POLI 340: Middle East

Twelver Shiism

-"of all the Shia movements, Iranian 'Twelver' Shiism has the greatest contemporary relevance". has held power numerous times. was expressed in Iranian Revolution (1978-9) -in Twelver Shiism, line of rulers continues down to Muhammad al-Mahdi (d. 878)

Sultan Abd al-Hamid II

-1878-1909 -espoused conservative Islamist ideology

Green March

-1975: invasion of Western Sahara. starts war with Polasario -stabilized Hassan II's rule -large segment of local population of Polasario fought against Morocco -heavy cost, but wins much nationalist support for King in Morocco, and distracted the army. stabilized Hassan II's rule. --Morocco uses radars to detect Polasarians -->their desert raids were ineffective -now: Moroccan population growing in Polasario

AQAP

-Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula YEMEN -presents insurgent challenge to Yemen with growth 2009- -contributed to increase in violence during Arab Spring SAUDI ARABIA -also a challenge, but terrorist challenge has declined dramatically recently there. Saudi Arabia good at rehabilitating terrorists because it is itself very Islamist --> terrorists can relate to Saudi Arabian government's views

Husayn-Mcmahon correspondence

-Allies want Arab revolt against Ottoman Empire -have to win over Sherif Husein -McMahon, British high commissioner in Egypt, aims to have Husein sever his ties with the Ottoman Empire -Husein agrees to join Allies against Ottoman Empire in return for some territory -Arab revolt against Ottoman Empire happens

Sunnism in today's politics

-Bahrain projects Arab Spring as existential threat to Sunnis -militant Sunni Islamists: Al Qaeda (AQAP) -Saudi Arabia uses threat of Shiite opposition to mobilize Sunni support -current events: Iraq's VP (currently in Turkey) sentenced to death: charged by Prime Minister Maliki of being head of Sunni death squad -Egyptian and Tunisian armies: overwhelmingly Sunni

Shaikh Hamad

-Bahrain's emir, starting 1999 -reduces conflict -promises constitutional monarchy

Muhammad Ali (Mehemet Ali)

-Egyptian leader, r.c. 1805-1849 -Napoleon invasion makes him aware of need for reform --> reorders the Egyptian economy (increasing state involvement in economy); modernizes the military with the help of Europeans, who train the troops; expands state's role in education; expands and organizes bureaucracy -this makes Egypt a rising power -has his troops fight Ottoman Empire in Syria 1832 in hopes of expansion. stopped by GB and Ottoman Empire -destroys the Mamlukes

FSyA

-Free Syrian Army -formed as result of increasingly brutal crackdown on largely peaceful protests

FLN

-Front de Liberation Nationale -launches anti-colonial war against France in 1954. causes political turmoil in France, and 200,000 dead and wounded in the next 8 years. -rules Algeria with the army starting independence in 1962 -2007 parliamentary elections: made up part of the winning "Presidential Alliance" with RND and the Islamist MSP -May 2012: increase in votes for FLN (united with RND)

Gause III

"Why ME.ern Studies Missed the Arab Spring: The Myth of Authoritarian Stability." how ME specialists missed Arab Spring imp. to understanding factors current politics -traditional views of how authoritarianism persisted in ME: 1. military-security complex; 2. state control over economy -military matters in Arab Spring: composition & institutionalization -oil's impact: non-oil states had to modernize. economic reforms backfired because created a hated wealthy class -pan-Arabism: present, but different than before

Sunnism in current Syrian civil war

-GCC asks Assad to leave power, not to bring democracy to the country, but to topple an Alawi regime allied with Iran, in hope that new regime would be Sunni. this is why Saudi Arabia backs Sunni rebels. -resistance from Islamist Sunnis --> turning point: Syria attacks stronghold of Muslim Brotherhood (Hama) -30 straight days of government shelling focused on Sunni village in Homs. -increasing sectarianization of conflict (Sunnis vs. Alaouite minority)

Oman

-Ibadi majority (70%), Sunni majority -small regional empire in Gulf and Indian Ocean until 19th C -retained independence, never became a formal protectorate (although very close relations with Britain) -absolute monarchy with consultative body -current Sultan doesn't have successor. Sultan had overthrown father in military coup with help of semi-retired British officers. Consultative Assembly may play role in succession

Concessions in the Qajar dynasty

-Iran grants concessions to Europeans as a way to play them off against each other. this way, the shahs basically sold their country (cheaply). this sparks discontent from both inside & outside of Iran --> Shah stops concessions -Jemal al-Din al-Afghani forms coalition against the selling of Persia --> cancelling of tobacco concession (Persia had given GB a tobacco monopoly)--> nationwide protest against the regime and mobilization of the clergy

Qarmatians

-Ismailis give rise to Qarmatians, who believed that the leader is an emissary from God -don't believe in Sharia and traditionally Muslim forms of practice. Disrespect other Muslims.

