's removal of price controls led to hyper-inflation, inflation hit 1,585% by 19991. Collor responded by freezing back accounts, restricting withdrawals to 50k New Cruzeiros, freeze lost color support of wealthy and middle class, corruption increased as business, people bribed their way out of this freeze, color scandals emerg, corruption and economic collapse led to mass demonstrations and his impeachment, he resigns hours before Senate set to remove him. Removal of price controls seen as neoliberal · Effect: move to the left, pink tide counter reaction to Collor's neoliberalism , ITamar Franco picks center-left cabinet of psdb and PT, Cardoso centrist social welfare programs , Lula social programs to address sever poverty like Lauched Fome Zero (Zero Hunger) and Bolsa Familia to supply 1.5 million of Brazil's pporest with food aid, raised min wage and Rouseff- "brazil without poverty" program which expanded the Bolsa Familiy and health and educaton programs to help 18 mil Brazilians. She also implemented several minimum wage increases during her first term. · · Argentina- Military president General Videla made early moves towards neo-liberal policies. Included economic stabilization to reduce inflation , privatization of many state enterprises and serious reduction of tariffs. Effect: A recession and banking failues by 1981 led to decline in support "Pink Tide" counter reaction: after military presidencies Bignone signed a amnesty law. Radical centrist Alfonsin was elected. PERSON WHO REALLY EMBRACED CONSENSUS , EXCEPTED TO BREAK WITH IT MEMNEM INSTEAD HE EMBRACES IT, IM GOING TO ENTER TRADE AGREEMENTS , IM GOING TO PRIVATIZED , ADOPT THE DOLLAR AS CURRENCY, TO PROVE NO LONGER NATIONALIST , NOT TRAD PERONIST RIGHT WING PERONISM ALWAYS SPLIT WITH LEFT AND RIGHT WING HIM AND CARLOS SALINAS ARE BIGGEST LEADERS IN THE PINK TIDE IN WASHINGTON CONSENSUS? KIRCHNERS, LUL AND ROUSSEFF LEFT : Effect: Kirchners are pink tide counter reaction to neoliberalism of menem, Nestor was an FPV president which is left leaning faction of the Peronists. He nationalized utilities to help control prices and provide employment. Launched food program for poor in 2003, modeled on Lula's zero hunger program. He criticized the IMF and US for impoverishing 15 million Argentines with their neoliberal demands for major cutbacks in gov programs. Economy began dramatic turnaround. Cristina attempts to raise rev for anti-pov programs with a tax increase of 44% on soy and other agri-exports but protests and is defeated. Passed a "Universal Child Allowance" modeled on Bolsa Familia. She faced many scandal accusations but at same time many Argentines had benefited from her and her husband's progressive economic policies. PNK TIDE CNTR REACTION TO NEOL- POST-NEOL- GRWTH LWR EXCPT CHILE, GAINS FVRD TOP ERNRS LED INEQ TO GROW, END OF 90S- LEFT RESURG AFTR MARGNLZD, MVMNTS MORE MOD & ELEC ORNT THN CUB REV (60/70s), WAV OF ELECS OF LFT-OF-CNT GOVS (1998-04) RAD W/ VEN CHVZ - MOD MKT ORNTD W/SOC CHILE, CHILE EFFCT- SHK PROG LED DEEP RECESS, GDP FELL 13% & INDUS PROD MOR THAN 28%, 1974, REC LED MNY SUP COUP TO BRK W/ REG LIKE FREI & OTHER CDS OF PDC & CATH CHRCH MEMBS, CPPD & SOCIALIST PRES ARE PINK TIDE CNTR REACTIONS TO NEOLIB EX: LAGOS, BACHELET, SOCIAL PARTY OF ALLEND CME BACK, LAGOS- FREE TRD AGR W/US, GOV PROGS OF UNEMPL INSU & EXP HLTH CRE INS, BACHELET- FREE TRD DL W/ CHINA & OTHR AGR, DCREE GIV ELDERLY FREE HLTH CARE & INCR PENS FOR PRST RTIR, PASSD UNIV PNSN SYSTMAFTER ESPECIALLY WHEN THE SOCIALIST PARTY STARTS TO GET ELECTED, COALITIONS, LAGOS AND BACHELET ELLECTED, SOCIALIST PARTY OF ALLENDE CAME BACK ARG EFFCT- KIRCHNERS FPV- NEST NAT UTLTS TO HLP CNTRL PRCES & PROV EMPLYMNT, FOOD PRG, CRIT IMF FOR NEOLB DEMNDS OF MJR CTBCKS IN GOV PRGMS IMPVRSH 15 MIL ARGS, ECON DRAM TURNARND, CRIST- RAISE REV FOR ANTI-POV PRGMS W/ PROP TAX & FAILS, PSSD "UNIV CHLD ALLWNCE" MDL ON BG, ARGS BNFTD FROM KIRCH'S PROG ECON POLS BRAZ EFFECT- COLOR LOSE SUPPORT, LFT PRES EXP SOC PROGAMS, LULA- ZERO HUNG & BF , ROUSF- "BR W/OUT POV" EXP BF & HLTH EDU PROG, BOTH RSE MIN WGE o Could be why pink tide and why did it end and things like that

· Néstor Kirchner

· Unable to agree on singe candidate, Peronists made he 2003 elections a free-for-all. A total of 19 candidates competed and one of the top two candidates was Governor of Santa Cruz Nestor Kirchner. Leading the " Front for Victory" coalition, Kirchner placed second 22.3%. In peronist tradition, both candidates wives played a key role in the campaign. Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner was a popular and influential senator. Polls consistently showed Menem trailing with under 30% support to more than 60% for Kirchner. Rather than face humilitation, Menem pulled out of the race four days before the May 18 election, allowing Kirchner to win unopposed. Kirchner was a Peronist/FPV President from 2003 to 2007. He nationalized utilities to help control prices and provide employment. He launched a food program for poor in 2003 and modeled it after Lula's Zero Hunger program. Kirchner criticized the IMF and US for impoverishing 15 million Argentines. Pacts in 2004 and 2005 with Hugo Chavez eased shortage of oil by swapping it for Argentine food. Venezuela bought over $1 billion in Argentine bonds in 2005 and later joins Mercosur. The economy began dramatic turnaround and it grew 9% in 2003. And 8% in 2004. Unemployment declide from high of 20% t 10% by 2006. Poverty fell from 57% (2002) to 23% (2007). HE reformed the Supreme Court in 2003 to make it more independent. He passed a bill revoking amnesty for Dirty War human rights violators in August 2003. Prosecuted of several Argentine officers as well as of a Chilean Secret Police officer involved in assassinating Chilean general Carlos Prats in Buenos Aires in 1974. He opened a "Museum of the Dirty War" at the Navy School of Mechanics where much of the killing and torture occurred. He pursued a new attempt to prosecute Carlos Menem in January 2004. Menem fled to Chile, but returned in December after arrest warrant was revoked. HE hosted President George W. Bush and others? At 34-nation Summit of the Americas in November 2005. A series of often violent protests against US and IMF policies ensued, as the FTAA talks all but broke down down at this point, He increased his legislative support in Octure 2005 elections. The FPV faction ained 40 of 72 Senate seats and 85-100 chamber of deputies seats out of 257. Among those elected was his wife Cristin Fenandez, who won her Buenoise Aires Senate seat by a substantial margin. By January 2006, Argentina settled its $102.6 bllion in defaulted loans from the IMF and others. He accomplished through he biggest debt swap in world history. Although creditors got less than half of what they were owed, 76% agreed to the terms. In a surprise move, despite being ahead in the polls, Kirchner let his wife run in his place for the October 28, 2007 presidential elections. During Cristina's presidency, Nestor ran for a congressional seat in Buenos Aires and suffered a humiliating defeat to a rival with the conservative PRO. Nestor Kirchner died after suffering a heart attack on October 26, 2010 at age 60. Kirchner, who in May 2010 became the first general secretary of Unasur, had been expected to try to succeed his wife in the 2011 election. Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner's re-election became more likely as her approval rating rose to 60% after her husband's death, and in light of continued economic growth. Peronists remain a strong political force, left wing dominant led to huge economic crisis, Peronists very associated with Kirchners , still conservative factions within the Peronists, particularly since 2001 economic meltdown distant? Also had a situation where he reopens prosecutions for the Dirty War. Reelection nominates his wife a highly respected senor in her own right. May have been because of health problems, lets keep it within the family. belief that instead of cristina reelection nestor will run because he was still doing very good in the polls but he dies. Nestor and Cristina were most powerful Argentinian couple since the Perons. Wife succeeded him and he remained an influential character in her term. After his death political landscape in Argentina remains very wide open.

· Ernesto Zedillo

(1994-2000) Was A PRI president. Shortly after his election, PRI General Secretary Jose Fransisco Ruiz Massieu gunned down in Mexico City, in 1994. His brother Mario Ruiz Massieu was appointed to investigate and accuses PRI leaders. He was arrested smuggling $9 million in cash into US. Raul Salinas (ex-president's brother) arrested in February 1995 as mastermind of Ruiz Massieu killing since the body was found on his property. Zedillo's attorney general Antonio Lozano Gracia forced out after apparent falsification of evidence. His special prosecutorfled the country. Zedillo won with less than a majority against the PAN and Cardenas running again with Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). Unable to sell government bonds due to political uncertainty, Zedillo devalues peso 15% just weeks after assuring Wall Street of currency's stability. Within nine days, as much as #8 billion (12% of of total foreign investment) fled the country and the currency quickly lost nearly half its value. Mexico forced to seek international bailout of $50 billion, $20 billion of it from the US.New round of wage-price pacts were imposed. Minimum wage, which was $8 prior to 1982 crisis, decline from $4 to just $2.50 per day. In 1997, he began "Progresa" program of subsidies for the por whose children attend school. Similar to the Bolsera program. PRI control of the political system diminishes. The labor movement became more divided and independent and media became more indepent. Elections also became better monitored. The PRI suffered big losses in 1997 midterm elections. PAN and PRD together controlled majority in Chamber of Deputies. PAN & PRD together controlled majority in Chamber of Deputies. Cuauhetmoc Cardenas became first elect mayor of MEico City during Zedillo's presidency. PAN made important gubernational gains. The PRI loses control of Federal Elections Commission, as well. PRI faces challenge in 2000 from PAN's Vicente Fox, who runs an "American-style," campaign emphasizing his lain-spoken personality.

· Cristina Fernández de Kirchner

(2007-2015) PJ/FPV PRES, WAS POP SENTR WON ST BY BIG MRGN, DUR NES PJ MAJ STS IN CONG, NEST LET WIFE RUN DESP AHED, WON 1STRND LRG MRGN 1STTRM- UNDER SCNDL INV "SUTCSE-GTE" AR PRT INSPCT FND UNDEC $800K ON VENZLA ANTONINI ACCOMP BY NEST'S FRM ECON MINSTR, ANTNIN LTR TESTFD IN US TRIAL $ SNT BY CHAVZ TO SUP FRNDZ ELEC, DENIED & ACCSED US BRIB HIM, PROP TX SY & OTHR AGRI-EXPTS TO RAIS REV FOR ANT-POV PROGS LED PRTSTS & LCKOUT BY ARG FRMRS ASSOC & DFTD IN SENT, PRES APR RTE DRP TO 23%, UNSUC SGHT EXTRDTIN FROM SPAIN OF ISABEL PER FOR HR VIOLS, X-DICT BIGN ARRST & TRIAL FOR KIDNP TORT & MURD, ASKED LEG TO RE-NAT $23 BIL IN PRIV PENS FNDS TO PROTEC FRM GLBL EC CRIS, EMERG DECL W/ WRS DRGHT IN 50 YRS, SETBCK WHN PJ LOSE '09 MIDT ELECS & NO MAJ IN BTH HOUS, NEST HUML DFT FOR CONG ST AGNST PRO RVL. PASSD "UNIV CHLD ALLW" PROG MOD ON BF, SC RULE UNCONST TO PU PER USE OF MARIJ, FIRE HD OF CNTRL BANK AFT REFS $6.6 BIL IN FOR CUR RES TO PAY DEBT & AFT CONTR APPL CT BCKS MOVE, MRE MOVE TO LEFT SOC DESPT OPP FRM CHRCH, PSSD LEG LGLZ GAY MRRG IN '20 1STIN LA, AFTR MIL RULE VID SNTC LIFE IMPR FOR HR CRMS, HE & BIGN PUT ON TRIAL STLNG WMN'S BBYS ARRST DUR DW, EXPCT REELC BUT WK BC SCANDALS BUT NEST GOOD MYB SWTCH BUT HE DIES & HER APPR RTNG ROSE & ECN GRWTH, 2ndTRM- LA'S 1STWMN ELCT 2NDTRM, SOC 1STMJ SHWING SNCE FNDNG, REST ECVH PESOS FOR $ TO RED CAP FLGHT & TAX FRAUD & EXPLN SRCE $ & TXS PAID, PERSU MERCOSUR TO CLSE PRT TO MALV & UK BANS EXPTS TO ARG MIL, NAT SPAN-OWND YPF LRGST OIL COMP OP IN ARG, EU RESP W/ WTO SUIT AGNST ARG IMP REST & 5 BIL COMP DEAL APRV, MOR DW PROSEC 400 SUSP & 86 CONV, IMF DMND FOR RELIABL INFL DATA, FRMRS DRIVRS % BNKS GEN STRK AGNST ECON POLS & TX HKS, POP FELL AS ENTR ECON SLWDWN W/ CHINA'S COMOD DMND DECLN, SC DELAY MED LA- MED CNTRL DIV BTWN PRIV GOV & NGO SRCES BRK G C CONGL, CONG PSS BILL BRK UP CLARIN, PRES UNABL TO CMPGN FOR FPV AFTR SURG & LST MNY STS IN CONG BUT NRRW MAJ IN BTH, 30% YRLY DEC IN FOR RES MDE ONLIN PURC COLLL @ CUST OFFIC, PROTST RESP EASD RESTR ON BUY $US, DEC DEFAULT AFTR NY JUDGE SYS PY $1.5 BIL "VULT FUND" DEBTS & SC ASKD SEIZE ASSTS OF ARG CNTRL BNK DIR BUT DEC CNNT, PROS INVESTG IRAN RESPON FOR JEW COM CENTR BOMB DEAD AFT COMPLNT AGNST FERND CONVERUP, LFT OFF W/ HI APR RT BUT ARG POLRZD, 1 CONS REELEC ALLWD, INFL RISN 25% & FOR RES ½ OF 2011, ACCUS OF MANIP PESO VAL INVESTIG, ARGNTS BENEF FROM KIRCHS' ECON POL, MACRI PRES? 2017 INDICTED ON IRN COVR UP CHRG BUT SNT ST IMMUN, MORE ALLEG AFT CHAUF NB CITES DELIV OF GOV CONT'S PYMNTS TO HER RES, RUNS AS VP NEXT EELC, RENMS PPV "FRENT DE TODOS" During the 2003 elections in Peronist tradition, both candidates' wives played a key role in the campaign. Cristina Fernadnez de Kirchner was a popular and influential senator. Nestor Kirchner increased his legislative support in October 2005 elections. The FPV faction gained 40 of 72 Senate seats and 85-100 chamber of deputies seats out of 257. Among those elected was Nestor's wife Cristina Fernandez, who won her Buenos Aires Senate seat by a substantial margin. In a surprise move, despite being ahead in the polls, Nestor Kirchner let his wife run in his place for the October 28, 2007 presidential elections. She was a Peronist/ FPV president from 2007 to 2015 and she won on first round by a wide margin against Elise Carrio, formerly of the UCR's left wing, and Duhalde and Kirchner's ex-Economy Minister, Roberto Lavagna. In her first term, she won with 45.3% however she was under investigation for a scandal. The investiagation for "suitcase-gate" was from since August 2007, when Buenos Aires airport inspectors, found $800,000 in undeclared cash on Venezuelan businessman Guido Antonini, who was accompanied by Nestor Kirchner's former Economic Minister. Antioni later testified in a separate trial in Miami that the money was sent by Hugo Chavez to support Fenerandez's election. The Fernadnez administration denied the charges, accused the US of bribing Antonini. To raise revenue for anti-poverty programs, Fernandez in March 2008 proposed a tax increase of up to 44% on soy and other agri-exports. Was becoming very popular but there was a counter reaction, after weeks of protests and a lockout by the Argentine famers association, the proposal is defeated in the Senate, with VP Julio Cobos casting a tie breaking vote against it. The President's approval rating dropped from 58% to just 23%. Unsuccessfully soughtextradition from Spain of ex-president Isabel Peron for human rights violations. But ex-dictator Reynaldo Bignone arrested in 2007 and put on trial beginning in 2009 for kidnapping, torture and murder. She assed legislation in November 2008 to re-nationalize $23 billion in private ension funds to protect them in the face of a global economic crisis. Emergency declared in January 2009 as country witnessed its worse drought in 50 years. She faced a major setback as Peronists lose June 2009 congressional midterm elections. The opposition won a majority in both houses. Nestor Kirchner, running for a congressional seat in Buenos Aires, suffered a huminiliating defeat to a rival with conservative PRO. She passed a "universal child allowance" program modeled on Bolsa Familia in October 2009. The Supreme Court rule in August 2009 that is is unconstitutional to punish personal use of marijuana. She fired the head of the independent Central Bank in January 2010 after he refuse to allow $6.6 billion in foreign currency reserves to be used to pay down the debt. After much controversy, appeal court backed move in March. In spite of strong opposition from the nation's Catholic Church, more attempts moving to the left socially, Argentina passed legislation legalizing gay marriage in July 2020, the first country in Latin America to do so. In December 2010, 27 years after the end of military rule, ex-dictator Jorge Videla convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for human right crimes. He and Reynaldo Bignone were also put on trial in 2011 for stealing the babies of women who had been arrested during the Dirty War. The expectation was the she was going to reelection but numbers on weak side because of scandals. Would probably do a switch with nestor running since was still doing very good in the polls. However, Cristina Fenandez de Kirchner's re-election became more likely as her approval rating rose to 60% after her husband's death, and in light of continued economic growth. She was elected for a second term and became Latin America's first women elected to a second term, easily winning on October 23, 2011 with 54.0% In coalition with other left parties, the Socialists have first major national showing since their 1896 founding. Led by the son of late Raul Alfonisn, Ricaro the Radical Party finished in third place. Adolfo Rodriguez Saa (whose brother Alberto was briefly president), and ex-President Eduardo Duhalde, representing right and left Peronist coalitions against Fernandez, finished with less than 10% each. In an effort to reduce capital flight and tax fraud, Argentina restricted exchanging pesos for dollars in 2011. Citizens requrierd to explain source of money and prove they paid taxes first. Argentina persuaded Mercosur to close ports to ships from Malvinas/ Falkland islands. The UK responded by banning exports to Argentina's military. Nationalized the Spanish-owend YPF , the largest oil company operating in Argentina, in May 2012. The European Union responded by bringing a suit to the WTO against Argentine import restrictions. $5 billion compensation deal filnally approved in April 2014. The government stepped up prosections for Dity War human rights crimes in 2012, putting 400 suspects put on trial , with 86 convicted by year's end. The IMF issued demand that country produce more reliable inflation data by end of 2012. Many economists argued the figure was closer to 24% rather than official 10% rate. Farmers, truck drivers, train operators, and bankers launched a general strike in November 2012 in protest of economic policies and tax hikes. The President's popularity fell as Argentina enterned an economic slowdown as China;s demand for Argentine commodities declined. In December 2012, Supreme court moved to delay implementation of controversial 2009 Media Law. The measure sought to ensure media control would be divided in thirds between private, government and NGO controlled sources. Seen as effort to break up dominant position of Grupo Clarin media conglomerate. Congress passed new bill to break up Clarin in February 2014. With the president unable to campaign for them following surgery for a subdural hematoma in 2013, the FPV-faction Peronists lost many seats in Congress, while still keeping a narrow majority in both houses. FPV left without the 2/3s majority necessary to change the constitution if Cristina Fernandez had wanted to run for a therm in 2015. Seeking to slow a 30% annual decline in foreign reserves, government required online purchases be collected at customs office starting January 2014. But responding to protests, eased restrictions put into place in 2011 on buying U.S. dollars. Argentina declared to be in selective default in 2014 after a New York judge rules the government must pay the Paul Singer-led "Vulture Fund" NML Capital $1.5 billion for defaulted debts. One point the supreme court was even asked the fund to seize assets of the Argentine central bank directly. Quite popular among many Argentines, seen as standing up the banks , predatory bankers, critics to Argentina and abroad ruining Argentina's credit. Separate US court decision in 2015 ruled investors cannot seize funds from Argentina's central bank. Federal prosecutor investigating possible Iranian responisbiltiy for a 1994 Jewish Community Center bombing in Buenos Aires found dead in his home in January 2015. Though an apparent suicide, suspicions were around since a week before he had filed a complaint against the Fernandez government for covering up the matter. End of her second term whether she had or hadn't covered up the Iranian bombing, was possible that she was trying to have good relations with Iran, charge that she was trying to cover up for them. She left office with a relatively high 50% approval rating, but with a politically polarized Argentina. One consecutive reelection allowed. Inflation had risen to 25% and foreign exchange reserves were half of 2011 levels. She faced accusations of manipulating the value of the peso, for which she would be investigated under her successor. At same time, many Argentines ahd benefited from her and her husband's progressive economic policies. Cristina Fernandez was indicted in 2017 and 2018 on charges including covering up for Iran in the 1994 bombing. But her seat in the Senate has so far given her immunity, unless there was a vote to revoke it. Additional allegations came after her former chauffeur in August 2018 revealed his notebook citing delivery of campaign payments from government contractors to the Kirchner's residence. After much speculation that she would run again for a third term as president, Cristina Fenandez in a surprise move, opten to run for vice president instead and appealed to her supporters. Renaming her Front for Victory faction of the Peronists as the "Frente de Todos" (Everyone's Front), she joined with the moderate Alberto Fernandez (no relation) who headed the ticket. People who didn't like cristina could be reassured by the more moderate presidential candidate, Their ticket won 47% of vote in the primary round, with Macri's ticket only garnering 33%. Argentine elections have a "primary round" in which all parties compete and the top vote getter fo each party get to run in the "first round". Though his margin improved, Macri still lost his bid for reelection in the first round vote, since the Fernandez ticket won. The Peronists are schedule to take office on December 10. Political uncertainty ensured that the economy would continue to decline as the official first round approached. If results hold in the first round, the Peronists will defeat Macri without needing a second round. Fernandez Fernandez ticket wins , Peronists are schedule to take office on dec 1, 2019 Magnet for scandal, Nestor and Crisitna most powerful Argentinian couple sicne the Peron's. Political landscape wide open after Nestor's death. Trade sanctions against Argentina, continued the Dirty War prosecutions, ran into various oppositions in the business community, IMF was concerned of inflation rates of the government , upcharged she had been cooking the books to make it looks like less inflation than actually was. Weakening of economy after she raised taxes and protests. The other thing she face on economic front was pusback from the so called , Agreement to settle the debt, ogten have to take 50 cents on the dollar 30 cents on the dollar, forgive the 27:00 of Argentina

· Michel Temer

(2016-2018) Vice President Michel Temer, who joined Rousseff's ticket from the PMDB, broke with the president and pushed for impeachment on charges she manipulated economic data prior to their 2014 reelection. In April, the Chamber of Deputies voted 367 to 136 to petition the Senate to impeach the president. Rouseff is impeached. Michel Temer becomes a PMDB president from 2016 to 2018. Beginning as acting president on May 12 during Rousseff's trial, Temer became president in August after the Senate voted 610 to 20 to remove her. Rousseff and the PT denounced the move as a "coup," arguing that many of those leading the impeachment drive (including Temer) have been implicated in the Petrobras scandal, while Rousseff had not been. A leaked recording showed Temer, as VP, plotting with other legislators to oust Rousseff. Temer began term with just a 12% approval rating, though 60% also favored Rousseff's impeachment. Upon becoming acting president, Temer appointed a completely new cabinet, eliminating nine ministries. For the first time since 1979, all of the appointees were white men. Though five of these ministers were forced out by corruption scandals in his firt month as president. Temer convicted in 2016 of exceeding campaign spending limits and banned from running political office for 8 years. Though he was allowed to remain as President. In late 2016 it was revealed that an attempt made to pass a secret law exempting politicians from punishment for taking under-the-table campaign contributions. After outcry, Temer passed a new laws to protect prosecutorial independence. Congress adopted constitutional amendment in December 2016 imposing 20 years of austerity by limiting federal spending increases to the previous year's inflation rate. Action led to violent anti-austerity protest and came as economy shrank another 3.6% in 2016, though it grew by a sluggish 1% the next year. He won approval of a 2017 labor law making union dues voluntary, reducing job security, weakening overtime rules, and making hiring temporary workers easier. But separate proposal to loosen definition of slave labor withdrawn after public outcry. Temer abolished the renca reserve region of the Amazon in 2017, opening up an area the size of Denmark to mining. Several nations suspended Brazilian beef imports after March 2017 police sting revealed country's sanitation inspectors had taken bribes. Federal prosecutors filed charges against Temer after a tape recording reportedly showed him taking bribes to block an investigation, but Congress voted 251 to 233 in October 2017 against impeachment. This followed an August 2017 congressional vote removing Petrobras- related bribery charges against Temer until his terms ended. Lula convicted and sentenced to 12 years imprisonment in July 2017 for accepting bribes in the Petrobras scandal in the for of over $1 million in improvements to a beachfront house he claimed was not actually his. After a 6 to 5 Supreme Court decision in April 2018, Lula was jailed even as he appealed conviction. Lula would face a second conviction in February 2019 for a second property in Curitiba officially owned by a friend. PT argued that prosecution was a politically motivated move to eliminate the frontrunner in the 2018 election. Temer himself would be arrested and charged with Car Wash corruption in March 2019, three months after leaving office. Temer was dictatorship in pure Vargas faction. Temers presidency was sign that Brazilian justice had strengthened and no one was above the law

M-19

Led a guerilla movement with FARC. In the aftermath of the 1977 general strike and a growing guerilla movement led by the M-19 and FARC, Julio Ayala issues the 1978 Security Statute. Measure gave greater power to the military in fighting the guerillas. Critics charged that the statute led to increased torture, arbitrary arrest and other human rights violations. By who? He faced an international crisis after the M-19 took over the Dominican Republic embassy. 16 ambassadors were held hostage, including those of the US, Mexico, Venezuela, and the Vatican. Ended crisis by allowing guerillas to escape to Cuba with an estimated $1 million in ransom. During Belisario Betancur's presidency, he begins peace negotiations with FARC in 1982, granting its members amnesty and releasing members in prison. Agreeing to ceasefire in 1984, the FARC forms the Patriotic Union (UP) political party. However, the M-19 guerillas continue their fighting with a violent takeover of the Palace of Justice in 1985. 90 killed, including 11 judges. Right wing paramilitaryorganizations begin to emerge by the early 1980s. Drug cartels begin to emerge by the early 1980s. Drug cartels begin organizing and funding paramilitary groups after M-19 guerillas kidnap a relative of drug lords in 1981. Vergilio Vagas reaches peace agreement with M-19 in 1989. M-19 Democratic Alliance (Alinza Democratic M-19) becomes a legal party. In 2003 the AD/M-19 became part of the Independent Democratic Pole coalition. FARC and ELN (National Liberation Army, left wing revolutionary armed group) remained active, however. Four decades of violence involving guerillas, paramilitaries, drug traffickers, and government security forces displaces has created as an estimated 2 million internal refugees (out of population of 45 million) and tens of thousands more who fled to Ecuador and other countries. Santosousts Bogota mayor and former M-19 guerilla Gustavo Petro in 2013 for violating the free market and endangering public health by partially reversing the privatization of the city's garbage collection. The left-wing, former mayor of Bogota Gustavo Petro, a former M-19 guerilla, made the runoff in a politically polarized race in 2018 election.

The process of democratization

Type of Latin American Democratication since the 1980s - Popular Movements · AKA replacement, Ruptura, Breakdown, Collapse · Large-scale mobilization by society, usually resulting in a quick breakdown of the old order - Elite Initiative · AKA Transformation, Reforma, Transactions · Those In power move gradually towards political pening until they eventually lose control of the process and democratization occurs. MORE GRADUAL - Pacted Change · AKA Transplacement, Extrication · Negotations between those in power and major segments of civil society over the new constitution prosecution of old dictators, etc. - After Democratization · Democratic Consolidation · Democratic Deepening - Key problems you see in turns of democracy in countries- could talk about cartels, insecurities are undermining democracy At the same time, the economic crisis destabilizing many existing BA regimes and helped to lead to a new, more extensive wave of democratization. Within a decade of the debt crisis every Latin American country except Cuba and Mexico would become nominally democratic. · Elite Initiative/ Democratic Transition · Mexico- Elite Initiative/ Democratic Transition · Gradual Democraticization · in 2000 democratizes gradual process like Brazil ,even more so 30 years between 68 and 2000, long process · Tlateloco Massacre- With growing student unrest on the eve of Mexico hosting the 1968 Summer Olympics, police open fire on protestors in front of the foreign ministry building in Tlateloco Plaza. Al least 44 protestors killed according to released archival data traditional estimates have put the number at around 300. Subsequent coverup by government and media caused a legitimacy crisis in Mexico that grew until the fall of the PRI 32 years later. During Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon's presidency · PRI control of political system diminishes · Labor movement became more divided and independent · Media became ore independent · Elections became better monitored · Suffer big losses in midterm elections · PAN & PRD together controlled majority in Chamber of Deputies · Cuauahtemoc Cardenas became first elected mayor of Mexico City · PAN made important gubernatorial gains · PRI lost control of Federal Elections Commission · Vicente Fox (PAN): After trying and failing to reach agreement with PRD on a common candidate, he hired away key Cardenas advisors who advocated the "voto util" (useful vote) to rally around Fox to get rid of the PRI rather than splitting the opposition. First PRI open nomination process leading to a divisible battle that ended up nominating Zedillo's Interior Minister Francisco Labastida. He ran lackluster campaign and did poorly in debates, overconfident that the improving economy and Zedillo's personal popularity would help the PRI. Fox wins the election and is the first non-PRI president in 71 years. - Mexico- democratic transition (Pastor, 156) ? - ELITE ENTITIATIVE- STARTING WITH TLATELOCO MASSACRE , NOT A SUDDEN COLLAPSE · Brazil- Democratic Transition - Democratic transition in 1980s- costa - From Joao Baptista , opposition MDB to PMDB , public rallied around to show opposition to military , PMDB Sarney became President - Costa pg. 30? Morais pg. 38, 39 Democratic revolution (38) , democratization of the state (39) Explicit process of DECOMPRESSION Gradually introduce democratic elements MORE GRADUAL · Popular Movement/ Collapse · Argentina - After falklans War- Junta Split , Bignone Amnsety, Radical Alfonsin wins ending Bureaucratic Authoritarinism within a couple years BIG COLLAPSE WOUDLD BE ARGENTINA AFTER FALKLANS WAR · Negotiations · Chile · New 1980 plebiscite passed a Constitution written by Pinochet's regime which confirmed Pinochet rule until 1990. Outlawed parties that threatened " the family, promoted violence or... class struggle". He had a gradual decline in power... Pinochet negotiated an agreement to leave after 1990, but under terms of his 1980 constitution. He stayed commander-in0chied until 1998, to be made "Senator for Life" afterwards. Military designated 8 senators out of 47, reducing the original number by half. The Congress was chosen by binomial representation. Pinochet also had passed amnesty law in 1978. Seventeen parties that had campaigned for "no" on the plebiscite, formed the "Coalition of Parties for Democracy" (CPPD), AKA "Concertacion". It included the Christian Democrats, the Socialists, and the Radicals. Christian Democrat co-founder Patricio Aylwin ran with CPPD, winning majority on first round. The constitution ensured right's control of senate in spite of 6 vote CPPD majority among elected seats. Right able to block much legislation, including any repeal of amnesty law. Also controlled the Supreme Court. Pinochet's constitution on 1980 is still the structure of Chilean government today although it has been amended to some degree. This negotiation was between CPPD and Pinochet CHILE - NEGOTIATION BETWEEN PINOCHET, IF YOU WANT HIM TO LEAVE HAD TO TAKE CONSTITUTION · Pacted Change · Negotiations between those in power and major segments of civil society over the new constitution prosecution of old dictators, etc. · Colombia- · Pacted change- other democratic transition · Pacts of Benidorm & Sitge o To stem La Violencia and end authoritarian rule, Liberals and Conservatives agreed in 1957 to form a "National Front," whereby the presidency alternated between them for the next four terms, and government positions would be divided between the two. PACTED CHANGE- COLOMBIA

"Brazilian Miracle"

· (1968-1974) GRWTH RTE HGHEST IN WRLD @ TIME, EXP X4, MAN GOODS SURP COF & AGRI PRO AS MAIN, ISI & FI THRU STT OWNR OF IND, CRED FOR DOM PUR OF CONS DUR, LOW WAG TO PROM FI, INC CONC OF INC, 30% STUD FIN 4TH GR & 70% CHID MALN, ISI PROB SET UP DBT CRIS, MIR & THN MORE DEBT, EFFEC BY RECSN ONCE STRT DEC FAIL RECOV There was an average 10% annual growth rate from 1968 to 1974 was highest in the world at the time. Exports quadrupled and manufactured goods surpassed coffee and other agricultural products as the main export. Growth combined ISI with a promotion of foreign investment through state ownership of key industries and easy credit for domestic purchase of consumer durables. Also there was low wages to promote foreign investment. The period saw an increased concentration of incomeas well. Only about 30% of students finished 4thgrade in 1971 and an estimated 70% of children suffered from malnutrition. ISI setting up the problems, beginning a long set up debt crisis very important event in world history and globalization really gets its start with debt crisis. One of the parts of perfect storm was that ISI was starting to slow down, creating more and more problems, started out creating the Mexican and Brazilian miracle, and then countries go into more debt as countries try to keep it going, what made it more of a temporary measure? Trying to protect domestic industry even if it will build up. Selling point we can keep wages low, cheap labor invested? Highly concentrated Brazil has a legacy of slavery one of the most unequal countries in the entire world, In '71? Only 30% of students finished the fourth grade, 70% of children suffered malnutrition , famine? Oil embargo? Industrialized quite effected by the recession once start declining they failed to recover,

· Andean Community (CAN)

· (1969)FD AS ANDEAN PACT, BCCEP, MOD OF INTERNAL FREE TRD SOM EXT TAR, CHILE WITHDREW IN 76 PIN OPTRD W/ NOCAN STTS, VEN WAS UNTIL 2006, COM PSPRT, SIM TO MERCOSUR Was founded as the Andean Pact in 1969, consisting of Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. Emphasizes common market model of internal free trade with some external tariffs. Chile withdrew in 1976 when its dictator Augusto Pinochet moved to open trade with non-CAN states. Venezuela was a member from 1973- 2006. Has issued a common passport since 2006. Similar to Mercosur

· National Intelligence Directorate (DINA)

· (1974)SCRT POLCE, ADVS BY RAUFF NAZI WAR CRIM INVNT GAS TRUCK, POLCE TO CNTRL OTHR MMBRS OF RULNG JUNTA, FRMR HEAD CONTRERAS SNTNCD 15 YRS A secret police stablished in 1974.Hewas advised by Walter Rauff, a Nazi war criminal who invented the mobile gas truck. Dina used to gain control over other members of the ruling junta as well. Former DINA head Manuel Contreras convicted and sentenced to 15 years in prison

· Carter's Human Rights Policy

· (1977) INGRL ADDRSS, "OUR CMMTMNT TO HR MST BE ABS", REJ OF Cold War REALISM WHCH SUP REP REG IF ANTI-COM, CRIT HR IN CHIL, ARG, ETC., US CUT AID TO NIC DICT SOMOZA & GAV INIT SUP TO SANDIN AFTR OVRTHRW, AID CUTOFF CNTRVS & ALLW SAN TO GN PWR, US TRN BLND EYE TO FEW DICTS, COM MENACE BUT HR ABUSES MORE CLEAR ESP ARG, MAIN PNT- HIPCRCY OF SUP DEM IN CW BUT ALSO SUP SUPR REG KILLING A LOT THEM, AFTR WTRGTE SAID NEED TO BE MRE CONSST W/ CMT TO HR, POL LEFT CONC THAT SUP DICT WRNG, PLRZTIN W/IN US LIKE REAGAN, CARTER ADMIN FCS O INV PINCHT KILLING AMBSSDR LET IN DC, WRKD HNDING BACK PNMA CNL ZONE OUTRG CONS In his 1977 inaugural address, Jimmy Carter argued that "our commitment to human rights must be absolute". Comment in part a repudiation, rejection of Cold War realism which often supported repressive regimes if they were anti- communist. US criticized human right in Chile, Argentina, and elsewhere. US cut off aid to Nicaraguan dictator Anastasio Somoza and US gave initial support to Sandinistas after they overthrow Somoza in 1979. Cutting off aid was very controversial and would allow Sandanistas to gain power in 1979. Where we had left off there was cold war realism, US decided they could turn a blind eye to a few dictatorships here and there. Communist menace but HR abuses more and more clear, particularly Argentina where there were movements with international attention, for many in US reeked of hipocracy were supporting democracy in the Cold War but also supporting regimes killing a lot of them. His main point was that we were hypocritical to be supporting these regimes. Carter in aftermath of Watergate said we need to be more consistent with commitment to HR. He pushed Human rights in Chile Argentina and elsewhere, further push for human rights. Political left concerned, this is wrong for the US to say we are on side of democracy but support dictatorships. Orientation of his policy was in human rights, Perfect polarization within the US like Ronald Regan. Carter administration focused on investigation of Pinochet of killing on US soil of Ambassador Letelier in DC. Jimmy Carter worked on handing back Panama Canal zone to Panama, which outraged many conservatives.

· Neoliberalism "Washington consensus"