JMP

-Joint Meeting Parties -opposition coalition in Yemen that demanded electoral law reforms, resulting in postponement of 2009 elections -joined protests against Arab Spring

Umar

-Khalifa 634-644 -rules during expansion of Islam -rules after Abu Bakr

Uthman

-Khalifa 644-656. rules after Umar -faced some problems converting Islamic into a political system -ruled the Umayyads -opposition to Uthman --> Uthman murdered --> civil war -Shiites don't like Uthman

King Faruq

-King of Egypt -overthrown by nationalist "free officers" in 1952, citing corruption, foreign influence, and social inequality as justifications

Muhammad V (Morocco)

-King of Morocco -dies 1961, succeeded by Hasan

LIFG

-Libyan Islamic Fighting Group -poses Islamist challenge to Libya starting in the mid-1990s -deradicalized under regime pressure (2009)

Lynch's "Lamborghini Morsi"

-Morsi fires important military officers and others from government, replaces SCAF's constitutional amendments with his own, replaces heads of state-owned newspapers with those sympathetic to Muslim Brotherhood -3 dominant takes on Morsi's actions: 1. cement military rule; 2. personalize rule; 3. democratic transition -problems now in Egypt: mistrust & absence of legitimate institutions; political polarization; widespread alienation from Morsi and Brotherhood; absence of parliament -uncertainty as to whether firing heads of SCAF positive or not

'Ali

-Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law -has son, Husayn -had the support of some to be next leader of Islam, after Muhammad's death -becomes leader after 'Uthman is murdered and civil war ensues -Shiites are loyal to Ali, want leader to be descendant of Ali

Abu Bakr

-Muhammad's father-in-law -chosen as Khalifa after Muhammad's death -r. 632-634

NDC

-National Dialogue Council of Yemen, created from Arab Spring -will be convened -dispute over membership and process -new constitution to be drafted by government-appointed committee, implementing NDC recommendations -new constitution to be approved in referendum

PDRY

-People's Democratic Republic of Yemen -established by NLF (National Liberation Front) in South Yemen in 1967 -aligned with USSR -periodic conflict between YAR (North Yemen) and PDRY -civil war in PDRY (1986)

Qajar dynasty

-Persia, 1779-1925. European influence circa 1850s - -shah tries to play European powers off against each other -GB becomes increasingly in control of Persia as it discovers petroleum there and buys most of the shares. eventually takes over all of it -GB and Russia sign agreement: Russia gets northern half of Persia, GB gets southern half, neutral strip in middle -granting of a constitution 1906 -Reza Shah comes to power 1921. 1925: Reza Shah rises to throne and takes name of Pahlevi

Shiites in Saudi Arabia

-Saudi Arabia hates Shiites, has problems with its Shiite minority -Saudi Arabia sees Arab Spring as Shiite plot by Tehran -March 2011: small demonstrations in Shiite neighbourhoods in Eastern province --> deployment of security forces & strong crackdown, protests are blamed on Iran, and announcement of new public expenditures to people and religious institutions

Shiites and politics (now)

-Shiites in Lebanon support Hezbollah, despite its support of the Syrian regime -Bahrain: has Shiite majority. Shiite opposition movements win more seats in 2006. unrest in Shiite communities and increasing Shiite power makes people nervous. new citizenship policy to offset Shiite opposition. Bahrain Arab Spring: ruling al-Khalifa family attributes protests to Shiite uprising directed from Tehran -Iran has historically had a Shia majority

SCAF

-Supreme Council of the Armed Forces -tried to steer trajectory of Egypt during Arab Spring -ruled Egypt directly after Arab Spring (during transition) (as announced by Suleiman). pressure on SCAF (political struggle)--> SCAF allows for parliamentary elections -conflicting interests within SCAF -March 2011: SCAF passes constitutional referendum -is weakened by constitution-writing and elections: Morsi replaces SCAF's amendments in constitution with his own. Morsi also fired prominent SCAF officials

SNC

-Syrian National Council -formed when government made brutal crackdown against largely peaceful protestors