· (1980s and 1990s?) AUST- TO RED/ELIM FED DEFCT- CUT GOV SPND & CLS/SEL STT OWND $ LSNG FIRMS, ENDS CHP GOV LOAN & INT RTES RISE TO MKT RTES, RAISE TXS & IMPRV TX COL, STRUCT ADJ- PROM GRWTH BSD ON TRD AND FI, CUTS TARIFFS & ENTRS TRD AGRMNTS, ELIM REST ON FI, DEVAL CURR TO REFL MKT EXCHNG RTE, PRIV PRFIT & PTNT PRFT FIRMS INC TO FOR INV, WKNS/RED ENF OF LBR LAWS, MILTON FRIED ASSOC W/ NEOL, AGNST KEYNES, DEBT CRISIS & MVES TWD NEOL ECON- 1980 DEBT CRS LED LA DESP FOR NEW LOANS TO STAB ECON & AVD COLL, IMF & WRLD BNK INFL ECON UNDER NEOL DMNDED MJR CUTBCKS IN GOV PRGMS & EXPT LED ECON AWy FROM ISI, IMF- KEYNES TYPE FND, REAC TO NEOLIB- THRU NEOL POL HELPD RESTR GRWTH IN REGN & EXPND EXP BUT CRIT OF MOD OVR TIME, GRWTH RTES SUBS LESS THAN PRIME OF ISI(50s/60s), EX: CHILE PINCHT- REJCT "GRAD" INTR "SHCK TRTMENT" PROG OF FREE-MKT REFS, CHIC BOS, SHP GOV SPND CUTS, RED MAX TARF FROM 750 -30% FRM ALLEND, PROM NON-TRD EXPTS NOT MAJ OR COPPR EXPT, 324 STT-OWND FIRMS PRV & SOLD IN LRG SHR BLOCS LED LW SLE PRCES & CONC OWNRSHP, BNKNG DER & OVRVAL EXCHNG RTES LED CRIS, 200 BIL PESOS PROP FAIL BNKS, AMONG HRDEST HIT, CHIC BOYS FRCED TO RESGN ARG MENEM-VID ERLY MOVS TWRD NEO-LIB POLS, ECON STAB TO RED INFL, PRIV OF STT ENTRPRS & RED OF TARIFFS, MENEM RLLY EMBRCD WC, ENTR TRD AGRMNT ADPT DOL AS CUR, PRVE NO LNGER NATLSM, EXPECT TO BREAK W/ WC BUT MRE R-WING PER NOT TRAD, BRAZ COLLOR- DOESN'T LST VRY LONG, INTR ORTH "CLR SHCK PLAN", LRG-SCL GOV LAYOFF & PRIV PROG? REM OF PRIC CONTRLS LED HYPER-IFL OF 1,585%, RES W/ FREEZ BNK ACCNTS, REST WITHDRAW TO 50K NEW CRUZ, FREEZE LOST SUP, CORRUP INCR & PPL BRIBE WY OUT OF FRZ, HIS OWN SCANDS EMERG AND IMPCH/RESGNS MEX PORTILLO-INF REST PRESS TO DEVAL PESO, TOOK LOANS OUT W/ OIL COLLAT BUT OIL PRIC COLL INC INF BUT RESTS DEVAL PESO UNTIL NEXT ELEC, HURTD DECL INSLVNT, REELEC DEC MEX INSLVNT BEGIN DEBT CRIS, MIN WAGE $8 -2- TAKE OUT MEX EX? MENEM &SALINAS BIGST LDRS IN PNK TDE IN WC PNK TIDE CNTR REACTION TO NEOL- POST-NEOL- GRWTH LWR EXCPT CHILE, GAINS FVRD TOP ERNRS LED INEQ TO GROW, END OF 90S- LEFT RESURG AFTR MARGNLZD, MVMNTS MORE MOD & ELEC ORNT THN CUB REV (60/70s), WAV OF ELECS OF LFT-OF-CNT GOVS (1998-04) RAD W/ VEN CHVZ - MOD MKT ORNTD W/SOC CHILE, CHILE EFFCT- SHK PROG LED DEEP RECESS, GDP FELL 13% & INDUS PROD MOR THAN 28%, 1974, REC LED MNY SUP COUP TO BRK W/ REG LIKE FREI & OTHER CDS OF PDC & CATH CHRCH MEMBS, CPPD & SOCIALIST PRES ARE PINK TIDE CNTR REACTIONS TO NEOLIB EX: LAGOS, BACHELET, SOCIAL PARTY OF ALLEND CME BACK, LAGOS- FREE TRD AGR W/US, GOV PROGS OF UNEMPL INSU & EXP HLTH CRE INS, BACHELET- FREE TRD DL W/ CHINA & OTHR AGR, DCREE GIV ELDERLY FREE HLTH CARE & INCR PENS FOR PRST RTIR, PASSD UNIV PNSN SYSTM ARG EFFCT- KIRCHNERS FPV- NEST NAT UTLTS TO HLP CNTRL PRCES & PROV EMPLYMNT, FOOD PRG, CRIT IMF FOR NEOLB DEMNDS OF MJR CTBCKS IN GOV PRGMS IMPVRSH 15 MIL ARGS, ECON DRAM TURNARND, CRIST- RAISE REV FOR ANTI-POV PRGMS W/ PROP TAX & FAILS, PSSD "UNIV CHLD ALLWNCE" MDL ON BG, ARGS BNFTD FROM KIRCH'S PROG ECON POLS BRAZ EFFECT- COLOR LOSE SUPPORT, LFT PRES EXP SOC PROGAMS, LULA- ZERO HUNG & BF , ROUSF- "BR W/OUT POV" EXP BF & HLTH EDU PROG, BOTH RSE MIN WGE MEX EFFCT- SALINASWGE PRICE AGRMNTS W/ LOW INFL, INT "NEW PESO" , REC NEW LOANS & SOM DEBT FORGIVNSS FROM US & IMF- NEOLIB OR PINK TIDE? SALINAS EX? USE? BUT ALSO LEFT NOT PRES UNTIL AMLO? ARG OF PINK TDE CNTR RCTION- ONLY PPL AT TOP GNING FROM NEOL, PPL WNT MORE SOC PROGRAMS, LED TO PINK TIDE CNTR RCTION, THNK LFT SOC PROG EXP PRES MENEM & SALINAS ARE BIGGEST PINK TIDE LEADERS IN WASHINGON CONSESUS? BIGGEST NEOLIBERALs PINOCHET SALINAS AND MEMNEM, COLlOR IN BRAZIL BUT DOESN'T LAST VERY LONG- PROB RIGHT BC SAMSTAD SAID ASK SAMSTAD? NEOL TRD AGRMNT ALBA BY VEN, SALINAS MVE TWRD WC POLS AND MENEM SYMBOL OF WC, COLR IN BR BUT DSNT LST LONG- PNK TIDE? MNY OF CONS GOVS HAD CORR- PPL OUT OF PYNG TXS, PPL LST STDY JOBS & STT STRT VNDING HRDR TO PAY DBTS & NOT GTNG TAX REV, IMF RETHNK AUS PROG, ARG OF WC- POLS ON SMRT ECON, FREE MKTS, PROD MOR STAB, MOST PI COME & GO LED FOR CNTRYS PLL OUT WHEN THNGS NT STBLE, CRISES IN DEV WRLD (94-01) EXPLAIN COUNTRY EXAMPLES... WERE MENEM , SALINAS AND COLLOR APART OF PINK TIDE? Austerity is to reduce or eliminate the federal deficit. This is done by cutting government spending and closing or selling off money-losing firms the state owns. It ends policy of cheap government loans and allows interest rates to rise to market rates. It raises taxes and improves tax collection, if necessary. Structural adjustment promotes growth based on trade and foreign investment. It cuts tariffs and enters into trade agreements and eliminates restrictions on foreign investment. It devalues currency to reflect market exchange rate and privatizes even profitable and potentially profitable firms, including to foreign investors. It weakens and/or reduces enforcement of labor laws. Economic Growth in Latin America Pre- and Post- Washington Consensus - Post lower in all except Chile Milton Friedman's ideology? From Capitalism and Freedom?He was the leader of the "Chicago school" of free-market economists and was awarded a Nobel Prize in economics in 1976. He was a strong proponent of reduced role of the government. Saw free markets and free societies as going hand-in-hand and was a long-time critic of theories of Keynesian Economics. Argued that governments cannot grow the economy just by "dropping money out of a helicopter"/ Saw inflation as influenced by the psychology of expectations. To break inflation, you had to create a severe recession through austerity policies of cutting government spending and raising interest rates. You should also move away from government fiscal policies and eliminate "structural inflation" such as automatic cost of living adjustments (COLAs). Theories became associated with a "neoliberal"prescriptions against many of the economic regulations associated with Keynesian era. Lowering inflation? Rising interest rates? Latin America's "Lost Decade"? The 1980 debt crisis left Latin American Countries , for new loans to stabilize their economies and avoid further collapse. This situation ensure that international institutions such as the IMF and World Bank had an outsized influence in setting economic policy in the region. Under the influence of the political and economic ideas of neoliberalism these institutions began to demand major cutbacks in government programs and eventually a reorientation of the economy away from ISI towards a focus on exports. The IMF is a fund for a Keynesian-type of infusion of money to stabilize economies. It works as a type of international insurance cooperative among 189 member countries. US was and remains only the country with enough votes to veto important measures. Legislation requires 85% majority. Regional alternatives to the IMF have emerged. A reaction to neoliberalism through the neoliberal policies of the 1980s and 1990s helped to restore growth in the region and greatly expanded exports, criticism of the model grew over time. Growth rates were often substantially less than in the heyday of ISI during the 1950s and 1960s. Much of the gains that were achieved seemed to favor the highest income earner, with inequality growing in most countries. By the end of the 1990s, the Latin American left began to see a resurgence after years of being marginalized, although these movements were generally much more moderate and electorally oriented than those inspired by the Cuban Revolution in the 1960s and 1970s. The wave of elections of left-of-center governments between 1998 and 2004 came to be known as the "Pink Tide". These movements ranged from the much more radical one associated with Venezuela's Hugo Chavez to the more moderate and market-oriented ones seen under the socialist governments in Chile. ALBA initiated in 2005 by Venezuelan president Chavez as an alternative to "neoliberal trade agreement". Pinochet became a poster boy for neoliberalism? Return to clasiccal liberalism, part of this was political ideological argument which was mrore government means less freedom, you cant be free unless you have a free market, have to break this psychology of inflation, have to break the economoy and put the economy into a recession on purpose, raise interest rates enourmously and put them out of work, cant buy goods have to lower prices, will take any job at any salary wages decrease, sometimes when fighting 10000% inflation have put countries in to a very deep ression for this to happen. Systematic efforts to reduce the power of labor unions, less regulation for business, allow the market to decide, big political shift not just government in US but Latin America as well. Influence of neo-liberalism Thatcher and Volker , helped to set interest internationally. Volker comes in an rasies interest rates in 1980s back down and it goes down thing Raegan does in splash spending and goes up into high interest rates. General recommendation not like Adam smith and the government is all bad , can also play positive role, equality Keynesian era and state, State can macro manage the economy and Freidman argued the opposite. Stimulus and so forth. Making inflation hard to cure, break the economy by cutting off social benefits, dramatic need to induce a depression called shock therapy. Influence of Neo-liberalism with rising interest rates. Hows does this effect Latin America and Mexico specially? Dept repayment issues have to pay a lot more on loans they took out, all tied to prime rate, Lodon bank rate, meant that they were expecting to pay at worse , as ISI is getting into trouble, all of this comes together Mexico had just had an election, look at their books and say yo know what there is no money, Pinochet also known for his economic policies, early advocate for ne-liberalism actually hired "Chicago Boys" Chilean economists trained with Milton Friedman at the University of Chicago, years before thatcher and Reagan, 1970s open into 1980s introduced period where Chile was growing at a high rate, part of the context for Washington consensus, Chile thought it collapsed, had one point produced strong growth, well want toher countries Latin America to follow free-market policies ? Forestry flowers other types of goods ? what breaks ater debt crisis? Salinas move toward Washington Consensus policies More than Carlos Menem became a symbol of the Washington Consensus, Salinas becomes richest man in the world at the time, moral hazard, we don't want countries we don't want to fund bad behavior, if president is in debt for buying bigger and bigger places don't want to fund that behavior, if want this laon need x,y and z and fund it in this certain way. Austerity phase and structural adjustment. Austerity you are in debt to credit card company, tighten belt no more movies or eating out, need to pay us back, during the populist phase government took control of industry? Electricity, telephones, railroad, Interest rates to rise rather than encouraging growth through cheap loans and associated with conservative governments , many of these governments had a lot of corruption got people to get out of paying taxes, par roll taxes taken right out of paycheck and fell heavily on the middle class, 1984 doing this for three years, people lost steady jobs and went to street vending and realize they are having a harder time than before on paying off debts, belt-tightening to making it easier to pay off debts not getting that tax revue, government wasn't getting money and texes their revenue plummeted and IMF started to rethink harsh austerity programs. Went towards Structural adugesment which is can't afford to be a student anymore and get a job, need to earn more revenue, move from ISI production emphasized to export economy, model was South Korea a country that had ISI at the right moment switch and start to export. More sufficient leaner economy that could compete on the global scale, many leaders embrace this as the Washington Consensus, SK and Taiwan exported during period picking winners and losers have to cut subsidies? Economic growth in LA pre and post Washington consenus, boom and bust part of the argument of the Washington Consensus, good solid policies based on smart economics, dree markets, produce much more stability, most portfolio investment which was easy come and go which caused foreign countries to pull out when clear things weren't stable , series of crises in the developing world from 1994 to 2001. BIGGEST NEOLIBERALs PINOCHET SALINAS AND MEMNEM, COLLOR IN BRAZIL BUT DOESN'T LAST VERY LONG - Mexico example · Lopez Portillo faced increased inflation but resisted pressure to devalue peso until after the next election. Once PRI had been re-elected, declared Mexico's inability to pay debt, beginning the 1980s debt crisis. Minimum wage, which was $8 prior to 1982 crisis, decline from $4 to just $2.50 per day. · During Portillos presidency took out substantial new loans using oil as collertal as a result of new oil discoveries off the Gulf Coast. Oil price collapse by 1982 led to increased inflation, but Lopez Portillo resisted pressure to devalue peso until after the next election. Once PRI had been re-elected with Hurtado , declared Mexico's inability to pay debt, beginning the 1980s debt crisis. Hurtado wins just before Mexico declares itself insolvent. During Salinas' presidency, there was continued wage-price agreements with relatively low inflation, introduces te "New Peso" . He received new loans and some debt forgiveness from US and IMF in support of his economic program. - Other example? - Brazil- debt crisis hit, at 87 bill brazil had the largest foreign debt in the world at the time , military accepted sever IMF stabilization plan , cruzad plan during costa;s precidency with prelacing the cruzeir, instituting wage freeze combine with one time wage increase, austerity and wage freezes led to a new strike wave - Chile Pinochet Baking deregulation and overvalued exchange rates had led to crisis, government spent 200 bil peson propping up failing banks. Chile was among the hardest hit by debt crisis , GDP decline 14% that year and uemployed climbed to 30%, Chicago boys forces to esign Pinochet respndedby accepting IMF orthodozy and asserting more military control over economy Pink Tide counter reaction to neoliberalism- only certain amount of people are making money, expand social programs o Governments specifically there is a range between chile more moderate, etc. § Chile- moderate because counter reaction was center-left coalition · Move to neo-liberalism: During Pinochet's presidency rejected previous "gradualism" introducing "shock treatment" program of free-market reforms in 1965. Early model of "neo-liberalism designed by the "Chicago Boys" trained at Milton Friedman's University of Chicago economics department. Made sharp cuts in government spending, reduced maximum tariff from 750% under Allende to just 35%. Government promote non-traditional exports such as flowers, fruit wine and other specialty products. Copper was soon no longer the majority of export earnings. All but 324 state-owned firms privatized and sold in large blos of shares leading to low sale prices and concentrated ownership. · Effect: shock program led to deep recession for the first couple of years. GDP fell 13% and industrial production more than 28% in 1975. Recession led many who had initially sypported the coup to break with regime such as Eduardo Frei and other Christian Democrats fo the PDC. So did key members of the Catholic Church. AFTER ESPECIALLY WHEN THE SOCIALIST PARTY STARTS TO GET ELECTED, COALITIONS, LAGOS AND BACHELET ELLECTED, SOCIALIST PARTY OF ALLENDE CAME BACK · Banking deregulation and overvalued exchange rates had led to crisis, government spent 200 bil peson propping up failing banks. Chile was among the hardest hit by debt crisis , GDP decline 14% that year and uemployed climbed to 30%, Chicago boys forces to resign § Argentina- Military president General Videla made early moves towards neo-liberal policies. Included economic stabilization to reduce inflation , privatization of many state enterprises and serious reduction of tariffs. Effect: A recession and banking failues by 1981 led to decline in support "Pink Tide" counter reaction: after military presidencies Bignone signed a amnesty law. Radical centrist Alfonsin was elected. PERSON WHO REALLY EMBRACED CONSENSUS IS MEMNEM INSTEAD HE EMBRACES IT, IM GOING TO ENTER TRADE AGREEMENTS IM GOING TO PRIVATIZED ADOPT THE DOLLAR AS CURRENCY, PERONISM ALWAYS SPLIT WITH LEFT AND RIGHT WING KIRCHNERS, LUL AND ROUSSEFF LEFT - pink tide counter reaction HIM AND CARLOS SALINAS ARE BIGGEST LEADERS IN THE PINK TIDE IN THE WASHINGTON CONSENSUS Effect: Kirchners are pink tide counter reaction to neoliberalism of menem, Nestor was an FPV president which is left leaning faction of the Peronists. He nationalized utilities to help control prices and provide employment. Launched food program for poor in 2003, modeled on Lula's zero hunger program. He criticized the IMF and US for impoverishing 15 million Argentines with their neoliberal demands for major cutbacks in gov programs. Economy began dramatic turnaround. Cristina attempts to raise rev for anti-pov programs with a tax increase of 44% on soy and other agri-exports but protests and is defeated. Passed a "Universal Child Allowance" modeled on Bolsa Familia. She faced many scandal accusations but at same time many Argentines had benefited from her and her husband's progressive economic policies. · Brazil · Move to neo-liberalism: Fernando Collor (1990) who Introduced orthodox "color shock plan". Began a controversial large-scale gov layoff and privatization program. Much of the program soon reversed by courts and legislature, Collor's removal of price controls led to hyper-inflation, inflation hit 1,585% by 19991. Collor responded by freezing back accounts, restricting withdrawals to 50k New Cruzeiros, freeze lost color support of wealthy and middle class, corruption increased as business, people bribed their way out of this freeze, color scandals emerg, corruption and economic collapse led to mass demonstrations and his impeachment, he resigns hours before Senate set to remove him. Removal of price controls seen as neoliberal · Effect: move to the left, pink tide counter reaction to Collor's neoliberalism , ITamar Franco picks center-left cabinet of psdb and PT, Cardoso centrist social welfare programs , Lula social programs to address sever poverty like Lauched Fome Zero (Zero Hunger) and Bolsa Familia to supply 1.5 million of Brazil's pporest with food aid, raised min wage and Rouseff- "brazil without poverty" program which expanded the Bolsa Familiy and health and educaton programs to help 18 mil Brazilians. She also implemented several minimum wage increases during her first term.

· Lost Decade

· (1980s) DEC OF NEG GRWTH, ISI PROD & PPL LOS FORML JBS, NT ABL TO PY DBT, PST- CRIS DECL IN 3RDWRLD LOANS CRTS DOMINO EFFCT REG RSLTS LST EC, AFT LST DEC BFR DOT COM CRSH RESTRTIN OF GRWTH Per capita basis throughout a whole decade was negative growth. Big ISI production and people losing their formal jobs. Latin American countries were not able to pay their debt. During the lost decade, lose formal employment (or informal?) . Formal employment is when production and commercialization is illegal. Post-Crisis Decline in the Third World loans creates a domino effect across regions. Results in the "Lost Decade". After the lost decade, before the dot com crash, had a restoration of growth much better than a din the 1980s, slower than hay day of ISI, emerge after all this painful medicine sluggish after historically, led to further dissolution, breaking that up country by country, one country that managed to see growth at a higher rate than other countries was Chile, had gone through economic reform, not as a result of the deb crisis before hand? Didn't target certain industries with government only promote nontraditional exports, proved to produce greater growth, South Korea and Taiwain exported during Washington consensus period picking winners and losers have to cut subsidies? 1980s?After the lost decade?

· Falklands/Malvinas (1982)

· (1982)WAR W/ GB, RE-CLM ISL AS ARG SINC GB SZD FRM ARG IN 1833, GALTIERI BLVED POL US TIES IMPR W/ REAG & HE WLD STOP THATCH FROM SEND TRPS POL MISC, GALT FCD WRD ECON PROB LED NAT CARD AND RLLY ARND ARG FLAG, INVDS GB CNTRL FALK ISLS & SG ISL, INVD RESLT WAR, BRTSH CNTRATTK RETOOK ISL LEVNG 649 ARG SOLD DEAD 2X MORE BRIT & JUNTA DISCR, ARG PUT GOOD FGHT &SNK MJR SHPS BUT UK WINS, JUNTA NOT ABL TO DO WHT SUP TO BE GOOD AT HVE DECNT WR & JUNTA SPLT, NVY & AIR F Lv JUNTA LVNG JST ARMY Military President Galtieri believed that political ties with US improved since the election of Reagan and expected that Reagan would back a move by Argentina to re-claim islands they had long believed the Great Britain had wrongly stolen. Galtieri faces worsening economic problems which led him to play the nationalism card and rally around the Argentine flag. He invades the Falkland Islands. Continued to put the islands as Argentine property, every Argenian learned the islands were Argentinian. That Reagan would stop Thatcher from sending troops was a political miscalucation. This move to re-claim island resulted in a war which occurred in 1982. Attempting to rally the country behind him, just four months after taking office Galtieri orders an invasion of the British- controlled Falkland and South Georgia Islands beginning on March 19,1982. Argentina had claimed what they called the "Malvinas" Islands ever since the British seized them from their country in 1833. A British counterattack retookthe islands by June 14, leaving 258 UK and 649 Argentine soldiers dead and the junta discredited. Argentina put up a good fight and sunk some major UK ships, in the end UK wins. Argentina loses twice as many soldiers. Junta not even able to do what supposed to be good at, have a decent war and junta itself split. Navy and air force left junta, leaving army to rule by itself as an institution.

· José Sarney

· (1985-1990) Tancredo Neves a former congressional ally of Joao Goulart, led the opposition, running with the PMDB. He promised to attack social inequality and end labor corporatism and at the same time, he reassured the military of his moderation by selecting a prominent PSD leader, Jose Sarney as his vice presidential candidate. Neve's coalition own 4800 electoral votes and after a series of emergency intestinal surgeries, the 75 year old Neves died before he could be officially inaugurated. Sarney became president in his place. Sarney is a PMDB president from 1985 to 1990. Announced a sweeping land reform policy which led to rural mobilization and land take-overs. Program died after landowners hired gunmen to stop redistribution and land invasions. In 1985 introduced heterodox " Cruzado Plan" to deal with the debt crisis. New currency, the "cruzado", replaced the cruzeiro at 1,000 to 1. Facing 227% inflation, instituted wage-price freeze combined with one-time wage increase to compensate for loss of purchasing power. Popular at first, the Cruzado program's austerity and wage freezes led to a new strike by 1986. The 1987 "Bresser Plan" also failed to control inflation. He passed a new democratic Constitution in 1988, to replace military's 1967 one. Economic failures discredited Sarney and PMDB.

· Carlos Salinas

· (1988-1994) PRI president. In 1988, Cuauhtemoc Cardenas demanded that President Madrid open up the nomination process to a free internal election within the PRI. When Madrid ignored his demand and hand-picked his conservative finance minister Carlos Salinas as the party's candidate, Cardenas split with part and ran with FDN, which woud later be reorganized as the Party of the Democrtic Revolution. In the election, Cardenas was leading the early result of vote counting until the computer "crashed" and result would not be released for a week. Once the computers were "fixed," resulted showed Salinas winning with a majority 50.3%. He increased pace of privatizations such as telephones (telmex), banks, mines and petrochemicals and government-owned media (including TV Azteca). He continued wage-price agreements with relatively low inflation, introduces the "New Peso". He received new loans and some debt forgiveness from US and IMF in support of his economic program. He targeted social spending through "National Solidarity Program". He promoted "New Unionism". Arrested Joaquin Hernandez Calicia (La Quina) of the PEMEX union, broke strikes by independent unions and negotiatited privatization with loyal, "flexible" unions. He opened political space for PAN, after they voted with the PRI to destroy the ballots immediately after the 1988 election. He recognized victories in Baja California and Chihuahua and appointed a PAN member for Guanajuanto governor ( though after refusing to recognize win by the charismatic Vicente Fox). He also negotiated North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA),taking effect January 1, 1994. The opposition was fragmented during his presidency. The PAN began to split over cooperation with PRO and many FDN parties refuse to join cardenas in the formation of the Party of the DEmcoratic Revolution (PRD). The PRI turnaround by 1991 midterm elecitons. Elections widely viewed as cleanest to that date in Mexico and PRI vote rose to over 60% with PAN winning 18% regaining its traditional position as second largest party. PRD polled just 8% of vote. Salinas was very popular both domestically and internationally through 1993. Chiapas Rebellion occurs in 1994 which was not good for Salinas. Minutes after NAFTA officially took effect some 2,000 guerillas with the Zapatista Army for National Liberation (EZLN) launched a series of attacks in the southern state of Chiapas seeking political and economic justice for the country's indigenous population and others. While the military soon regained control and a cease-fire reached, communiques by Subcommandante Marcos among others help gain domestic and international sympathy. Luis Donaldo Colosion had long been groomed by Salinas to be his successor. However, PRI Presidential Canddiate Luis Donaldo Colosio was gunned down at a campaign rally in the Lomas Taurinas neighborhood of TJ in 1994. Police captured Mario Aburto, who confessed to the killed purportedly to gain attention for his writings on nonviolence. However, conspiracy theories multiplied as the police badly mismanaged the investigation. The Killing left the PRI without a clear choice as candidate.

Brady Plan

· (1989-1994)NIC BRDY SEC OF TR UNDER cGAN CRTD, PLN AS DEBT CRISIS WRSNED AFTR 7 YRS OF AUS AND STR ADJ, DEVALUTINS & ECON DEC MDE DEBT HIGHER TO PAY, INAD RESUL W/ BAKER PLAN, KEY ELEMENTS- PARTIAL FORGIVNESS (32% OF 191 BIL LOANS TO 18 NAT) & ENC DEBT-EQUTY SWPS? PSHED SEL OF DEBT ON SEC MRKTS & EXT PYMNT PER OF DEBTS, DNT EXPCT TO PAY OFF EVRYTHING, PRIV INVSTRS? END OF BRDY PLN HAD BEEN ALMST DEC OF ECON HRDSHIP, DEBT CRISIS ONLY RSLVD W/ BRDY PLAN, IMP THNG WAS US REALIZE NEEDS TO BE SOM DEBT RELIEF, ECON AUSTERITY? Plan came as debt crisis worsened even after seven years of austerity and structural adjustment. Devaluations and economic decline only had made debt higher to pay. Inadequate results had been seen with the 1985 Baker Plan. The key elements of the Brady Plan were partial forgiveness (32% of the $191 bil in outstanding loans to 18 nations)and encouraged debt-equity swaps. Pushed selling of debt on secondary markets and extended payment period of some of remaining portions of debts. Nicholas Brady articulated this plan as the Secretary of the Treasury under President Ronald Reagan. Essentially started out by writing off don't expect you to pay off everything, forgive one third of the loans? Factories that they ran, private investors could for debt. Selling off of debts on the seconday market. Could paydebt and try to get as much money as you can later. Let pay off over . End of Brady Plan had been almost a decade of economic hardship. During the "Washing Consensus", more trade and foregin investment, need to move from ISI and focus on international trade, make sure labor can fall competitively, still a debt crisis that is only resolved with the Brady plan, in exchange for debt forging inv? Agreements similar to NAFTAImportant thing of Brady Plan was US realize there needs to be some debt relief, economic austerity?

· Fernando Collor de Mello

· (1990-1992) NR PRES, NRW RUNOFF ELEC, ORTH "CLLR SHK PLN", BEG CONTRV LRG GOV LAYFF & PRIV PROG, MCH OF PROG RVRS BY CTS & LEG, HE RESPND BY FRZ BNK ACCTS & RESTS WTHDRWLS TO 50K NEW CRUZ ($600), FRZ LST COLLOR SUP OF WLTH & MID CLS, CORUP INC W/ BUS PPL BRIB OUT OF FREEZ, IMPCHMNT AFT CORRUP SCNDL MSTLY BCK WHN HE WS GOVRNR OF ALAGOAS, BROTH TESTIFS AGNST HIM ON TV, CORRUP & ECON COLLPS LED MASS DEMNSTRS AGNST HIM, MAJ VOT IMPCH HIM & RESGNS BFR SENTE REMVS HIM, HIS NR VP PRANCO BEC PRES B PICKS CENT-LEFT CAB OF PSDB & PT A national reconstruction (Party of National Reconstruction) president from 1990 to 1992. He was narrowly elected in runoff with 53%. He introduced the orthodox "Collor Shock Plan" and began a controversial large-scale government layoff and privatization program. Much of the program soon reversed by courts and legislature. Collor's removal of price controls led to hyper-inflation and inflation hit 1,585 percent by 1991. Collor responded by freezing bank accounts, restricting withdrawals to 50,000 New Cruzeiros (about US $600). Freeze lost Collor support of wealthy and middle class. Corruption increased as business-people bribed their way out this freeze. His impeachment happened in 1992 after a corruption scandal emerged. It was mostly regarding bribes dating back to when Collor was Governor of Alagoas (1987-1989). A critical moment was when Collor's own brother testified against him in a television interview. Corruption and economic collapse led to mass demonstrations against Collor. Chamber of Deputies voted 441 to 38 to impeach in September 1992 and Collor resigned in late December just hours before Senate was set to remove him. Itamar Franco the National Reconstruction President had been Collor's Vice President but picked Center-Left cabinet including PSDB and PT.

· Patricio Aylwin

· (1990-1994) CPPD/ Christian Democrat president from 1990 to 1994. Seventeen parties that had campaigned for "no" on the plebiscite, formed the "Coalition of Parties for Democracy" (CPPD), AKA "Concertacion". It included the chrisitan Democrats, the Socialists, and the Radicals. Christian Democrat co-founder Patrici Aylwin ran with CPPD, winning majority on first round with 55%. Right parties National Renewal (RN) and Democratic Independent Union (UDI) unified around candidacy of Pinochet's finance minister. Businessman Franciso Javier Errazruiz ran with his own "Center-Center Party" (UCC). The communist party all but disappeared electorally. The constitution ensured right's control of the Senate in spite of 6 vote CPPD majority among elected seats. Right able to block much legislation, including any repeal of amnesty law. Right also controlled the Supreme Court. In final year, Pinochet pushed out old justices and appointed 9 young justices to life terms. Mayors initially were all appointed by Pinochet. Aylwin established a Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate abuses. He released many political prisoners and granted victim's families remuneration. Backed down from investigating a Pinochet corruption scandal after the military mobilized to how its displeasure. Sitill the government was able to win a 1994 conviction of two general for the Letelier killing after Supreme Court ruling that amnesty law did not apply to international cases. Made some initial populist moves economically such as minimum wage being increased substantially and teaes increased to be spent on health, education and housing programs. Also, increased money supply, leading to 10% growth. But generally kept to Pinochet's economic model and general had left the economy in good shape, including a balanced budget, large foreign reserves, and low inflation. Aylwin continued privatization (excluding most of the copper industry) and pushed for non-traditional exports. 1992 effort to reform Consttution to eliminate "designated Senators" blocked in Senate, although mayoral elections re-introduced.

· César Gaviria

· (1990-1994) Liberal party president. Elected with 49.5% of the vote on anti-drug platform. His campaign was marred by murders of two presidential candidates, Luis Carlos Galan (liberal) and Bernardo Jaramillio Osso (UP), apparently by drug cartels. Helped to break Medellin drug-cartel. Particularly with the 1993 killing of its leader Pablo Escobar who was shot while trying to escape arrest. However, he was unwilling to extradite the leaders the leaders to the US. Particularly the Ochoa brothers turned themselves in based on pledge of no extradition. He opened Constitutional Assemblyin 1990 with members of M-19 included in the drafting. The constitution took effect July 5, 1991, replacing the Constitution of 1886. It protects human rights, establishes universal right to social security and health care. Legalizes divorce, and prohibited all re-elections (since amended by Uribe). He reduced tariffs, including on agricultural imports, by more than half in 1992. Part of series of moves towards neoliberal reform. Critics argued policy exacerbated rural poverty and made drug production more attractive.

· Ernesto Samper

· (1994-1998) Liberal Party president that wins election with 50.4% by narrow margin on second round by 1.8%. He was accused of accepting campaign contributions from the Cali cocaine cartel. Congressional investigation cleared Samper of Charges in 1996. Us responds by decertifyingColombia as cooperatingon drug war, cutting off aid and imposing trade sanctions. He cracked down on the Cali Drug Cartel. By the end of his term, the Cartel was largely broken and its leaders serving 10 to 15 year sentences. Breakup of the cartels merely served to decentralize production. With protection often provided by guerilla and paramilitary groups. He launched major privatization program, including airports, banks and the energy sector. Introduced "Social Solidarity Network" to address growing poverty. Critics argued that program was highly clientelisitic. Continued to be plagued by charges of corruption. Samper resigns near end of his term, going to Canada for medical exams. Carlos Lemos Simonds became interim presidentin 1998.

· Iván Duque Márquez

· (2018- ) Democratic Center president. After leading in the first round with 39.1% Ivan Duque, an ex-senator backed by Alvaro Uribe wins the presidency in 2018 with 54%. The left-wing, former mayor of Bogota Gustavo Petro, a former M-19 guerilla, made the runoff in a politically polarized race. Centrist candidates, Sergio Farjado, a former mayor and governor, and Santos's vice president German Vargas Lleras did not make it to the second round after coming in third and fourth place respectively. Duque Marquez's opposition to the FARC peace accords has put their future in doubt. Add slide from reading

· Concertación (CPPD)

· (governed 1990- 2010) parties of the center-left Coalition of Parties for Democracy, which governed Chile from 1990 throguh 2010. These parties were the Socialist Party and Christian Democratic party. The Socialist Party (PS), was the social democratic party previously of Salvador Allende and the Christian Democratic party (PDC) is a Catholic-based social reform party, earlier led by Eduardo Frei Montalva. Seventeen parties that had campaigned for "No" on the plebiscite, formed the "Coalition of Parties for Democracy" (CPPD), AKA "Concertacion". It included the Christian Democrats, the Socialists, and the Radicals. Chrisitan Democrat co-founder Patricio Aylwin ran with CPPD, winning majority on first round with 55%. Ricardo Lagos Escobar was a CPPD and socialist party president. He promised to be "third president of the Concertacion, not the second Socialist president". During Bachelet's presidency, with appointed senators eleimated, CPPD won narrow majority of both houses of Congress. With Pinochet gone, CPPD became increasingly divided and with less popular support.Overall record of Concertacion in combatting poverty had been mixed over its twenty years in office. Absolute poverty declined from 45% in 1987 to 17% in 2004. But its 0.57 Gini Coefficient is absically unchanged since democratization, with Chile ranking in inequality 127 out of 147 counties surveyed by the UNDP. The Opposition Concertacion expanded in 2013 to form the "New Majority" coalition, including the Communist party and other left-of-center parties. Replaced by the Nueva Mayoria coalition.

· Republican Proposal (PRO)

· 1 OF MAIN POL PRTY OF ARG GOV, CUR RUL PRTY, BGN AS ELC ALLNCE 2005 BTWN CONS PRTIES & MRGD INTO SNGL POL PRTY IN 2010, 2015 PRO ALLIED W/ UCR AND CENT CIV COAL TO FORM CENT-RGHT CAMBIEMOS COAL, NES KIRCH HUM DFT FOR CONG ST IN BA TO RVAL W/ PRO, MACRI PRO PRES One of the main political parties of the Argentine Government also known as Propuesta Republicana. It is the current ruling party, PRO began as an electoral alliance in 2005 between conservative parties, which merged into a single political party in 2010. In the 2015 election, PRO allied with the UCR and centrist Civic Coalition (CC) to form the center-right Cambiemos coalition. Nestor Kirchner, running for a congressional seat in Buenos Aires, suffered a humiliating defeat to a rival with conservative PRO. Macri was a PRO president that started in 2015.

· Milton Friedman

· 1912-2006) LDR OF "CHIC SCHL" OF FREE-MKT ECONIST & NOBL PRIZ IN ECON, PROM RED ROLE OF GOV, FREE MKT=FREE SOC, CRITIC OF KEYN ARG GOV CNT GRW ECON "DRPING $ OUT OF HELCPT", BEL INFLT INFL BY PSYCH OF EXPCTNS, BRK INFL CRT SVR RECSS THRU AUS POLS OF CUT GOV SPND & RSNG INT RTES, MVE AWAY FRM GOV FISCL POL (COL GOV REV) & ELIM "STRC INFL" LIKE (COLAS- LVNG ADJ), ASSOC W/ "NEOLIB", VRYONE IN LA AFT DEBT CRIS? PROM CERT EXPRTS, PINOCHT - NEOLIB HIRD FRIED & CHIC BOYS? PERN ADVC NEOL , Milton Friedman's ideology? From Capitalism and Freedom?He was the leader of the "Chicago school" of free-market economists and was awarded a Nobel Prize in economics in 1976. He was a strong proponent of reduced role of the government. Saw free markets and free societies as going hand-in-hand and was a long-time critic of theories of Keynesian Economics. Argued that governments cannot grow the economy just by "dropping money out of a helicopter"/ Saw inflation as influenced by the psychology of expectations. To break inflation, you had to create a severe recession through austerity policies of cutting government spending and raising interest rates. You should also move away from government fiscal policies and eliminate "structural inflation" such as automatic cost of living adjustments (COLAs). Theories became associated with a "neoliberal" prescriptions against many of the economic regulations associated with Keynesian era. Milton Friedman neoliberal ideas, goes in alone with these free market policies earlier than anyone else. Became poster boy for neoliberalism Pinochet ? going to have everyone in Latin America do this after debt crisis 42:20Peron early advocate for neoliberalism , known for his economic policies hired Friedman, Who hired Chicago Boys and trained with them, The government decides that it is going to promote certain exports, seen as picking winners and losers something governments are supposed to do.

· Alberto Fernández

· 2019-?). president. MOD FRENTE DE TODOS PRES? FERN/FERN TICKT, ALB AS PRES & CRIST AS VP W/ EVRYONES FRNT, WON AGNST MACRI IN 1ST RND, SCHED TO OFF, OPP OF CRIST REASS BY MOD PRE ALB After much speculation that Cristina would run again for a third term as president, in a surprise move opted to run for vice president of Alberto. Renaming her Front of Victory faction of the Peronists as the "Frente de Todos" (Everyone's Front), she joined with the moderate Alberto Fernandez (no relation) who headed the ticket. Their ticket won 47% of vote in the primary round on August 11, with Macri's ticket only garnering 33%. Though Macri's margin improved still lost his bid for reelection in first round vote as the Fernandez-Fernandez ticket won with 48.1% against the president's 40.4%. The Peronists are scheduled to take office on December 10. People who didn't like Cristina could be reassured by the more moderate presidential candidate Alberto Fernandez.

· Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle

· : (1994-2000) CPPD/ Christian Democrat president from 1994 to 2000. The son of Eduardo Frei Montalva won by an historic margin against the nephew of ex-president Jorge Alessandri with 58%. Alessadri ran with the "Union for Chile Coalition" (UPC) that included both the more moderate National Renewal (RN) and pro-Pinochet Independent Democratic Union (UDI). He pushed to join NAFTA, but the US Congress rejected "fast track" proposal in 1997. Pinochet stepped down as Army Chief in March 1998 but in taking position of "senator for life," he had double immunity from prosecution. Frei took strong stand against arrest, saying he should be tried in Chile instead , however socialists within his coalition favored the arrest. Frei made some progress reducing Pinochet's power. He expanded the size of Supreme Court from 17 to 21 to reduce influence of Pinochet's appointees and passed mandatory retirement at 75 yeas of age for justices. With the 8-year terms of Pinochet's designated senator appointees running out in 1998, Frei was able to name two of nine designated seats. Rules interpreted to allow all ex-presidents to become senators-for-life if they served full 6 years. Frei later became a "senator-for-life" after his term ended. Growth averaged 6.7% per year during his term. By 1999, a new economic downturn came amid a severe drought and foreign investment drying up after the Russian and Brazilian economic meltdowns. But controls on hot moey limited the impact of falling portfolio investment

· Humane Colombia

· : L-WING COAL INCL LDRS FRMLY ASSOC W/ FARC & M-19 GUER MVMNTS Is a left-wing coalition that includes leaders formerly associated with both the FARC and M-19 guerilla movements

· NAFTA (1994)

· :NRTH AMRCN FREE TRD AGRMNT, BGN AS CAN-US FREE TRD (CUSFTA), MEX JOINS N 1992, LBR AND ENV SIDE AGR ADD, CUR PROP TO MOD AS (USMCA), SIM AGR NEG CAFTA W/ CA AND DR, NEED TO MAKE PERSOS CHEAP COMPR TO $ SO CNTRES BUY FROM YOU, MAKES GOODS PROD CHPR AND EC EXP TRD DLS LIKE NAFTA, F VIO OF LBR AND ENV AGR WLD BE TRIAL, NOT ABL TO GET LA AS WHOLE REG FLL APRT BC OF PUSBCK, MEX LKD GREAT AFTR NAFTA, AGR SIM, SALINAS NEG IT, 1 YR AFTR NAFTA W/ LEON ECON DCLNS & MEX SEEKS BAILOUT IN US EMERG LOANS, TENS IN US OVR NAFTA PPL DIDNT LKE WAY CONSTR, CORN PRICES/ ETHANOL? PPL ATE MORE PROC FAST FOOD AFTR & OBSTY RTES TRIPLE WRLD'S HGHST RTE, NIETO PUTS TAX, TRMP SAYS IF WNTS PLL OUT OF NFTA BUT WRKNG TO RENEG, DID GET RENEG SOME CHNGS TRMP CONC ABOUT, IF AMER PULL OUT NEG IMP ON ALL, RENEG BOOSTED NIETO A LITTLE The North American Free Agreement that began as the Canada-US Free Trade Agreement (CUSFTA) in 1988. Mexico agreed to join in 1992 and there were labor and environmental side agreements added in 1993. IT officially took effect January 1st1994. There was a current proposal to modify it as the US-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA). There was a similar agreement negotiated subsequently. The Central American and the Dominican Republic FTA (CAFTA- DR) with Costa Rica, Domincian Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua. Bilateral agreement reached with Chile (2004), Peru (2007), Colombia (2011), and Panama (2011). There was hemispheric expansion as the Free Trade Agreement of the Americas. (FTAA) proposed in 2004, but faced a difficult process of negotiation. Need to make pesos cheap compared to the dollar so that countries buy from you, makes the goods you are producing cheaper and encourages exports, trade deals like NAFTA. Beginning join what is known as the World Trade Organization, aren't going to put large tariffs on other goods even if you didn't enter into NAFTA, unilaterally lowered their terms? Who decides wants to exoand trade but doesn't travels to Asia and Europe in search of trade agreements. Have to double down with joining Canada US agreement? If violation of laor and envrironmental agreements there would be a trial and exposing there had been a violation? Not able to getLAtin America as a whole region fell apart because of pushback in Latin America. Mexico looked great after NAFTA. There were agreements similar to nafta. Salinas seemed like a miracle worke, whipped inflation and negotiated NAFTA. During Leon's presidency, one yea after NAFTA the economy declines again in Mexico and seeks bailout in US emergency loans. Tension in the US over nafta? Corn prices and ethanol production? Corn wiped out? People did not like way nafta was constructed, made wiping out corn completely legal. People ate more processed and fast food drinks after nafta, obesity rates trippes and world's highest rate. Nieto puts a tax on softdrinks and junk foods. Trump says if he wants he will pull out of NAFT even though it could have a negative impact on the United States. Nieto is working to renegotiate NAFTA rather than have US pull out. Did get nafta renegotiated with US Mexico Canada agreement where there are just some changes trump was concerned about but is pretty similar. This boosted Neito a little bit.

· Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva

· A PT president from 2003 to 2010. His first term was from 2003 to 2006 after nearly winning on first round (with 47%) won easily in. arunoff with 61%. Concern about possible Lula win led Real to hit all-time low July 2002. Ironically economic problems hurt Serra, his opponent, more due to his association with the incumbent president. Fear of economic collapse after election never materialized. Lula assured investors he would have a tighter budget than the IMF was insisting upn. Agreement to budget cuts during first years led to renewed investor confidence in Brazil. He even implement public employee pension cuts in spite of a strike against them. He promised to redistribute land to 400,000 families by 2007. 81,000 redistributions by 2004 fell short of goal of 100,000 leading MST to launch its "Red April" wave of land takeovers in 2004. With at least 46 million out of 170 million Brazilians living on less than a dollar a day, promised to address sever poverty. He launched Fome Zero (Zero Hunger) and Bolsa Familia (Family Stiped) anti-poverty programs with goal to supply 1.5 million of Brazil's poorest with food aid. The families have their children in schools and vaccinated to receive money. He raised minimum wage substantially and pushed goal of eliminating hunger internationally as well. Rural migration of more than one million people to Rio de Janeiro and other cities haver the past decades created enormous favelas with poverty, crime and violence at the hands of both drug gangs and police-linked death squads. Lula announced in 2007 a $1.7 billion investment plan for potable water and sanitation, and while introducing community policing efforts. There was a strong 5.2% growth rate by 2004 and by March 2005 Brazil was able to refuse new IMF loans and conditionality. He worked to demarcate traditional lands reserved for indigenous groups as promised under the 1988 constitution. He fell short of goal of finishing process by 2006 after resistance by local land owners. Continued conflict with US over steel and other issues delayed adoption of FTAA. Administration hit by the "Mensalao" congressional vote buying scandal in June 2005 after a PT deputy was found at airport with $100,000 hidden in his underwear. US $12,000 per month from state-owned companies had been paid to some deputies. Although Lula not personally implicated, three PT party officials would later be sent to prison. He has his second term from 2007 to 2010 after again failing to win majority on first round (with 48.7%), he won the 2006 re-election easily in runoff with 60.8%. He signed a major ethanol trade deal with US during a visity by George W Bush in 2007 and was part of long effort to produce alternative fuels from sugar and sunflower plants. As part of Lula's "anti-slavery campaign" a police raid freed more than 1,000 forced laborers from a Amazonian sugar cane plantation in July 2007. Announced in 2007, that the share of those earning less than $1 per day has been cut in half. It went from 9% in 1990 to 4.5% in 2005. After threatening to imprt generics, Brazil reached a July 2007 deal with international pharmaceuticals to cut HIV/ AIDS drug prices by 30%. With aggressive education programs and public funding of treatment, Brazil saw a sharp Witdecrease in HIV/AIDS by end of decade. With aggressive education progams and public funding of treatment, Brazil saw a sharp derease in HIV/AIDS by end of decade. He released the first official account in 2007 of those tortured and killed during the military dictatorship. Petrobras discovered two new massive new fields, one producing oil and one natural gas, off the coast of Rio in 2007 and 2008. Though progress in expanding production would later prove to be slow. As a world financial crisis hits in 2008, Lula generated controversy by criticizing irresponsible actions of "white-blue eyed" financial elites in First World. He suffered major setback when congress dails to renew a controversial financial transactions tax in 2008, cutting government revenues by 10%. Lula criticized a Catholic archbishop for a March 2009 excommunication of foctors who gave a (legal) abortion to a 9 year old incest victim. The action had followed an excommunication of a priest and PT deputy who supported gay rights. The Church had also opposed a 2007 measure giving state subsidy for birth control pills. He won bids to have Brazil host the 2014 World Cup and 2016 Olympic Games, a move celebrated at first, but that would late prove politically costly to the PT. He also approved a controversial Amazon hydroelectric dam project in August 2010. Lula handpicked Rousseff to be his successor which benefitted her because he had an 83% approval rating. Under Lula Rousseff had been an Energ Minister who introduced a program to bring universal access to electricity. In 2005 Rousseff became Lula's Chief of Staff in the aftermath of the PT's Mensalao bribery scandal. Lula was detained for questioning and his home was searched based on suspicions of using Petrobras money for improvements to homes of family members during Rousseff's presidency. He Supreme Court blocked effort by Rousseff to appoint Lula to her cabinet, which had given him partial protection from prosecution. Lula convicted and sentenced to 12 years imprisonment in July 2017 for accepting bribes in the Petrobras scandal in the for of over $1 million in improvements to a beachfront house he claimed was not actually his. After a 6 to 5 Supreme Court decision in April 2018, Lula was jailed even as he appealed conviction. Lula would face a second conviction in February 2019 for a second property in Curitiba officially owned by a friend. PT argued that prosecution was a politically motivated move to eliminate the frontrunner in the 2018 election. After the Superior Electoral Court rejected his candidacy, Lula ended run for presidency less than one month before the first round vote. He endorsed former PT mayor of Sao Paulo Fernando Haddad in his place. Jair Bolsonaro, a right-wing populist with the Social Liberal Party (PSL) , took the le ad instead. Polls had shown Lula beating Bolsonaro in a runoff 52% to 32%. Bolsonaro's lead came in spite of a history of controversial views. Bolsonaro advocated purging country of left-wing "criminals" including the MST, and said he would ensure Lula would "rot in jail" while threatening Haddad with prosecution as well. He won with 55.1% and in one of his first moves after election, named Sergio Moro, a primary federal judge in the Operation Carwash scandal, to be his Attorney General. Critics decried the move as a payoff, since Moro had been responsible for convicting Lula, Bolsonaro's main rival in the election. Further suspicions came as the Intercept website in June 2019 posted transcripts of a record conversation between then-judge Moro and the Lula's prosecutor strategizing how to respond to criticism of the case, seemingly in violation of judicial neutrality.

· Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD)

· A left-wing party which has never held the presidency. Other minor parties are also currently represented in Congress. A social democratic Citizens' Movement (MC) and a Labor Party (PT) that usually align with the PRD. As the 1988 election approached, Cuauhtemoc Cardenas demanded that President De la Madrid open up the nomination process to a free internal election within the PRI. Cuauhtemoc Cardenas was a left-of-center ex-Governor of Michoacan with the PRI and son of Lazaro Cardenas, one of Mexico's most popular presidents (1934-1940). When De la Madrid ignored his demand and hand-picked his conservative fiancé minister Carlos Silas as the party's candidate, Cardenas split with the party and ran with the National Democratic Front (FDB), would later be reorganized as the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). Cardenas soon gathered a substantial following and was leading the early results of vote counting until the computer "crashed". Results would not be released for a week. This results in Carlos Salinas winning. During Salinas' presidency many FDN parties refused to join Cardenas in the formation of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). The PRD polled just 8% of the vote in the 1991 midterm elections. PAN & PRD together controlled majority in Chamber of Deputies during 1997 midterm elections. After trying and failing to reach agreement with PRD on a common candidate, Vicente Fox hired awaykey Cardenas advisors who advocated the "voto util" (useful cote) to rally around Fox to get rid of the PRI rather than splitting the opposition. In the 2000 election , Cardenas runs again with PRD. Prior to 2006, election polls consistently showed MEsico City Mayor Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (commonly known as AMLO) of the PRD as the frontrunner. With memories still fresh of what the PRD saw as a stolen election in 1988, the announcement that Calderon had won the vote by less than one percent led to massive protests. Calderon's swearing-in ceremony in front of Congress was marked by loud protests and scuffles between PAN and PRD deputies. The PRD-led government in Mexico City legalized abortion during first 12 weeks of pregnancy in April 2007. One of the first religious ones?With both the Mayor of Iguala and governor of Guerrero membersof the PRD, the Ayotzinapa scandal results in major fissions within the leftist party. Party founder and three-time presidential candidate Cuauhtemoc Cardenas quits in protest. He accused the PRD of betraying the country by cooperating with PRI, Andres manuel lopez Obrador "AMLO" left in 2014 to form Morena and run for a third time for president, establishing a strong early lead in the polls. Former PAN Deputy Ricardo Anaya formed an unusual right-left coalition with the PRD.

· Chico Mendes (1988)

· ASSASS OF ENVRMNTLST & LDR OF UNIN OF RUBTAP, INT ATT TO PROBL PRES RAPD DIS AMAZN, GOV ATTMPT TO CRCK DWN ON ILL LOG & RNCH BY CRTING 1ST FRST PRES BUT LIM SUCC, PPL WNT BURN AND EXPL, PSHBACK FROM ENVRMTL & IND GRPS RELD ON RES, RNCHR HIRE GUNM TO ASSAS MEND, AMAZ ISSUE FOR 1ST TIME & SINCE THEN BIG ISS An environmentalist and leader of a union of rubber tapperswas assassinated in 1988. His assassination brought international attention to the problem of preserving a rapidly disappearing Amazonian rain forest. The government attempted to crack down on illegal logging and ranching by creating a series of forest preserves, bring at least a limited amount of success. People want to burn it down and turn Amazon into farm and build highways through it. Exploit as much as possible, pushback from environmentalists and indigenous groups that relied on the resources of the Amazon. Rubber tappers are largely indigenous who milk the trees for their sap and survive by tapping rubber plants that were being destroyed. Chico Mendes forms a union and is later assassinated. Ranchers hired gunman to assassinate Mendes. Amazon becomes an issue for the first time and since then the Amazon has become a big issue.

· Nueva Mayoría

· BASD ON CPPD, MAD OF SOC PRTY (PS), ALLEND SOC DEM PRTY & PDC, SMLR L-W PRTY COMM (PCCH) & NRTH FRC COAL, '17 PDC SPLIT W/ NUEVA & RAN SEP & OPP CPPD EXP TO FRM "NEW MAJ" COAL W/COMM & LFT OF CNT PRTYS, BACH NOM BY NUEVA The New Majority coalition based on the parties of the center-left Coalition of Parties for Democracy ("Concertacion" or CPPD), which governed Chile from 1990 through 2010. It is composed of the socialist party (PS), the social democratic party previously of Salvador Allende and the Christian Democratic Party (PDC), a catholic-based social reform party, earlier led by Eduardo Frei Montalva. Smaller left-wing parties were, including the Communist Party of Chile (PCCh) added in 2013, and the regional Northern Force Coalition joined in 2014. By 2017, the Christin Democrats split with Nueva Mayoria and ran separately. The Opposition Concertacion expanded in 2013 to form the "New Majority" coalition, including the Communist party and other left-of-center parties. Bachelet nominated by the Nueva Mayoria coalition that replaced Concertacion

· National Renewal (RN)

· BUS-ORNTD CONS PRTY, APRT OF CONS COAL CV, LED "ALLINCE FOR CHIL" COAL PRTY OF PINER AGNST BACHELT a business-oriented conservative party that was apart of the conservative coalition Chile Vamos, Chile Let's Go. Between 2009 and 2012 the coalition went by the name Coaltition for Change (Coalicion por el Cambio), and in the 2014 election they were "Alianza". National Renewal-led "Alliance for Chile" coalition which was the party of Pinera against Bachelet.

· Brazilian Democratic Movement Party (PMDB)

· CENT-RT PRTY OF SARNEY AND TEMER FRMD DUR 1965 DICT ONLY PERM OPP PRTY, NOW BCKS BOLS, IN 1982 MIL WNTS TO CONQ, LOYAL OPP MDB BEC PMDB, PRTY OF MDB SPLT TO FRM PSDB, PUB RAL ARND PMDB TO SHW OPP TO MIL, IND PRES ELEC 1985 THRU "ELEC COLL" FAV CONS, NEVES RAN W/ PMDB, CARD WON W/ 4 PRTY COAL LED BY PSDB & PMDB, 1 PRTY IN OFF- THE PMDB AFTR DEM BEC DOM & THEN DOM SWTCH TO PSDB, TEMER COAL BLD EFF MDB/PMDB EFF AFTR SAR ECON MD Brazil has the world's most fractured political party system, with 25 parties currently having congressional representation, including the PMDB. The Brazilian Democratic Movement Party is the center-right party of former presidents Jose Sarney (1985-1990) and Michel Temer (2016-2018) that was formed during the dictatorship in 1965 as the only permitted opposition party, and which now backs Bolsonaro with its 6.4% of seats. During the 1982 elections the military hoped to divide and conquer the opposition. The loyal opposition MDB, Brazilian democratic movement, became the PMDB (Brazilian Democraatic Movement Party). Part of MDB split to form the PSDB (Brazilian Social Democratic Party). The public rallied around PMDB anyway to show opposition to military. Indirect elections for president held in 1985 through an "electoral college" favoring conservative groups. Tancredo Neves, a former congressional ally of Joao Goulart, led the opposition , running with the PMDB. He promised to attack social inequality and end labor corporatism. At the same time, he reassured the military of his moderation by selecting a prominent PSD leader, Jose Sarney, as his vice presidential candidate. Cardoso won on his first round running with a four-party coalition led by PSDB and the PMDB. One party in office, the PMDB after democratization became the dominant party and the dominance switches to the social democratic party PSDB, during Cardoso heads a political coalition that just didn't want lulu psdb- coalition, coalition of pdsb and pmdb, Temer was part of a coalition building effort the MDB/PMDB effort after Sarney's economic meltdown.,Center right party? Need more support in Congress so lets build a coalition Temer becomes her VP

· Brazilian Social Democratic Party (PSDB)

· CENTR PRTY OF CARDOSO, CUR BACK BOLS W/ 6.2% STS IN LWR HS, MIL HOPE TO DIV & CONQ DIV, MDB SPLT TO FRM PSDB, PUB RLLY ARN PMDB, FRANCO PICS CENT-LEFT CAB W/ PSDB, CARDO WON W/ PSDB-LED 4 PRTY COAL, COAL DIDNT WNT LULA, 1 OF 25 PRTY W/ CONG REP MOST FRACT POL PRTY SYSTM, AFTER DEM ONE PRTY IN OFF PMDB THEN SWTCH TO PSDB DOM PRTY, MSTLY PT VS PSDB BUT NOW FRAGM, TNY TO SL PRTY? CARD ON LEFT W/ PNK TDE POLS A centrist party of former President Fernando Cardoso (1995-2002), that is currently backing Bolsonaro with its 6.2% of seats in the lower house. During the 1982 elections, the military hoped to divide and conquer the opposition. Part of MDB split to form the PSDB (Brazilian Social Democratic Party). The public rallied around PMDB anyway to show opposition to military. Itamar Franco was National Reconstruction president that picked a Center-Left cabinet including PSDB and PT. Cardoso won the first round, running with a four-party coalition led by his PSDB and the PMDB. His coalition was PSDB-led and just didn't want Lula. Brazil has the world's most fracture politically party system, with 25 parties currently having congressional representation, including PSDB. One party in office, the PMDB after democratization became the dominant party and the dominance switches to the social democratic party PSDB. Mostly pt vs psdb but now fragmented see what happens in the future. Next few years pretty tiny part to social liberal party. PSDB Cardoso interesting figure sort of on the left, pink tide policies introducing affirmative action policies in Brazil.

· Conservative Party

· CENTR-RT PT, 1 OF STRNG 2 PRTY SYST FROM 1849 FND UNTIL '02, FRMD COALS BTH WITH URIBE & SANTOS, OTHR PRES- BECANTUR, PASTRANA Formed, along with the Liberals, part of a strong two-party system from its 1849 founding until 2002. As a center-right party, it formed coalitions both with Uribe during his presidency and Santosuntil 2014. From 1982 to 1986, Belisario Betancur a conservative president. Andres Pastrana Arango of conservative party becomes president from 1998 to 2002. Wins election with narrow margin at 50.4% running with Nueva Fuerza Democratic and Conservative.

· Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN)

· CHIAPAS REB ATTCKS BY 2K GER AFTR NAFTA TOOK EFFECT, SEEKNG POL & ECON JUST FOR IND POP & OTHRS, MIL SOON REGND CNTRL & CEAS-FIRE RCHD, COMMUNQ BY SUBCOM MARCOS HLPD GAIN DOM & INT SYMP, FOX CMPGN PROM TO SLV REB "IN 5 MINS" & FAILS AFT CONGR UNILAT MODFS AGR W/ EZLN Minutes after NAFTA official took effect in 1994, some 2,000 guerillas with the Zapatista Army for National Liberation (EZLN) launched a series of attacks in the southern state of Chiapas seeking political and economic justice for the country's indigenous population and others. While the military soon regained control and a cease-fire reached, communiques by Subcommandante Marcos among other help gain domestic and international sympathy. This was known as the Chiapas Rebelion. Fox had a campaign promise to solve the Chiapas rebellion "in five minutes," fails after Congress unilaterallymodifies an agreement with the EZLN.

· Ayotzinapa Kidnappings

· COLL STUD MISSNG AFT STOP BY POL IN COMDRD BUS TO IGUALA PROTST, INVEST SHW LOC POL GAV THM TO GU CARTL, POP OUTRGE, MAYR & WIF ARRST ORDRNG KIDNP & POS KILNG STUD BY FED GOV, MYR & GOV OF GU MEMBS OF PRD, RESULTS IN LFTST PRTY DIVSNS On September 26, 2014, 43 students from the Ayotzinapa Rural Teacher's College went missing after they were stopped by the police while traveling in commandeered busses to Iguala, Mexico for a protest. Popular outrage ensued as an investigation showed that the local plice had turned the students over to the Guerreros Unidos cartel. The Iguala mayor and his wife were later arrested by the federal government for ordering the kidnapping and presumed killing of the students (remain of only two have been found). What protesting for? With both the Mayor of Iguala and governor of Guerrero membersof the PRD, the Ayotzinapa scandal results in major fissions within the leftist party.

· Chile Vamos

· CONS COAL CONS OF RN & UDI, WAS COAL FOR CHNG & THN ALIANZA, PINER 2NDTRM RAN W/ CV/ RN The political parties and coalitions make up the structure of the Chilean Government. Chile Vamos , Chile Let's Go, is a conservative coalition, primarily consisting of National Renewal (RN) a business-oriented conservative party and the Independent Democratic Union (UDI) a right-wing party earlier associate with supporters of dictator August Pinochet. Between 2009 and 2012 the coalition went by the name Coaltiion for Change (Coalicion por el Cambio), and in the 2014 election they were "Alianza". Pinera ran with Chile Vamos in his second term and RN.

· Institutional Acts

· DUR MIL PRES OF BRANCO 1STINST ACT PSSD- MNDTS PRES RUL BY DEC, STT OF SEGE & "EXTRMST" LOS POL RGHTS FOR 10 YRS, TRIES TO CNTRL LBR THRU PATRNGE ENBLD BY ESTAD NOV LBR LAW, BEG RECVNG $300 MIL YRLY US ASSTNC, & IMF/ WRLD BNK LOANS & PRIV FI AFTR COUP, IMPL ORTH ECON PROGM W/ MXED RESULTS & PERMTTD OLD POL PRTYS (EXCPT PCB) FREE PRSS, CTS & CONG, CONG ELEC HLD & GOV CANDS SUFFR DEFT, RESP W/ 2NDINST ACT- DISS ALL POL PRTYS , INTR IND ELECS FOR PRES & VP, 3RDACT- END POP ELECS OF GOVS & MYRS OF STT CPTLS & ALLWD ONLY 2 LGL PRTYS THT WER PRO-GOV, COSTA WAS IND ELEC THRU PURG CONG & ATTMPT LIM POL OPENING UNDER NEW COSNT, POP MOBLZTN AGNST GOV SRGD & STUDNTS WRKS & CHRCH SCTRS ORGNZD MASS DEMS, CRCKD DWN ON UNREST W/ 4TH& 5THATS- MIL GIVN COMPLT CNTRL OVR NAT SEC & CONST SUSP, CONG DISS, PRES GIVN DICT PWRS & CENSRSHP IMP, DUR HIS PRES DTH SQDS FRMD TO KLL REG OPP, ACTS-HGHST FRM OF LEG DUR MIL REG OVERRUL HGHLY AUTH CONST & PROV LEG JUST FOR AUTH GOV Humberto Castelo Branco was an appointed military president by Congress from 1964 to 1967, after Mazzilli briefly returned and congress first purged of those deemed unacceptable. During Humberto Castelo Branco's Presidency the First Institutional Act was passed mandating presidential rule by decree, state of siege and "extremists"losing all political rights for 10 years. He tried to control labor through patronage as enabled by the Estado Novo's 1943 Labor Law. Immediately began receiving $300 mil per year in assistance from US, along with IMF and World Banks loans and private foreign investment after the coup. He implemented orthodox economic program with mixed results and permitted old political parties (Except the Communist PCB), a free press, the courts, and Congress. Congressional elections held October 1965, only for government candidates to suffer a humiliating defeat. He responded with the Second Institutional Act (1965). It dissolved all political parties , introduced indirect elections for president and vice president. Later came the Third Institutional Act (1965) which ended popular elections of governors and mayors of state capitals and allowed only two legal parties. The two legal parties that were allowed were Pro-Government. Artur da Costa e Silva was a military president from 1967 to 1969 that was indirectly elected through a purged Congress. He attempted limiteda political opening under a new constitution. Popular mobilization against the government surged and students, workers and sectors of the Church organized mass demostrations from 1967 to 1978. He cracked down on unrest with the Fourth (1967) and Fifth (1968) Insitutional acts. In these acts the Military was given complete control over national security and the constitution was suspended. Congress was dissolved, President was given dictatorial powers and censorship was imposed. During his presidency death squads were formed to kill regime opponents. Provided legal justification for an authoritarian government? Highest form of legislation during the military regime, overruled even the highly auth constitution and enforced without the possibility of judicial review

· Fernando Cardoso

· During Itamar Franco's presidency he was lacking a coherent economic plan and inflation increased to 2,490 percent by 1993. By the end of 1993 appointed sociologist and noted dependency theorist Fernando Henrique Cardoso as Finance Minister. Finance Minsiter Cardoso introduced the "Real Plan" starting in 1994 known as Plano Real. The "Real" (R$), replaced the old currencies: Cruziero, Cruzado and New Cruziero. Strong wage-price controls were also imposed. The plan soon lowered inflation to just 24% and the growth rate increased to a strong 5.7%. Cardoso rather than Franco was given most of the credit by the public for the success. He was a PSDB president from 1995 to 2002. During his first term from 1995 to 1998 he won the first round, running with a four party coalition led by his PSDB and the PMDB. He wonf wih. 55% with his PSDB- led coaltion. HE promised land reform and social reform policies including social welfare program of "Comunidade Soldaria" led by his wife, Ruth. Healso introduced the "Bolsa Escola" program of cash grants for keeping kids in school (later to be expanded as "Bolsa Familia" under Lula). He had a lack of support within his congressional coalition led to slowing of reforms. In the face of a divided Congress, often ruled by decree, issuing more than 150 provisional measures in his first couple of years. He increased privatizations and most controversially, parts of the Petrobas oil company which led to a long strike by CUT oil workers. Settled with understanding that company would not be fully privatized. Telebras telecom company was also privatized leading to a corruption scandal over an alleged rigged bidding process. Four government officials forced to resign in scandal. Continuation of Real Plan succeeded in curbing inflation and restoring strong economic growth. By 1997 Cardoso won a constitutional amendment to allow a single consecutive reelection. His second term was from 1999 to 2002 and he again won on first round, running now with a five-party coaltion with 53% win with his PSDB-led coalition. Economic turnaround allowed government o borrow more and gain capital through "hot money" investment. The government, prior to election, used up 40% of foreign reserves to prop up currency. Brazil became heavily indebted and divided political coalition had been unable to agree on significant budget cuts. Brazil lost up to $1.6 billion in foreign exchange reserves daily in the first weeks of September 1998. His second term was marked by another major economic crisis. New $41.5 billion IMF financial rescue came one month after the October election. This forc7ed Cardoso to implement an austerity and there was a new meltdown in January 1999. After then, Minas Gerais Governor Itamar Franco announced a temporary debt moratorium (delay of debt payments). There was $6 billion in capital flight by January 1999. Reallost of 40% of value during crisis. He faed conflicts with the Bush administration over its steel tariffs and the Free Trade Agreement of the Americas (FTAA). He also adopted Brazil's first affirmative action program in 2002, establishing quotas for government hiring of Afro- Brazilians, women and the disabled. By Cardoso's term 3% of the population owned 2/3s of Brazil's arable land. The Landless Workers Movement (MST) increased land invasions after Cardoso agreed to allow redistribution of unoccupied and unproductive land. In 2002, even Cardoso's own summer estate was invaded. Eventually removed after authorities agreed to address the demands for land reform. By the end of the administration, more than 250,000 families won land titles to over 15 million acres under various government programs.

· Portfolio Investment ("Hot Money")

· FI- THRU CUR, GOV BNDS & SM, "HOT MNY"-VERY FST COME & GO , CAN DWNLD & ETRD, EXP GRWH, INC VAL OF WSE 970%, VAL OF FET 2.1K%, ADV- PRVD HRD CUR? & CAP FOR INV, DIS- SUB TO ATTKS BAS ON PSYCH FAC, INC RATES OF INV TURN OF CEN CRT ASSET BOOMS & BUSTS GLBL, DESTAB LA AND MORE-MEX, ARG, SK, ETC, UP & DWN IN LA, MORE FDI IN 1990S IN LA, LT 90S AND ERLY 200S MUCH FI TEND PI, WHY PRON? A type of foreign investment that is through currency, government bonds and stock markets.Also known as "Hot Money"this type of foreign investment has had explosive growth in recent decades. Especially between 1980 and 1995 the value of Work Stock Exchanges up 970% and the Value of Foreign Exchange Transaction up 2100%. Some of the advantages is that it provides hard currency and provides capital for investment. Some disadvantages are that it is subject to speculative attacks and depends, in part, on psychological factors. Surging rates of portfolio and other investments to world's emerging economies at the turn of the new century crated a series of asset booms and busts that spread globally, destabilizing Latin America and elsewhere, including: Mexico, Thailand, Southeast Asia, South Korea, Russia, Brazil, Turkey and Argentina. Portfolio Investment vs. FDI in Latin America and the Caribbean (1980-95) Portfolio Investment at 0 until 1988 and then spikes at 1993 and goes back down. "Hot money" isn't a dollar investment, its very fast in the beginning of class hearing about Mexico, could sell with small fees but cant do that with a factory because big cost. It is stocks, bonds and currency. Can download and e-trade. More FDI by mid 1990s in Latin America, Late 1900s early 2000s running into question because much of the foreign investment tended to be portfolio investment, why does it become a problem in the 90s as opposed to direct foreign investment

· Andrés Manuel López Obrador ("AMLO")

· He is a Morena President-elect. Prior to 2006, election polls consistently showed Mexico City Mayor Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (commonly known as AMLO) of the PRD as the frontrunner. After Lopez Obrador defied a judge's order and moved ahead with an access road to a hospital in Mexico City, the Fox administration charged him with a criminal offense. Together the PRI and PAN voted to remove AMLO's immunity which would have prevented from running for president while he awaited trial, though Fox backed down after a domestic and international outcry. This conflict set the stage for a highly divisive campaign where the PAN's Felipe Calderon characterizing AMLO as a Hugo Chavez-style radical, and Lopez Obrador accusing Fox of using government resources to favor Calderon. With memories still fresh of what the PRD saw as a stolen election in 1988, the announcement that Calderon had won the vote by less than one percent led to massive protests. The Lopez Obrador Protests demanded a complete recount. Lopez Obrador's supporters organized massive protests, closing down much of Mexico City for weeks. After the electoral commission refused the request, Lopez Obrador declared himself the "legitimate" winner, staging an alternative inauguration on November 20, and setting up his own parallel government to monitor Calderon. He accused the PRD of betraying the country by cooperating with PRI, Andres manuel lopez Obrador "AMLO" left in 2014 to form Morena and run for a third time for president, establishing a strong early lead in the polls. Lopez Obrador becomes the first candidate to win a majority for president in thirty years with 53.2%. AMLO's coalition not only won the presidency in the July 1 elections, but nearly won a majority of senate and deputy seats. This came after a campaign where more than 100 local political candidates were killed, presumably drug cartels. A former mayor of Mexico City and long-time leader of the Mexican left, AMLO campaigned to increase social spending, decentralize government and offer amnesty for some drug traffickers. Lopez Obrador set to assume office December 1, 2018. Country faced a major gasoline shortage by January 2019 after the new government sent 5,000 troops to guard Pemex oil pipelines against illegal taps by "huachicolero" gasoline thieves · Thousands of illegal perforations had led to periodic explosions that had killed hundreds Formed a 60,000 member National Guard to fight violence in February 2019 · Added civilian oversight to address human rights concerns over police abuses · He later proposed decriminalizing cannabis and other narcotics, while shifting enforcement money towards treating drug addition Enacted $6 billion in austerity cuts, pledging to shift money towards social needs and improving Pemex · Converted Los Pinos presidential palace into a public museum · Sold a newly-acquired presidential jet, flying coach instead · Slashed salaries and perks for government workers, leading many to quit · Canceled a $13 billion Mexico City airport under construction after holding a referendum Slashed budgets of ministries, even those for health, education, and science Secured a major labor reform law in April 2019 · Measure strengthens rights to collective bargaining and freedom of affiliation, while requiring unions to operate democratically · Changes came partly in response to demands of proposed USMCA replacement for NAFTA Tensions with the Trump administration increased as thousands of Central American camped out in Tijuana while seeking asylum in the US · Shortly after lifting duties on steel and aluminum as per USMCA, the US president threatened to impose across-the-board tariffs on all Mexican goods, starting at 5% and increasing to 25% · Tariffs avoided after Mexico agrees in June to house more asylum seekers and use the new National Guard to better control the border · Mexico however has signaled that it will not agree to a demanded "safe third country" agreement López Obrador defended a controversial decision of federal security forces to release the son of notorious drug lord Joaquin "El Chapo" Guzman after his October 2019 capture led to a violent gun battle in the city of Culiacan, Sinaloa · In the aftermath President Trump suggested that he may designate the cartels as terrorist organizations, raising fears in Mexico of a possible military intervention Mexico's Congress in November 2019 approved a AMLO-backed bill to allow voters to petition the recall of a president after the first three years · Measure must now be approved by a majority of the state legislatures to take effect In spite of controversies over continued drug violence, austerity, the immigration accord with Trump, and a generally sluggish economy, AMLO has so far retained approval ratings of around 60%

· National Regeneration Movement (Morena)

· L-WING PRTY FRMD BY PRES-ELECT AMLO AFTR SPLT FRM PRD IN '14, '18 W/ MORNA AMLO 1STWIN MAJ FOR PRES IN 30 YRS & 1STLFT MEX PRES IN 40 YRS? A left-wing party party formed by then former presidential candidate and now president-elect Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador after he split from the Party of Democratic Revolution (PRD) in 2014. Wins in 2018. First candidate to win a majority for President for 30 years and first Mexican president from the left in more than forty.

· Bolsa Familia

· LULAS PROG, CARDSO INTR ESCLA CSH GRNT FOR KIDS IN SCHL EXP UND LULA, ROUSEFF EXP BF & OTHR PROG, 46 OF 170 MIL BRAZ LIV ON LSS THAN $1 A DAY, ANTI-POV PROGR TO ADDR HER PROM, GOAL TO SUP 1.5 MIL OF BRAZ PREST W/ FOOD AID, FAM MUST HVE CHLD IN SCHLS & VACC, "BRAZ W/OUT POV" EXP BF & HLTH EDU PROG TO HELP 18 MIL BRAZ LVNG ON LESS THN 70 REIAS PER MTH, SHE IMP TX CUTS ON FODD AND OTHR NECESS, WHILE INC BOLSA PAYM 10% EVN AS INFL RSE 6%, STRK DIV W/IN BRAZ, GOV IN DEBT GET RID OF DEF BY SLSHNG GOV SPNDNG & AUST Lula's program. Fernando Henrique Cardo introduced the "Bolsa Escola" program of cash grants for keeping kids in school, later to be expanded as "Bolsa Famila" under Lula. Rousseff had her ups and downs, early on during the terms decides to expand Bolsa Familia and other programs. With at least 46 million out of 170 million Brazilians living on less than a dollar a day, promised to address sever poverty. He launched Fome Zero (Zero Hunger) and Bolsa Familia (Family Stiped) anti-poverty programs with goal to supply 1.5 million of Brazil's poorest with food aid. Families must have their children in schools and vaccinated to receive money. Rouseff launched "Brazil without Poverty (Brasil Sem Miseria) initative in May 2012. The program expanded the Bolsa Familias as well as health and education programs to help the 18 million Brazilians (8.5% of the population) still living on less than 70 reias ($44) per month. Rousseff implemented new tax cuts in May 2014 on food and other necessities, while increasing Bolsa payments 10%, even as inflation rate rose to 6%. This would reveal a stark division within Brazil? The economy government were in debt, get rid of defecit by slashing government spending and austerity.

· Front for Victory (FPV)

· MST IMP FAC OF PER PRTY, FPV UNTIL 2019 CRIST RENMES LFT-LNG FAC TO EVRYONE'S FRNT (FRENTE DE TODOS), PJ TRAD LBR-BSD W/ L/R DIVS & DOM PRTY FOR DECS, OF PRES NEST AND CRIS KIRCH, CRIST RENMES FAC & JOINS TCKT W/ MOD ALBRTO FERN & WIN AGNST MACRI IN 1ST RND, DUR NEST PRES FAC FAINED MAJ OF LEG SEATS? CRIST UNABL TO CMPGN FOR PJ AFTR SURG LED TO LOSE MNY CONG, KEPT NRRW MAJ IN BTH HOUSES, FPV LEFT W/OUT 2/3RDS MAJ NEC TO CHNG CONST IF CRIST WNTD 3RD TRM The most important faction of the Peronist party. The Peronists are a traditionally labor-based party with substantial left-right divisions internally, it was the dominant party in Argentina for decades. The most important faction within the party is the left-leaning Everyone's Front (Frente de Todos), known until 2019 as the Front for Victory (Frente para la Victoria, FPV) of former president Nestor Kirchner and Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner. Cristina renamed her Front for Victory faction of the Peronists as the "Frente de Todos" (Everyone's Front), she joined with moderate Alberto Fernandez (no relation) who headed the ticket. Their ticket won 47% of the vote in primary round and in first round vote ticket won 48.1% against president Macri's 40.4%. During Nestor's presidency, the faction gained 40 of 72 senate seats and 85-100 chamber of deputies seats out of 257. Cristina unable to campaign for FPV Peronists following a surgery in 2013 causing them to lose many seats in Congress. While still keeping a narrow majority in both houses. FPV left without the 2/3s majority necessary to change the constitution if Cristina Fernandez had wanted to run for a third term.

Electoral systems in Latin America and their effects

· Mainly things like the fact things that make a different Ex: Open list party fragmentation in brazil or in terms of constitutional system no re-election in Mexico , big headline features, lecture notes · Executive and legislative · Courts independent - Jud o What are the electoral systems effects? o Of different branches? Term periods? Consecutive terms? o Open list vs closed list representation o Effects from journals? o Key elections? - Argentina · Exec branch- elected by majority, a candidate wins on the first round if they gain a) more than 45% or b) more than 40% with a 10% or more lead against the next most popular candidate , runs as ticket with a VP candidate - ALLOWED PERONISTS TO WIN ON FIRST ROUND MOST PEOPLE TO WIN ON FIRST ROUNDS, MACRI ONLY SECOND ROUND · Jud branch- 9 members appointed by Pres and approved by the senate · Leg branch · Chamber of deputies- members elected by closed-list representation, , seats allotted nationally , 4-year terms with half seats elected every 2 years · Senate- 3 from each province, 2 senators elected by majority, 1 as first minority, elections staggered every two years - Brazil · Exec branch- elected by a majority, runoff election held if no candidate wins at least 50% on first round · Jud branch- 11 members appointed by the president and approved by the Senate · Leg branch · Chamber of deputies- members elected by open list proportional representation . results in frequent party switching among elected officials, with roughly one third switching over the course of a four year term. · Senate- elected by single-member districts · states given substantial power, including control over education and ability to own financial institutions - Chile · Exec branch- elected by majority, if no majority on first round, there is a runoff between the top two candidates · Jud branch- 21 members appointed by the president and approved by two-thirds the Senate · Leg branch · Chamber of deputies- elected by open list proportional representation, before 2017 a controversial "binomial" system was used where each of 60 district elected the top two vote geters (thus requiring one party to win 2/3 or more of the vote to get both seats) - IN BOTH CHAMBER OF DEP AND SENATE · Senate- elected through open list proportion representation, until 2017 the Senate was also elected under a binomial system, elected to 8 year terms and are staggered with half of elections every four years - Mexico · Exec branch- elected by plurality to six-year term, nearly unlimited power during the PRI, power is now diminished , current president have found it difficult to pass legislation through Congress · Jud branch—11 members appointed by president and approved by the Senate, courts? · Leg branch- · Chamber of Deputies- elected to 3 year terms with no reelection but with 4 consecutive terms allowed, 300 out of 500 elected by plurality, 200 by closed-list proportional representation based on 5 districts, 40% of party nominees are required to be women (although usually under 25% of elected seats are held by women). 2% minimum threshold for representation. VERY GEENROUS PROPORTIONAL REP- GETS SMALL PARTIES REP , PRESIDENT TEND TOWARDS TWO PARTIES, SMALLER PARTIES COULD TEND TO THE CONGRESS · Senate- members elected to 6 year non-staggered terms, previously with no reelection, but since 2014 one reelection allowed, 64 elected by plurality, 32 as first minority (That is, to the second highest vote getter) and 32 nationally by closed-list proportional representation · states traditionally dependent on federal government, but have been gaining power and autonomy over the last decade - Colombia · Exec branch- elected by majority to four-year term with a two term lifetime limit(with no reelections allowed before 2005), a runoff is held if no candidate gets over 50% on the first round, appoints the cabinet , based on the constitution of 1991, that replaced the 1886 Executive Branch · Jud branch- supreme court with 23 members elected to 8 year terms by the prior Supreme Court on nominations by the Superior Council fo the Judiciary of Colombia · Leg branch · House or f representative- 166 members elected to 4 year terms by proportional representation, with parties choosing whether to select by party list or open list, seats allotted mainly by department (states), with 2 to 16 seats selected each according to population, 2 seats allocated to citizens abroad, 2 to Afro-Colombians and 1 to indigenous groups · Senate- 102 members elected to 5 year terms, 100 selected nationally by proportional representation (parties choosing open or closed list) with a 3% threshold for party representation, 2 seats reserved for Indigenous representatives.

· Plan Colombia

· PASTRA WINS $1.3 BIL IN US AID TO FGHT DRUG TRFCK & GUER COMB W/ IN DOM SOC SPNDNG, US CONTR RCHS $5 BIL, PLN INC CONTRV COCA CROP ERAD W/ AER SPRY Pastra wins $1.3 billion in US aid to fight drug traffickers and guerillas to be combined with increased domestic social spending. US contribution reaches $5 billion by 2006. Plan includes controversial coca crop eradication through aerial spraying. This was controversial and bad for the environment because makes the land not good to grow anything else after?

· Debt Crisis of 1982

· PORTILLO PRES NEW LOANS USNG OIL AS COLLAT AFT G COAST DISC, OIL PRCE COLLPS LED INC INFL BUT RESIST PRESS TO DEVAL PESO UNTIL NEXT ELEC, PRI REELEC W/ HURT MEX DEC INSOLVNT BEG DBT CRIS, SALINAS? SAL RECV NEW LOANS & SOME US/ IMF DEB FORGV IN SUP OF ECON PROG During Portillos presidency took out substantial new loans using oil as collertal as a result of new oil discoveries off the Gulf Coast. Oil price collapse by 1982 led to increased inflation, but Lopez Portillo resisted pressure to devalue peso until after the next election. Once PRI had been re-elected with Hurtado , declared Mexico's inability to pay debt, beginning the 1980s debt crisis. Hurtado wins just before Mexico declares itself insolvent. During Salinas' presidency, there was continued wage-price agreements with relatively low inflation, introduces te "New Peso" . He received new loans and some debt forgiveness from US and IMF in support of his economic program. EXs

· Informal Sector

· PROD LEG BUT PROD/COMM OF PROD ILL, DUR LOST DEC LOSE FRML EMP? FOR EX STR VEN, NOT PAY BUS LICNS TAX, IF HIR MAY NT PAY MIN WGE, PPL TURN TO STR VEN PROD ON STR INST OF FACT, PPL CAME TO US SEND REM INF EMP? AFFECT POL COAL? UNINS HARD TO ORG & DIS, PER REORGS ITSLF IN ARG, UNIN JOBS THT PAY PENSNS DIS, MEX CTY LOT VEN & LOT PPL COM TO US TO WRK In formal versus Informal employment there is an informal sector. This is where the products are legal that are being made but the production and/or commercialization of these products is illegal. During lost decade lose formal employment. Informal employment is legal products with illegal production and commercialization. For example, street vendors or not paying sales taxes or business license taxes. If hiring people to work they may not be paying minimum wage and people turn to street vending. Instead of producing things in a factoring might be producing them and selling them on the street. People came to US, informal employment, informal employment where send remittances back during this crisis. Also effect political coalitions , how does this affect people who wanted to be Peron, what would be missing here? Unions, hard to organize informal sector into unions, these unions start to disappear, Peronism in Argentina has to find a way to reorganize itself. Jobs that pay pensions, unionized jobs, jobs are disappearing street vending explodes, Mexico City hard to move around because of street vendors, have a lot of people having to come to the US to work.

· Independent Democratic Union (UDI)

· R-WING PRTY ASSOC W/ PINOCHT SUP, APRT OF CV, PRO-PIN UDI & MORE MOD RN CRT UNIN FOR CHIL COAL (UPC), UDI TRY DIST ITSLF FRM PINCHT, DEAL MDE TO REFRM CONST, ELIM NON-ELEC SENTRS, RED PRES TRM 4 YRS NO CONS RE-ELC BUT BINOM SYST REMAIN? A right-wing party earlier associated with supports of Dictator Augusto Pinochet. Was apart of the Chile Vamos , Chile Let's Go, conservative coalition. Between 2009 and 2012 the coalition went by the name Coaltiion for Change (Coalicion por el Cambio), and in the 2014 election they were "Alianza". Pro-Pinochet Independent Democratic Union that with the more moderation National Renewal created the "Union for Chile Coalition" (UPC). With UDI trying to distance itself from Pinochet, deal made to reform constitution in 2005. Eliminated non-elected senators by 2006, reduced presidential terms to four years with no consecutive re-elcetion and the binomial system remained however . UDI did this?

· Democratic Center Party

· R-WNG PTY FND BY URIBE & OTHRS AFT FALING OUT WITH PROTGE SANTOS, ZULUGA PRTY PRES CMPGN AGNST FARC PEACE NEG, PRTY STANCE W/ FARC NEGS? Is a right-wing party that was founded by former President Alvaro Uribe (2002-2010) after having had a falling out with his former protégé Juan Manuel Santos (2019-2018). Oscar Zuluga, who led the first round 29%, had campaigned against peace negotiations with FARC. His party, Democratic Center, had been founded by Alvaro Uribe, among others. Zuluaga leading in polls until his campaign was hit with scandal involving hacking government computers to find out about the FARC negotiations.

· Kirkpatrick Doctrine

· REAGAN TWRD UN AMBSDR JEAN KP DOCT AFTR CRIT CARTR FOR ALLW NIC TO "COMM", ARG PRO-WEST DICT WERE "AUTH" AND CLD BCM DEM EVENT BUT COMM REGS TOTAL & NOT SUBJ TO CHNG, DOCT TO SUP CONTRA WAR AGNST SAND IN NIC & OTHR DICTS IN LA, ARG- DIFF BTWN AUTH & TOTL, BLACK HOLE OF TOTL NO GTNG OUT BUT AUTH COME & GO, ARG HUMN TO SUP AUTH REGS IF HELP FRM FALL INTO TOTAL After criticizing Carter for having allowed Nicaragua to turn "Communist", Ronal Reagan moved towards the doctrine of his UN Ambassador, Jeane Kirkpatrick. Kirkpatrick argue pro-Western dictatorships were merely "authoritarian" and could become democratic eventually. In contrast communist regimes were "totalitarian" and not subject to change. The Doctrine used to Support Contra war against Sandinistas in Nicaragua, as well as dictatorships elsewhere in Latin America. Her argument was that there is a difference between authoritarian regimes and totalitarianism. Once you fall into the black hole of totalitarianism there is no getting out while authoritarian regimes come and go. Her argument is that it is in the long line human to support authoritarian regimes if helping them from falling into totalitarianism.

· Social Liberal Party (PSL)

· RW NAT PRTY OF BOLS, 10.3% STS IN CH OF DEPS, LEADS 15-PRTY CENT RGHT COAL W/ 69.2% STS, FRS OF NEP LED TO CONG PSHBCK TO BOLS MKNG HIS SON US AMB & PSL HEAD The right-wing nationalist party of Bolsonaro (2019-), currently has only 10.3% seats in Chamber of Deps, it leads a 15-party center-right coalition with a total of 69.2% seats. He took the lead instead of Lula. Fears of nepotism led to congressional pushback as the president unsuccessfully sought to make his son Eduard US Ambassador and later head of the PSL.

Relations with the United States

· Relations with the United States · Trade Agreements: · Mexico · NAFTA · Colombia · Trade agreement with US but approval of congress still pending because measure faced concerns over allege human rights abuses including he killing of hundres of labor activists in recent years during Uribe;s presidency. During Santos' presidency the US congress approves agreement in 2011. Agreement had been helpd up for five years due to conerns over the repression and even killing of labor activists in the country · Drug Cartels · Mexico o Sinaloa Cartel - During Calderon & Nieto presidencies o During the Calderon Hinojosa presidency he negotiates the "Merida Initiative" in 2008 for $1.6 billion in US aid to Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean to combat drug traffickers. After March 2010 killing of three US consular officials in Ciudad Juarez, Calderon called upon US to do more to combat its domestic drug sales and stop the flow of its guns into Mexico. Facing major protests in 2007 as US demand for ethanol drove up corn prices, Calderon agreed to back a "Tortilla Pact" with business sector to control prices. · Colombia o There was a growth of Drug cartels with the explosion of US demand for cocaine in the 1980s, Colombia saw a massive increase in the size and power of drug traffickers. During Gaviria's presidency, he helped to break Medellin drug-cartel particular with the 1993 killing of its leader Pablo Escobar who was shot while trying to escape arrest. However, he was unwilling to extradite the leaders to the US. During Pizano's presidency, he is accused of accepting campaign contributions from the Cali cocaine cartel. Congresional investigation cleared Samper of charges in 1996. The US responds by decertifying Colombia as cooperating on drug war, cutting off aid and imposing trade sanctions. He cracked down on the Cali Drug Cartel and by the end of his term the cartel was largely broken and its leaders serving 10 to 15 year sentences. Plan Colombia (1998-)- pastrana wins $1.3 billion in US aid to fight drug traffickers and guerillas to be combined with increased domestic social spending. US contribution reached $5 billion by 2006. Plan includes controversial coca crop eradication through aerial spraying. · Argentina Big tension was with US when Bush administration cut off IMF loans in 2001 that were previously promised , caused a big counter reaction to the US, US was less involved in the coup , anti-communist government to beign with before the coup · Incoming Bush administration refused new IMF loans until Argentina eliminates government deficit · IMF even withheld $1.3 billion in previously promised aid · Loss of loan and stalemate with Peronist Congress contributed to economic collapse · Nestor Kirchner criticized the IMF and US for impoverishing 15 million Argentines · Hosted President George W. others at 34-nation Summit of the Americas in November 2005. · Counter reaction to the US: A series of often violent protests against US and IMF policies ensued, as the FTAAtalks all but broke down at this point.

Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo

· SIL VIG BY MOT AND GM OF MISSING DUR DW, DOM & INT ATTENT AND SYM FOR DIS, ATT THRT VID, MNY PRT DIS, PICS OF CHILD AT GOV BUILD, EFF BC NOT PNTNG AT GOV JUST BRNG AWAR, ARREST WLD ADMIT GUILT SO MVMNT GRW BC JUST MOM WNT KIDS LOC, ALL NEW DICT RESP, GROUP CRKDWN DUR ERNST Also known as the Madres se la Plaza de Mayo. Silent vigils by mothers and grandmothers of the missing in Buenos Aires's Plaza de Mayo focused domestic and international attention on the status of those who disappeared during the Dirty War. Mothers who campaigned for their children who had disappeared during the military dictatorship of the Dirty War. Growing human rights movement that garnered significant domestic and international sympathy.. Attention to the problem had grown throughout the Videla period, many people protesting disappeared killed or arrested, had a way of protesting the disappearance. Went to the equivalence of the white house and carried picture of their children and grandchildren that disappeared. Effective because not directly poining a government just bringing awareness to issue, by arresting them they would be admitting guilt, this allowed the movement to grow, fact that they were mothers and grandmothers just wanted to know where there children were allowed the protest to continue. All of this increasingly focused domestic and international attention on issue, everyone kind of knew that the dictators were responsible. Group cracked down during Ernesto Geisel presidency.

· MERCOSUR (1995)

· STHRN CONE CMN MRKT, BrArUrPa, LTR BoChCoEc AS ASSOC MEMB AND MEX AS OBS, AGR TO FORM MERCOSUR PARL OF 18 REPS FROM ECH, Ve JOINS, Bo IN PROC & Pa SUSP IN PROT OF PRES IMP, EMPH REG TRD RTHR THN US & EUR, LOGIC-MRKTS MRE SIM & LESS INEQ & WRRIES TO DEAL WITH, LESS WRRY ABT RICH WPE OUT POOR CNTRY, ACT AS EXP ISI, PUT EXT TAR, PROT REG? Southern Cone Common Market that was officially formed in 1995 by Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay. Later joined by Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, and Ecuador as associate members and Mexico as an observer. Agreement reached in December 2004 to form a Mercosur parliament of 18 representatives from each country by 2010. Venezuela joined July 2012; Bolivia is in the process of joining. Paraguay was suspend from 2012 to 2012 in protest of presidential impeachment. Emphasis regional trade rather than with US and Europe, logic behind this because markets more similar and less inequalities and worries to deal with. Less worry about rich country going to wipe out poor country. It can act as an expanded ISI, putting on external tariffs, protect your region.

· United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC)

· UMBR ORG OF PARAM, PEAK OF 20K, CMPGNS OF DTH SQUD ASSASS AGNST POLS W/ FARC'S UP & LFT OTHRS DUR VRGS PRES, PARAM & L-WNG GROUPS WRK W/ CRTELS TO FUND ACTVTS, 4 DECS OF VIOL W/ GU, PARAM, DRG TRAF & GOV SEC FRCS (FARC & ELN?) DISPLC CRTS 2 MIL INTRNAT REGUGEES, URIB NEGS DISARM OF AUC, CONG AGRS TO MINMZ PENLTS & NO EXT, AUC DEMOB & DEC VIOL INC HIS POP, LOS URBNOS FRM W/ AUC NRTH ATTCKS AFTR GOV KLLS LDR, PRST ORTZ CONVC OF PARM RUN DTH SQD The United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC) forms in 1997 as an umbrellaorganization of paramilitaries. Reaches a peak of 20,000 people. Right-wing paramilitary groups start campaign of death squad assassinations against politicians with Farc's Patriotic Union (UP) party and others on left during Virgil Vargas' presidency. Both paramilitaries and left-wing groups increasingly work with drug cartels to fund their activities. Four decades of violence involving guerillas, paramilitaries, drug traffickers, and government security forces (FARC and ELN?) displaces has created as an estimated 2 million internal refugees (out of population of 45 million) and tens of thousands more who fled to Ecuador and other countries. Uribe negotiates disarming of the right-wing paramilitary organization, the AUC, in 2003. Congress agrees to minimize penalties and shield paramilitaries from extradition. Subsequent AUC demobilization and decreasing violence increases Uribe's popularity. Los Urabeños (later known as EL Clan de Golfo), a paramilitary group formerly with the AUC launces a series of attacks in the north after government killed their leader in January 2011. Colombian priest Oscar Albeiro Ortiz would be convicted of running the Cacique Nutibara paramilitary death squad in 2013.

· UNASUR (2008)

· UNION OF SA NATS, TRD BLCK, ArBoBrChCoEcGuPaPeSuUrVe, SING MRKT, COM DEF FORCE, MON DEM ELC, FREE MVMNT W/ SING PASSP, LEFT-OF-CENT ORG WHEN RIGHT SURG, PNK TD GOVS, SPLIT OVER ISSUE OF SANC VEN, MAJ LEFT TO PROSUR LEFT BoGSUV, LESS IND GRWTH MORE EXP LED, MNY SML SUB PROG IN RED POV Union of South American Nations. This treaty was signed by 12 South American nations in May 2008; officially constituted in December 2010. Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay , and Venezuela were the South American nations that signed this treaty. The union seeks to create a single market, form a common defense force and monitor democratic elections. Creation of the free movement of people with a single passport endorsed in 2014. Seen as a left-of-center organization at a time when the right was surging in the region, UNASUR finally split over the issue of sanctioning Venezuela beginning in 2018. The majority of member states left to form PROSUR , leaving only Bolivia, Guyana, Suriname, Uruguay, and Venezuela. South America wide trade block, pink tide-governments, some of members refused to kick Venezuela out of the block , Gross national income per capita in LA and Caribbean chart. Less of industrial growth and more through exporting things like cotton, china? Economically and demanded export led growth that buoyed, many of the countries made failty substantial progress in reducing poverty.

Cali Cartel

· With the explosion of US demand for cocaine in the 1980s, Colombia saw a massive increase in the size and power of drug traffickers. Police actions such as the 1993 killing of the Medellin Cartel's Pablo Escobar and the 1995 arrest of Cali Cartel's Rodriguez Orejuela brothers largely broke the large cartels. But these were soon replaced by numerous smaller, harder to fight drug traffickers. Cesar Augusto Gaviria was unwilling to extradite the leaders the leaders to the US. Particularly the Ochoa brothers turned themselves in based on pledge of no extradition. Four decades of violence involving guerillas, paramilitaries, drug traffickers, and government security forces displaces has created as an estimated 2 million internal refugees (out of population of 45 million) and tens of thousands more who fled to Ecuador and other countries. Ernesto Samper Pizano was accused of accepting campaign contributions from the Cali cocaine cartel. Congressional investigation cleared Samper of Charges in 1996. Us responds by decertifyingColombia as cooperating on drug war, cutting off aid and imposing trade sanctions. He cracked down on the Cali Drug Cartel. By the end of his term, the Cartel was largely broken and its leaders serving 10 to 15 year sentences.

· Medellín Cartel

· With the explosion of US demand for cocaine in the 1980s, Colombia saw a massive increase in the size and power of drug traffickers. Police actions such as the 1993 killing of the Medellin Cartel's Pablo Escobar and the 1995 arrest of Cali Cartel's Rodriguez Orejuela brothers largely broke the large cartels. But these were soon replaced by numerous smaller, harder to fight drug traffickers. Medellin cartel an early funder of death squad asasssinations of UP leaders. Right-wing paramilitary groups start campaign of death squad assassinations against politicians with FARC's Patriotic Union (UP) party and others on left during Virgilio Vargas' presidency. Both paramilitaries and left-wing groups increasingly work with drug cartels to fund their activities. Cesar Augusto Gaviria helped to break Medellin drug-cartel. Particularly with the 1993 killing of its leader Pablo Escobar who was shot while trying to escape arrest. Four decades of violence involving guerillas, paramilitaries, drug traffickers, and government security forces displaces has created as an estimated 2 million internal refugees (out of population of 45 million) and tens of thousands more who fled to Ecuador and other countries.

· National Action Party (PAN)

· a center-right party of former presidents Felipe Calderon (2006 -2012) and Vincent Fox (2000-2006). During the 1988 election, PAN's Manuel Clouthier gained a substantial following, part of new, more free market conservative faction of his party. PRI opened political space for PAN, after they voted with the PRI to destroy the ballots immediately after the 1988 election. Salinas appointed a PAN member for Guanjuato governor (through after refusing to recognize win by the charismatic Vicente Fox). Party was fragmented during Salinas' presidency and split over cooperation with PRI. In 1991 midterm elections, PAN won 18% regaining its traditional position as second largest party. Won 25.9% of votes in 1994 election, PRI;s Zedillo won with less than a majority against the PAN.PAN & PRD together controlled majority in Chamber of Deputies during 1997 midterm elections. PAN made important gubernationalgains during Zedillo's presidency. PRI faces challenge in 2000 from PAN's Vicente Fox, who runs an "American-style," campaign emphasizing his plain-spoken personality. The charismatic former Governor of Guanajuato Vicente Fox essentially took over the PAN using his own "Amigos de Fox" to gain the nomination from more traditional party leaders. Fox is elected and though lacking a Pan congressional majority, Fox manages to implement several important reforms. PAN was soon charged with receiving money from US supporters after Fox investigated PEMEX money financing PRI. Fox after hoping to win a majority in Congress in 2003 midterm elections, political disappointments and economic difficulties result in the PAN losing seats in both the Senate and Chamber of Deputies. Together the PRI and PAN voted to remove AMLO's immunity which would have prevented from running for president while he awaited trial, though Fox backed down after a domestic and international outcry. This conflict set the stage for a highly divisive campaign where the PAN's Felipe Calderon characterizing AMLO as a Hugo Chavez-style radical, and Lopez Obrador accusing Fox of using government resources to favor Calderon. PRD had their 1988 election stolen, and the announcement that Calderon had won vote by less than one percent which led to massive protests. Calderon's swearing-in ceremony in front of Congress was marked by loud protests and scuffles between PAN and PRD deputies. Former PAN Deputy Ricardo Anaya formed an unusual right-left coalition with the PRD.

· Raúl Alfonsín (1983-1989)

·· (1983-1989) UCR PRES, HR CMPGNR MOR POP AFTER BIGN AMNESTY, 1ST UCR TO DFT A PJ AND 1ST SINCE YRIG (28) TO WIN MAJ, EVEN MAJ IN CONG, RPLD AMN LAW & BEG PROS, MIL 1ST CHNC BUT CLM NO CRMS, SABATO COMM FORMED, INTL AGNST 16 OFF RSLT IN 15 CONV INC 4 MAIN PREV DICTS, CARPINTADAS MARCH AGNST PROS, HE PROP PF BILL- DDLN FOR FLNG CHRGS, PROS RUSH TO FILE 200, RVLT @ MIL BASE DMND END TO PROS, AGREE TO FIRE C.O.S & RED #, RAD-LED CONG AGR END PROS BLW GEN RNK AND NEW RVLT LED TO PROS HALT, SUCCSR MENEM GRNT FULL AMN TO ALL, ABNDN IMF AUS MSR AFTR PJ CGT BEG MSS PRTST & INIT CUT OFF LOANS INC INF TO 1K% ANN RATE, INT AUSTRAL PLAN- WP CTRLS, MORE AUST, "AUSTRAL" AT US $1.25 EXC FOR 1000 OLD ARG PESOS AND INF DRP TO 82%, AUS SHRNK GDP ONLY 3-6%, CGT RES STRIKES, ALF LIFT WP INFL 4,923%, RIOTING IN ELECS & DEC ST OF SEIG, RES FOR SUCC, SIM TO SARNEY - FLAILING ARND ECON, BTTLS AGNST IMF, WSNT COMP DIC BUT IMP AUS LESS DEM Bignone signed amnesty for any human rights crimes committed by military leaders. As rumors filtered out that the military had made an amnesty pact with the Peronist frontrunners, human right campaigner Raul Alfonsin surges in popularity and the UCR (Radicals) won the election handily. He became the first Radical (UCR) candidate to defeat a Peronist (Partido Justicialista), and first since Yrigoyen in 1928 to win a majority, womn with 52%. UCR even got a majority in Congress. He repealed Bignone's amnesty law and began prosecutions for human rights crimes. The military was given first chance at prosectuions, but claimed no crimes were comitteed and so Sabato Commission formed and documented abuses. There was initial prosecutions against 16 officers which resulted in 15 convictions including the fourmain previous dictators. Paramilitary "Carapintadas" (painted faces) publicly march to warn against more prosecutions. In December 1986, Alfonsin proposed the "Punto Final" (end point) bill that set deadline for filing changes, charges? Prosecutors rushed to file charges against 200 more military leaders before the deadline. There was a revolt at military base in 1987 demanded an end to prosecutions. Alfonsin agreed to fire his chief of staff and reduce the number of charges filed. A radical-led congress agreed to end all prosecutions below rank of general and new smaller revolts in 1988 led to a virtual halt to prosecutions. Successor Carlos Menem would grant full amnesty to all who had been convicted in 1990. Abandoned IMF-imposed austerity measure after Peronist CGT begins mass protests and strikes. The IMF initially cut off further loans, and inflation rose to a 1000% annual rate. He Introduced the Austral Plan (1986) combining wage-price controls with further austerity and the new "austral" was fixed at US $1.25 and exchanged for 1,000 old Argentine Pesos and inflation dropped to "only" 82%. With austerity measures shrinking the GDP 3% in 1988 and 6% in 1989, the CGT resumed its strikes. After Alfonsin lifted wage-price controls, inflation surged to 4,923% by 1989. Rioting broke out by the time of the 1989 elections and Alfonsin responded by declaring a state of siege. Soon after he resigned to allow his success to become president 6 months early. In the 2011 election, led by the son of the late Raul Alfonsin, Ricardo the Radical Party finished in third place. Analogous political figure to Jose Sarney Costa in Brazil. Argentine military had failed miserably. Sarney like Alfonisn was known for flailing around economically, tended to follow Alfonsin policy. Both fought battles against the IMF among many others. Said was going to go with the program do everything the IMF was recommending, prett much he had ultimate control bt he could chooses whatever he wanted, wasn't a complete dictatorship like Pinochet, ones who impose austerity less democratic.

· Fernando de la Rúa

·· :(1999 to 2001) UCR president from 1999 to 2001 who won with coalition of his own UCR and Frepaso known as ATJE with 49%. Frepaso leader Carlos "Chacho" Alvarez, won on the ticket as Vice President. The Peronist candidate, Eduardo Duhalde, was himself an opponent of Menem from within the party. He began to prosecute corruption under Menem. He indicted members of the previous administration. Menem himself placed under house arrest for illegal arms sales in June 2001, but soon released by the (Menem- appointed) courts. De la Rua was soon faced with his own corruption scandals. Radicals had used bribery to pass legislation in 20000 overhauling Peronist-era labor laws. Vice President and Frepaso leader Chacho Alvarez quits in protest and de la Rua would later be declared innocent of bribery charges after a trial in 2013. Continuation of dollarization had led to growing government and trade deficits and lower domestic investment. Still, dollarization viewed as untouchable symbol of Argentina's recovery. December 2000 IMF rescue packages of $22 billion rapidly disappeared as investors switch pesos to dollars. Appointed dollarization architect Domingo Cavallo to again become Finance Minister in March 2001. Mostly wanted to be promised he would keep dollarization. Worried about 5,000% inflation again. Congress gave Cavallo emergency powers. New IMF rescue package of $8 billion only led to run on banks as people changed pesos to dollars. De la Rua imposed a harsh austerity program and Peronists won October 2001 midterm elections. The Incoming Bush administration refused new IMF loans until Argentina eliminates government deficit. IMF even withheld$1.3 billion in previously promised aid. Loss of loan and stalemate with Peronist Congress contributed to an economic collapse. Trying to stop capital flight, de la Rua prohibited ATM withdrawals over $1,000 per month in cash. Government pension payments were also suspended. Argentinazo protests and riots caused De la Rua to announce a 30 day state of emergency on December 19, granting him the right to make arrests without court order and forbade unauthorized public gatherings. Domingo Cavallo resigned the same day and protests only grew as criticism mount over the emergency decree and dozens of rioting deaths. De la Rua announced his resignation on December 20, fleeing the Casa Rosada by helicopter. One of the five presidents in two weeks. After lifting state of emergency, resigned effective on December 20, 2001. Relationship when he inherited dollarization. Very important in the economic collapse, he continues it, very apparent starting all sorts of problems for the country. Don't know if trust your party, keep dollarization shouldn't have kept that campaign promise, eventually get a massive meltdown of the economy, big bailout of the IMF billions in the currency board, change their persos to dollar, money disappears from the currency board, other loan from the IMF, shouldn't be throwing good money after bad, cuses economy to complete collapse, going to devalue at this rate, for example 1 or .5% every year, could have done this would have had to give up the psychological tie, the peso just wasn't worth the dollar, trying to pretend that it was so causing money to flood out of Argentina , like his predecessor Raul , end up with 5 presidents in 14 days, slash spending until economy hits rock bottom and IMF says we will give you loans back? Argentina had shrunk more than US by Great Depression, solidified Argentina's reputation internationally, in the middle of an economic crisis right now. Similar to Fernando Collor who took lid off a pressure cooker and inflation immediately hit 1,585% with the removal of price controls. People who had money were taking those cruzeiros to dollars, all his problems gives reigns of power believed by him

Comparing political party systems

Parties from the midterm, how its changed HOW HAS THE PARTY SYSTEM CHANGED BEFORE AND AFTER AUTHORITARIANIMS CHILE IS CONTINUITY, BOTH THE PARTIES AND CHRISTIAN DEMOCRATS BECOME MUCH MORE MODERATE, LEFT BECOME MORE MODERATE, RIGHT COMPLETELY NEW PARTIES Coalitions? - Number of parties- one , 2 , fragmented - Dominant ones - What their orientation are- far left or right - Coalitions more less or permanent? check characteristics o Argentina § Number of political parties: 3 § Dominant parties: § Peronist were the dominant party for decades § PRO, PJ and UCR · PRO-Republican Proposal: currently ruling party, began as an electoral alliance in 2005 between conservative parties, which merged into a single political party in 2010. In the 2015 election, PRO allied with the UCR and centrist Civic Coalition (CC) to form the center-right Cambiemos coalition. · PJ-Peronists: A traditionally labor-based party with substantial left right divisions internally, it was the dominant party in Argentina for decades. The most important faction within the party is left-leaning Everyone's Front (Frente de Todos), known until 2019 as the Front for Victory. There are other PJ factions. · Radicals (UCR): middle class-oriented centrist party, the UC has been one of most important parties since its founding in 1891, thought it support has declined since the 2001 economic crisis. § Key characteristic: Proportional representation - party rather than the individual, somewhat favorable to some parties , more party based § Argentina more standard, Less quirky features o Brazil § None of the parties from before authoritarianism remain § Has the worlds most fractured political party system, with 25 parties currently having congressional representation including: · PSL, PT, PMDB, PSDB: o PSL: the right wing nationalist party of President Jair Bolsonaro, leads center right coalition with 69.2% of seats o PT: the left wing party of former presidents Lula and Rouseff, is the largest party in the lower house , #1 party in congress right now with 10.7% seats in the elgislation o PMDB: center right party of presidents Sarney and Temer formed during dictatorship of 1965 that was only permitted opposition party , ow backs Bolsonaro , the PMDB after democratization became the dominant party o PSDB: centrist party of former president Cardoso currently backs Bolsonaro ,dominance switches to PSDB after PMDB · Frequent party switching because of open list system in lower house Chamber of Deputies · There is a mass amount of party switch, candidates switch a lot, Bolsonaro has switches his 7thparty, basically on your own and trying to prove yourself as your own person and own brand, want to be the most popular candidate, seems good on paper but a lot of incompetent people are voted in, most fragmented party system in the entire world · Key characteristic: open list, party switching o Chile § Parties and Coalitions · Chile Vamos Coalition: Conservative coalition , consisting of: o RN and UDI § RN: business-oriented conservative party § UDI: right-wing party earlier associated with supporters of Pinochet · Nueva Mayoria o Replaced CPPD- Concertacion § PS-Socialist Party: the social democratic party, previously of Allende § PDC: Catholic-based social reform party, earlier led by Montalva § and smaller left-wing parties including Pcch and regional northern force coalition § Christian democrats split with Nueva Mayoria and ran seperately · Frente Amplio: coalition of left-wing parties · Binomial system? Two representatives rather than one · Two party coalition system, like in a two party system of the UD, one or the other, electing two seats all in one side and not in the other, ends up being one democratic and one republic almost every time -MAKING IT VERY HARD FOR LEFT TO WIN IN THE SENATE , BIONIMAL 2 REPS RATHER THAN 1, SENATE EVENLY DIVIDED , ESP BACK IN THE DAYS WHEN MIL APPOINTED SEATS EVEN IF VOTING OTHER PARTIES o Mexico § National regeneration movement (Morena): a left wing party formed by then former presidential candidate and now elect AMLO after he split from PRD § PRI- Institutional Revolutionary Party: a centrist party of current President Enrique Pena Nieto. · Dominated the political system and held the presidency from 1929 - 2000, returning in 2012 § PAN- National Action Party: a center-right party of former presidents Calderon and Gox § PRD- Party of the Democratic Revolution: a left-wig party which has never held the presidency · and four other minor parties o PVEM, Panla who align with the PR o MC and PT align with the PRD § During Hurtado's presidency, break from the PRI of many "satellite parties". Esepecially small parties of the Left which had supported the PRI for reasons nationalism and patronage. Divisions widened within PRI. § Use to be One party dominant system of PRI to divisions within PRI and other parties taking power? Lose again in the last election , POWER DIMINISHING § Every other country said need runoffs, Mexico said didn't, would lead to a 2 party sustem but multi party sustem with whoever gets the most votes without a runoff, which creates tension § FEATURES- NO REELECTION- 1 6 YEAR TERM, WHOEVER GETS THE MOST VOTES THERE IS NO RUNOFF, AFTER RE-DEMOCRATICIZATION EVERY LA COUNTRY HAS RUNOFF ELECTIONS BESIDES MEXICO , BECAUSE OF PR REMAINS A MULTIPARTY SYSTEM, GET TO PRESIDENT DSYSTEM DOESN'T ACCOMADATE? PPL WIN WITH LESS THAN HALF OF THE VOTE o Colombia § Democratic Center: right wing party that was founded by former president Alvaro Uribe after falling out with his former proteige § Humane Colombia: left-wing coalition that includes leaders formerly associated with both the FARC and M-19 guerilla movements. § Liberal: one of two dominant political parties from founding in 1848 until 2002. IT is officially social democratic, but was in coalition with the Party of the U under Santos. § Conservative: formed, along with the liberals, part of a strong two-party system from its 1849 founding until 2002. As a center-right party, it formed coalitions both with Uribe during his presidency and Santos until 2014. § TRADITIONALLY Two party system? Liberal party one of the two dominant political parties in Colombia from its founding in 1848 until 2002. Conservative party was also a part of the strong two-party system. § TRADITIONALLY TWO PARTY SYSTEM, BROKE DOWN A BIT, 2 PARTIES ARE EITHER PRO OR ANTI URIBE,MOVE TOWARDS OPEN LIST, WEAKENED THE PARTIES , CLOSED LIST TO OPTION HAVE OPEN LIST , CHOOSE OPEN LIST OR CLOSED LIST NOMINATION - ECLECTIC FEATURE, RUNOFF

Second Vatican Council (Vatican II)

· (1962-1965)FCTR CITD IN LA DEM WAS EXT PRESR FROM CATH CHRCH W/ NEW POLS FROM VAT II, SHFT IN CHRCH CLSR TO PPL, MORE PRO-DEM & HR, MASS W/ LCL VERN, SRV COM MORE & POOR, CALL TO HLP POOR , CHSE SDE JES WLD WNT OF POOR (1962-1965) A factor cited in Latin American democraticization was external pressures. For example the human rights policy of Jimmy carter or the new policies of the Catholic church after Vatican II (1962-1965). Church had best . Things began to shift within the church politically especially in Latin America. Vatican II didn't stop from having Latin mass. Church decided it needs to get closer to the people, particularly in Spain and Portugal , switch towards more pro-democracy and human rights. Can now have mass in the local vernacular, serve the community more and serve the poor, interpreted in Latin America as a call to help the poor, many priests in Latin America start talking about the preferential option but when there is a class between interest and have to choose side Jesus would want to take the side of the poor and not the rich. Number of ambassadors visiting Vatican?

· Dirty War (1976-1983)

· (1976-1983)OFF, WAR AGNST GUER, LEFTISTS, AND PRNSTS BY VIDELA, 10K KIL/DIS, DIS MNT NO CONT OVR "TRIALS", COMP VIC OVER GUER CAMP OF TER, SIL VIG BY MADRES DLPDM GAVE INT ATT & SYM, IS PER LOT OF DW DURING TERM BUT NO TRIAL, GUER MONT GAIN STR UNTL HER COUP, BRUTAL GOV COUP AND DICT, PRET FLLW CONST, BIG OUTCRY OVER TRIALS, DEPOL- WRNG THING SAID LED DIS , GOT RID OF MONT, VID INSTT AUST, ALF STRTS PROS, NEST REOPNS, CRIS CONT PROS An offensive against guerillas, leftists and Peronists launched by General Jorge Videla. At least 10,000 were killed or "disappeared" during this war. These disappearances meant no controversy over "trials" as had happened in Brazil. Eventually achieved complete victory over guerillas through a campaign of terror. Silent vigils by mothers and grandmothers of the missing in Buenos Aires's Plaza de Mayo focused domestic and international attention on the status of those who disappeared during the Dirty War. This human rights movement garnered significant domestic and international sympathy. Isabel Peron becomes president and there were a lot of dirty wars hat start during her term , human rights violations but no appetite to put her on trial, guerillas montoneros continued to gain strength , all led to leas surprising coup in Argentinian and Latin American history, Coup of Isabel Peron what was not expect was just how brutal the government would be, dictatorship unapologetically, military tried to pretend if squint enough following the constitution, Every time Brazil has put someone on trial big outcry, will just disappear? Depoliticization saying the wrong thing could lead to you disappearing, effective in getting rid of the montoneros. Vidella instituted austerity policies. Nestor Kirchner reopens prosecutions for dirty war, Cristina continued the Dirty War prosecutions. These mothers wanted answers long after the Dirty War. o Ex-Dictators Prosecuted § Jorge Videla- Sentenced to life imprisonment for aggravate homicide, false arrest, torture and robbery. Released after just 4 years. RE-jailed after Menem's amnesty overturned by federal courts in 2007. In 2013, at 87, died while imprisoned for crimes against humanity. § Roberto Viola- Sentenced to 17 years in prison for human rights crimes. Released by Menem's 1990 amnesty after serving only 4 years. Died still free in 1994 at age 69. § Leopoldo Galtieri- After acquittal on human rights charges, convicted of incompetency for Malvinas/ Falklands War. Released after 1990 amnesty. Placed under house arrest under new human rights charges in 2002, but died soon after at age 76. § Reynaldo Bignone- Initially convicted of destroying documents to coverup human rights crimes, he was released after amnesty. Re-arrested in 2007 for abuses such as trafficking infants from 500 pregnant women during the Dirty War, he was convicted in 2012 and 2016, dying while still custody in 2018.

· Chicago Boys

· DSGND ERLY MOD OF "NEO-LIB", TRND W/ MILT FRIED, IT MDE SHRP CUTS IN GOV SPNDNG & RED MAX TARIFF FROM FRM ALLEND 750-35%, '83 FRCD TO RESGN? ADD Early model of "Neo-Liberalism" designed by the "Chicago Boys," trained at Milton Friedman's University of Chicago economic department. It made sharp cuts in government spending and reduce maximum tariff from 750% under Allende to just 35%. By 1983 the "Chicago Boys" forced to resign. Add more

Liberal Party

· was one of the two dominant political parties in Colombia from its founding in 1848, it is officially social democratic, but was in coalition with the Party of the U under Santos. Liberal party president was Alfonso Lopez from 1974 to 1978. He Won by a wide margin against both Conservatives and the left-wing National People's Alliance (ANAPO). Virgilo Barco Vargas is a liberal party president from 1986 to 1990. Wins presidential election with a record 58% of the vote. Cesar Augusto Gaviria was a liberal party president from 1990 to 1994. Presidential candidate Luis Carlos Galan murdered which marred Gaviria's campaign.

Bureaucratic Authoritarianism:

· · (1960s and 1970s?) O' DONN CHAR- AUTH REG & MIL COLCTV RULES AS INST NOT BY SINGL IND, DICTS ATTMPT LNG TRM & RESTRCT POL TO REP SOC SECTRS, INCL IMP ROLE FOR TECHN- RUL ELIT, PER OF BA- WVE OF COUPS FRM GRWNG INF, ECON STAG & POL POLRZ, DIFF FROM "CAUD" DICTS & CRETKR MIL REGS W/ PROM TO RESTR DEM, REGS PROM TO RESTR GRWTH BY ABV POP POL PRESS BUT 1982 REG EXP MST SEVR ECON CRIS SINCE GREAT DEP WHCH DESTAB MNY EXSTNG BA REGS & LED TO WVE OF DEMOC, W/IN DEC EVRY LA CNTRY EXCPT CUB & MEX BEC IN NME DEM (MYB NOT REAL), BRUT OF BA MDE PPL WNT TO STY TO DEM, ALFS MICHEL - ALT TO BA? VIOL CONST, CAN RESTR? EXS: ARG- "INFMS DEC" ISBL PER, CHIL- JUNA, BRAZ Characteristics of Bureaucratic Authoritarianism are based on Guillermo O-Donnell's Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism. Characteristics include being an authoritarian regime and usually military rules as an institution, rather than rule by a single individual. Dictators attempt to rule long term and restructure politics so as to repress and control various social sectors. Bureaucaratic Authoritarianism also includes an important role for large and technocratic public bureaucracies. By the 1960s and 1970s, growing inflation, economic stagnation and political polarization contributed to a new wave of coups ushering in a period of brutal "bureaucratic authoritarian" (BA). These were New systems often involved in more collective military rule in contrast to traditional "caudillo" one-man dictatorships. Systems also differed from caretaker military regimes that promised to restore democracy soon. Some countries were able to avoid military dictatoships. Though the BA regimes promised to restore growth by standing above populist political pressures, by 1982 the region experienced the most severe economic crisis at least sicne the Great Depression. The 1980s debt crisis destabilized many existing BA regimes and helped to lead to a new, more extensive wave of democratization. Within a decade of the debt crisis, every Latin American country except Cuba and Mexico would become nominally democratic. Alfonso Michelsen was an Alternative path to bureaucratic authoritarianism?Self-appointed rule, this government is violating the constitution , can return to democracy and restore the constitution? Bourgeouise democracy- both sides were not keeping to the democratic rules and the brutality of the BA regime made a lot of people realize they wanted to stay to democracy and organize within the democratic system.

Pink Tide

· · (late 1990s through mid 2010s, 1998-2004) WAV OF ELCS OF LFT-OF-CNTR GOVS, EsVeNiBrEcPaPeUrBoArCh, PNK TIDE CNTR REACTION TO NEOL- POST-NEOL- GRWTH LWR EXCPT CHILE, GAINS FVRD TOP ERNRS LED INEQ TO GROW, END OF 90S- LEFT RESURG AFTR MARGNLZD, MVMNTS MORE MOD & ELEC ORNT THN CUB REV(60/70s), WAV OF ELECS OF LFT-OF-CNT GOVS (1998-04) RAD W/ VEN CHVZ - MOD MKT ORNTD W/SOC CHILE, FCD SETBCKS- IMP OF BR ROUS & CONS ELEC VICTS IN ARG & CHIL, VEN FCED ECON COLLPS W/ MADURO, MEX W/OBR PROV COUNTR EX, LFT FAILD TO RE-ORNT ECONS AWY FROM DEP ON COMMOD EXPTS, PINK TDE GOVS MUCH ERLR SUCC DEP ON AGRI PROD SALE & MINS TO CHINA MDE VULN TO SLW DN IN THT CNTRY, LFT SN AS FLNG TO CLN CORRUP EFFCTVLY, LDR LFT & RGHT CUGHT TKING BRIBES BY ODREBRENCHT COSNT COMP SCAND ACRSS REG, MORE MOD-VEN TO MKT-ORNTD SOC CHILE,, RECENT TURN AWY FROM PINK TDE EXS:BRAZ BOLS- ECON DEC & FLING POL SUP IN BRAZL(14/15) LED END PINK TIDE, CORRUPT SCNDALS, LULA- SENT 12 YRS IMPR FOR PTRBRS SCNDL BRIBES W/ $1 MIL IMPR TO HS, SUP CT REJ CNDCY & ENDED RUN FOR PRES BFR 1STRND VTE, ENDSRD PT HAD, PSL BOLS TAKES LEAD, CHILE PINERA- LAGOS PUB MIN ARRST PAYOFF SCNDL, MIN SCNDL BUT CHIL BIG ON GOV HONSTY SO BIG DEAL, BACHELET SCANDLS NOT PERS ACCUSED BUT HD IMPCT ON POP, FAM IN LND DEAL, WEAKND ECON FRM LWR COPPR PRICS LWRD SUP, SCNDLS & WKND ECON ALLW FOR CV/RN CAND TO WIN, MACRI ARG- CRIST KIRCH A LOT SCANDALS- SUITCSE GATE, IRANIAN BMBNG COVERUP & FED PROS INVESTGTNG FND DEAD, FCD ACCUSTIONS OF MANIP VALUE OF PESO & PER SERIES OF CORRUP SCNDLS DUR MENM'S PRES? DE LA RUA? The wave of elections of left-of-center governments between 1998 and 2004 came to be known as the "Pink Tide" in Latin America. Countries included El Salvador, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. 2004 or 14? Do need to know presidents of these countries in wave of elections? End of the Pink Tide? By the mid-2010s, numerous left-of-center parties faced major setbacks. Losses included the impeachment of Brazil's Dia Rousseff and conservative electoral victories in Argentina and Chile. Meanwhile, under Hugo Chavez's successor, Nicolas Maduro, Venezuela faced economic collapse and high inflation as a result of falling oil prices and economic mismanagement. Though the 2018 victory be leftists Obrador in Mexico provided a counter example. Economically the left had failed to re-orient the economies away from dependence on commodity exports. Much of the earlier success of Pink Tide governments depended on the sale of agricultural products and minerals to China, making them vulnerable to a slowdown in that country. The left was also seen as failing to clean up corruption effectively. In particular, leaders both from the left and right were caught taking bribes paid by Brazil's Odrebrencht construction company, a scandal that reverberated across the region. Stays away from neoliberal governments? Spread of communinism spreading throughout Latin America, moderate left that get to have the name pink tide, end of pink tide thoroughly or mre competitive period, start with bureaucratic authoritarian? Gini coefficient in pink tide governments reduced such s Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Mexico. When socialist parties particular social democratic, leftist center parties became elected to South America main exceptions were Mexico and Colombia, everywhere else the left was sweeping elections across the board. Trade agreements focused more, pink tide governments come into office favor those, if have agreement with US have to make a lot of concession, lets instead focus on regional trade and focus on trading with each other, one of the things that tended to divide pink tide governments from others, became a shift politically and economically, on exception of that when Chile had a left and center government, pink tide lasted from 1999 to around 2014 where start getting some serious reverses, growth is fairly flat prior to pink tide? Then there is growth, mch of the success was based n the rise of China, China was expanding and demanding alot of raw materials, lets diversify from US and Europe, lets export to China, demand for Latin American soy and other helping boost these governments, expanision of social policies major priority for pink tide governments, substantial decline in extreme poverty more than a $1.9o0 per day, world bank benchmarks , some of the biggest countries were successful in reducing inequality, big decline for Brazil , somewhat decline for Chile, Mexico, less so because tends to stagnate by 2000s because becomes not a pink tide gov, Argentina substantial decline of measures in inequality after 2001, socialist but US not stopping governments by time Pink tide happens there was less of a fear of communism spreading in America especially , after 9/11 US attention turned to terrorism, end of pink time , has gone into decline or maybe more of a competitive period, eva morales reeleted in Bolivia of the left and Kirchener as VP of Peronists, went into 5 years of major reversal this growth started to fade, China started to slow down 8-6% decline in Latin America, affectied regionalism and regional agreements, much pink tide ran by saying they were more honest and would clean up corrutption, vulnerable when nation wide corruption scandal opened up with construction company , mostly bribed left wing government which hurt in places like Brazil especially. Pink tide in Argentina begins moving to the left nationalizing utilies, Brazil PDSB pink tide policies including affirmative action policies in brazil, Bachelet associated with the pink tide believe strongly in producing trade. o Pink Tide (late-1990s through mid-2010s) : The wave of left-of-center governments between 1998 and 2004 came to be known as the "Pink Tide". These movements ranged from the much more radical one associated with Venezuela's Hugo Chavez to the more moderate and market-oriented one seen under the Socialist governments in Chile. Some governments included El Salvador, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile. Recent turn away from Pink Tide - Post-Pink Tide? (current) § End of the Pink Tide? · By the mid-2010s, numerous left-of center parties face major setbacks.. Losses included the impeachment of Brazil's Dilma Rousseff and conservative electoral victories in Argentina and chile. Meanwhile, under Hugo Chavez's successor, Nicolas Maduro, Venezuela faced economic collapse and high inflation as a result of falling oil prices and economic mismanagement. Though the 2018 victory by leftist Andreas Manuel Lopez Obrador in Mexico provided a counter example. Economically, the left had failed to re-orient the economies away from dependence on commodity exports. Much of the earlier success of Pink tide governments depended on the sale of agricultural products and minerals to China, making them vulnerable to a slowdown in that country. The left was also seen as gailing to clean up corruption effectively. In particular, leaders both from the elft and right were caught taking bribes paid by Brazil's Odebrecht construction company, a scandal that reverberatedacross the region. Turn away from Pink tide. Moving to something else? · Could talk about causes: corruption scandals, downturn of economy in part because of slow growth in Chinas · Examples- right the conservative president's parties? o Bolsonaro is a big one: Economic decline and falling political support in Brazil (2014-2015) led to end of pink tide. Corruption scandals caused end of pink tide. This is seen with the left Lula. Lula was convicted and sentenced to 12 years imprisonment for accepting bribes in the Petrobras scandal in the form of over $1 million in improvements to a beachfront house he claimed was not actually his. The superior Electoral court then rejected his candidacy and Lula ended run for presidency less than one month before the first round vote. He endorsed former PT mayor Haddad in his place. Bolsonaro, a right-wing populist with the social liberal party (PSL), took the lead instead. o Pinera: During Lagos socialist party presidency, public works minister arrested in 2002 payoff scandal. Chile has seen fewer corruption scandals than most other countries. During Michele Bachelet's presidency there were corruption scandals while not personally accused had a negative impact on her popularity throughout the rest of her term. Accusation of her family in a land deal with their small company. Weakened economy amid lower copper prices further undercut her support. These scandals along with a weakened economy allow for chile vamous, RN candidate to win the presidency and turn away from the pink tide- MINOR SCANDALS BUT CHILE PROVIDES ON GOV HONESY o Macri in Argentina: Peronists hit sa series of corruption scandals during Menem's presidency. . De la Rua of the radical party faced with his own corruption scandals. Radicals had used bribery to pass legislation in 2000 overhauling Peronist-era labor laws. Vice president and Frepaso leader Alvarez quits in protest but would be declared innocent. Cristina Kirchner and her left-leaning FPV. She was under investigation for "suitcase-gate" when airport inspectors found $800K in undeclared cash on businessman Guido Antonini, who was accompanied by Nestor Kirchner's former economic minister. Antoni later testified in a separate trial in Miami that the money was sent by Hugo Chavez to support Fernandez's election. The Fernandez administration denied the charges, accused the Us of bribing Antonini. Federal prosecutor investigating possible Iranian responsibility for a 1994 Jewish Community Center bombing in Buenos Aires found dead in his home in 2015. Though an apparent suicide suspicions were aroused since a week before he had filed a complaint against the Fernandez government for covering up the matter. She was accused of manipulating the value of the peso, for which she would be investigated under her successor. While Argentines had benefited from her and her husband's progressive economic policies there was still a turn from the pink tide seen with the election of PRO candidate Mauricio Macri NOT INVESTIGATING THE BOMBING IRAN NOT INVESTIGATING AVOIDING INTENTION, SUITCASE GATE

· Operation Carwash Scandal

· · ROUSF ADMN HIT W/ SCNDL BY ODEBRECHT CONST FIRM OF BILS OF ILL TRANS TO POLTCNS & BURCRTS FOR CNTRCTS W/ STT-OWND OIL COMP PETROBRAS & IN OTHR COUNTRIES, WSNT DIR IMPLIC BUT MNY CNNCTD TO HER HWERE, MSSV PRTST DMD IMP, TRIES APPT LULA CAB FOR IMM BUT ITS REJ, 1STMOV AFT BOLS ELEC NAMED FED JUDGE IN OP CARWASH SCAND TO BE ATTRNY GEN WS SN AS PAYOFF, SUSPS FORR WEBS TRANS OF CONV BTWN JUDGE MORO & LULAS PROS IS NOT NEUTR, TEMER IN SCNDL? HIS APPINTESS SOME INVLVD IN CORRUP SCNDLS & CONV, CONG VOTE RMVING PTROBRAS BRIB CHRGS AGNST TEMER UNTIL TERM ENDED, LULA SENT TO 12 YRS IN PRIS FOR ACCEPT PETROB SCNDL BRIBES TO BCH HOUS HE CLMD NOT HIS, TEMER HIMSELF ARRST & CHRGD W/ CW CORRUP AFTR LVNG OFFICE, DUR NIETO'S PRES NEW CORRUP SCNDL & OP CW ALL THRU OUT LA & SOME BRIBS PD TO ADVS, ROUSF IMPCHD DIFF REASON & CONG VOTD AGNST IMP OF TEMER CHRGD OF TKNG BRIBES BLCK INVEST Months after her second term started, Rousseff's administration was hit by a scandal involving billions of dollars in kickbacks, illegal transactions, paid by the Odebrecht construction firm to politicians and bureaucrats for contracts with the state-owned oil company, Petrobras (as well as other countries). Through Rousseff was not directly implicated, many connected to her were and massive protests began demanding impeachment. She tries to appoint Lula to her cabinet for partial immunity from prosecution for him but Lula's appointment is rejected. Rousseff herself was involved, looked like she would be able to tough through it. In one of hist first moves after election Bolsonaro named a primary federal judge in the Operation Carwash scandal to be his Attorney general. Critics decried the move as payoff since Moro has been responsible for convicting Lula, Bolsonaro's major rival in the election. Further suspicions came as a website postrd transcripts of a recorded conversation between then-judge Moro and the Lula's prosecutor strategizing how to respond to criticism of the case, which is not neutral of a judge. Temer was involved in a number of scandals before took office had campaign finance scandals, during operation carwash scandal 48:40.He had a 12% approval rate and all his appointees to the cabinet were white men some involved in corruption scandals themselves and had been convicted. During Nieto's presidency in Mexico there is new corruption and bribery scandal and operation car wash in Brazil was all throughout Latin America and some of the bribes have been paid to advisors? Rousseff is impeached but for different reason. Temer charged of taking bribes to block an investigation but most of congress voted against his impeachment. This followed a congressional vote removing Petrobras-related briber ycharges against Temer until his terms ended. Lula convicted and sentence to 12 years in prison for accepting bribes in the Petrobras scandal in the form of improvements to a beach house he claimed was not actually his. Temer himself would be arrested and charged with Car Wash corruption three months after leaving office.

Dilma Rousseff

· · Was a PT president from 2011 to 2016. Brazil was coming out of the 2008 crisis. During her first term from 2011 to 2014 she came up short of a majority with 46.9% on the first round and then won runoff with 56%. As Lula's handpicked choice for successor, Rousseff benefitted from his 83% approval rating. A one-time member of a Marxist guerilla group, she had been arrested in 1970 and tortured by the military regime. Under Lula she had been an Energy Minister who introduced a program to bring universal access to electricity. In 2005 Rousseff became Lula's Chief of Staff in the aftermath of the PT's Mensalao bribery scandal. Rousseff's opponent Jose Serra had previously run against Lula in 2003 and before becoming governor of Sao Paulo. She launched "Brazil without Poverty" (Brasil Sem Miseria) initiative in May 2012. The program expanded the Bolsa Familia as well as health and education programs to help the 18 million Brazilians (8.5% of the population) still living on less than 70 reias ($44) per month. Rouseff also implemented several substantial minimum wage increases during her first term. She established a Truth Commission to investigate human rights abuses under military, which began May 2012. In spite of her own personal experience with torture by the dictatorship, refuses to follow up on 2014 report with prosecutions of 377 identified perpetrators recommended by commission, because delicate issue and citing the need to ensure democratic stability. As Chinese slowdown helped reduce Brazilian growth to only 0.9% in 2012, government introduced stimulus of infrastructure spending, tax cuts and lower interest rates. New public university affirmative action program approved August 2012, increasing previous allocations for students who are black, mixed-race, or indigenous and of sports reserved for public school students as well. The inflation rate creeps up to 6% by 2013. Rousseff canceled October 2013 US trip in protest of NSA spying on the Brazilian ?and worked with Germany on UN General Assembly measure on privacy. Protests over bus fare increases in July 2013 set off escalating series of mass demonstrations in the summer against corruption, police violence, poor public services, and high spending on 2014 World Cup preparations. Rousseff response of dialogue and plan to improve public services failed to stem protests as her approval ratings fell 30 points. She implemented new tax cuts in May 2014 on food and other necessities, while increasing Bolsa payments 10%, even as inflation rate rose to 6%. Her second term was from 2015 to 2016. After leading in the first round with 41.6%, narrowly won re-election in the run-off elections with 51.6%. Her opponent, Aecio Neves, was the governor of Minas Gerais and grandson of Tancredo Neves, the man whose election marked the end of the military period, but who died before he could be inaugurated. Rousseff's win depended heavily on vote from poorer north regions of Brazil. Facing deficits, inflation, and unemployment, Rousseff began new term by switching from stimulus to austerity policies, raising interest rates and eliminating tax cuts. The GDP fell 3.8% in 2015. Economic Decline and Falling Political Support in Brazil (2014-2015). The Zika virus emerges in Brazil in 2015 and was linked to nearly 5,000 cases of microcephaly in newborns. Peaking at 8,000 new cases in March 2016, control efforts ensured Zika did not seriously affect the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio. Petrobras and other scandals expanded during 2016. Lula was detained for questioning and his home was searched based on suspicions of using Petrobras money for improvements to homes of family members. Rouseff herself was involved looked like she would be able to tough through it. The Supreme Court blocked effort by Rousseff to appoint Lula to her cabinet, which had given him partial protection from prosecution. Vice President Michel Temer, who joined Rousseff's ticket from the PMDB, broke with the president and pushed for impeachment on charges she manipulated economic data prior to their 2014 reelection. In April the Chamber of Deputies voted 367 to 137 to petition the Senate to impeach the president. Controversial impeachment 10.3%, largest 10.7%? After Rousseff's impeachment, Rousseff and the PT denounced the move as a "coup," arguing that many of those leading the impeachment drive (including Temer) have been implicated in the Petrobras scandal, while Rousseff had not been. A leaked recording showed Temer, as VP, plotting with other legislators to oust Rousseff. Temer began term with just a 12% approval rating, though 60% also favored Rousseff's impeachment. Left center opposition? Temer was dictatorship in pure Vargas faction. She had more trouble Lula rather than the 60% of Lula. She was impeached but still able to still be elected after. She repeated she was the victim of injustice. She was not implicated for car wash scandal was impeached for lying about state of economy before, something Cardoso has done as well, after Temer split lying about financial statistics was enough to impeach her. Temers presidency was sign that Brazilian justice had strengthened and no one was above the law

Dollarization

·· 1991 CONV PLN INT BY MENEM, REINT PESO, $ 1:1 RAT, STP 1) FRM "CURR BRD" 2)GOV STK BRD W/ $ (FRM PRIV THNGS), 3) GOV GUAR CUR BRD PAY $1 FOR EVRY ARG PESO (VICE VERS) , IF NOT ENGH $ IN CB TO MEET NET DEM FOR $ BOARD TAKES MEAS SCH AS RAIS INT RTS TO INC PESO VAL, DUR MENEM IT LED TO HIGH C.O.L, RUA AS FIN MIN TO KEEP DOL LED TO GRWING GOV TRD DEF AND LWR DOM INV, STILL VIEWD UNTCHBL SYMB OF ARG REC, DOL ARCHTCT CAV BCM FIN MIN AND CONG GAV HIM EMERG PWRS, MSSV MD LED BIG IMF BAILOUT DUHALDE LRST GOV DFLT IN WRLD HIST END DOL DEV PESO, VALUE FEL TO LWR THN 1/3 OF BFR, CLD WRK BUT NVR ENGH DOLLARS IN CB? AT 1ST SUCC THEN NOT LED MENEM 8% APP, PESO NOT WRTH $ PRTNDING WAS LED MNY FLW OUT OF ARG, 5 PRES 14 DAYS, SLSH SPNDNG UNTIL ECON ROCK BTM & IMF GIV LOANS BCK, ARG SHRNK MORE THN US DUR GREAT DEP This was the 1991 Convertibility Plan that was introduced by Carlos Menem. He reintroduced the peso, this time pegged to the dollar at a 1 to 1 ration under "Convertibility Plan". Step 1 was for the government to form a "Currency Board". Then the government stocks the Currency Board with dollars. Get dollars mainly from privatizing things. In the third step, the government then guarantees Currency Board will pay on demand one dollar for every Argentine peso (and vice versa). If there are not enough dollars in the Currency Board to meet the net demand for dollars, board takes measures such as raising interest rates to increase the peso's value. Menem pushed an extensive... During Menem's second term, dollarization led to high cost of living. During De la Rua's term the continuation of dollarization had led to growing government and trade deficits and lower domestic investment. Still dollarization was viewed as untouchable symbol of Argentina's recovery. Appointed dollarization architect Domingo Cavallo became Fninance Minister again in March 2001 and congress gave him emergency powers. Eduardo Duhalde defaulted on Argentina's public debt after IMF refused to come up with new loans. It was the largest default by government in world history and Duhalde ended dollarization devaluing the peso. Value soon fell to less than one-third of what it had been before. Eduardo Duhalde Presidency? This can work even if you don't have enough dollars to back up every person, local bank has millions of dollars in depositors but bank as a whole doesn't have, if all people came at same time to get money wouldn't have because loaned it out , problem with dollarization was that there were never enough dollars in the , over time people stared to realize hey wait in a minute, raised interest rates, incentive to raise dollars, continued to distort the economy , at first very successful helped Menem to win reelection, economy started to go south and by the end of his term ends with 8% approval rating , Fernando Rua inherits dollarization, very important in the economic collapse he continues it , very apparent starting all sorts of problems for the economy, run it as its finance minister reason mainly that he wanted to be promised he would keep dollarization , worried about 5000% inflation again, don't know If trust your party? Kept dollarization, shouldn't have kept that campaign promise, eventually get a massive meltdown of the economy, big bailout of the IMF billions in the currency board, change their persos to dollar, money disappears from the currency board, other loan from the IMF, shouldn't be throwing good money after bad, cuses economy to complete collapse, going to devalue at this rate, for example 1 or .5% every year, could have done this would have had to give up the psychological tie, the peso just wasn't worth the dollar, trying to pretend that it was so causing money to flood out of Argentina , like his predecessor Raul , end up with 5 presidents in 14 days, slash spending until economy hits rock bottom and IMF says we will give you loans back? Argentina had shrunk more than US by Great Depression