'Ummayad dynasty

-Ummayads are supporters of Uthman -dynasty set up by Mu'awiya. dynasty lasts 661-750 CE. spreads Islam across North Africa to Spain, and east to the Indus Valley -antigovernment sentiment grows under Ummayad rule: feeling that the government was impious -680: insurrection against Umayyads by Ali's son Husayn. Husayn is killed

Zaydi Shiite Muslims

-account for 40-50% of Yemen's population -Zaydi Imamate (9th-20th century) controlled in North Yemen

Sunnis

-after Ali's death, Sunni-Shiite split: Sunnis support Mu'awiya as next leader -differences between Sunnism and Shiism: 1. 5 Pillars 2. Sunni institutions less hierarchical than Shiite institutions. 3. Sunnism less flexible in modifying legal interpretations 4. Sunnism less generous with female inheritance -Sunnis and Shiites have similar institutions -Sunni Islam: no clergy as middlemen

Abdelaziz Bouteflika and Islamists

-amnesty for Islamists: many accept, but Armed Islamic Group and the Salafi Group for Preaching and Combat continue fighting. senior FIS leaders released (July 2003). violence much reduced, but sporadic attacks continue

qiyas

-analogies -part of Shari'a law

Political atmosphere under Abdelaziz Bouteflika

-army and old guard remain powerful ("Le Pouvoir"): decide who will be president -some pluralism (press, political parties), but widespread human rights abuses -constitution amended in 2008 to allow President to serve more than 2 terms.

King Abdullah (Jordan)

-assassinated 1951

King Hassan II (Morocco) and his rule

-becomes King of Morocco 1961 with death of Muhammad V -unrest from leftist opposition, trade unions -coup attempts in 1971, 1972 -heavy use of royal patronage (makhzen) -bloody repression ("years of lead"): divide and rule -engaged in programs to boost his popularity -economic crisis, bread riots in 1980s -limited political and economic reform in the 1990s, but continued vote-buying, vote-rigging, and royal interference -Hassan II dies July 1999

Mu'awiya

-becomes religious leader -sets up Umayyad dynasty -descendant of Ali

Shiites (historically and ideologically)

-believe that "only a divine inspired political leadership is worthy of a Muslim's loyalty." can only be led by descendants of Ali. loyal to Ali, scorn Uthman -turning point: 680 insurrection against Umayyads, specifically by Ali's son Husayn. Husayn killed -Shia movement splits into factions: "Twelvers"; Mahdi: (Muslim messiah); Ismailis -Shia see most other Muslims as "betrayers of the faith" -Shia see Koran's meaning as hidden and can only be revealed through Imams

Wahhabism and Saudi Arabia

-contributed to Saudi Arabia's state formation, religious ideology, & law. Wahhabian religious establishment built into the regime. Wahhabis are the country's official religious leaders, and give Saudi family legitimacy to rule

Abdellah Benkirane

-current prime minister of Morocco -the most powerful prime minister in Morocco to date -man of the people -some tensions between Benkirane and King Muhammad VI

Lynch's "The Embassy Protests and the Arab Spring"

-different from Dutch Cartoons Crisis: leaders' attitudes, # killed, presence of counterprotests. -Libya: shows lack of state capacity. counter-protests (as in Yemen & Tunisia). Egypt: salafis + young punks. no counterprotests. -lessons: Islamism important & growing. Arab Spring failed to deliver on promises --> youth ready to protest. empowerment + interconnected media--> rapid spread of social movements. anti-Americanism. growing diversity of social actors in Middle East. embassy protests do not mean end of hope for Arab Spring

Al Sabah

-family, arrived in Kuwait 18th C and ruled with other families -creation of majlis (legislative council) and extension of control by other families --> al-Sabahs threatened, shut down majlis -before British rule: did not rule Kuwait absolutely - were dependent on British merchants. strengthened by British rule --> rules absolutely with independence, although it agrees to constitution-writing and elections -distribute resources informally

Dahi's "Understanding the Political Economy of the Arab Revolts"

-focus on Arab Mediterranean: no oil--> constrained in expenditures -structural adjustment (economic liberalization, privatization) for foreign investment & bilateral agreements, ignore public's interests --> weakens regimes. join GWOT for aid from US --> aid --> repression, corruption--> alienates middle class --> weakens regimes -attempts to get money from West (thru structural adjustment & GWOT) caused Arab Spring b/c it eroded regimes' bases of support

Destourian Socialist Party (DSP)

-gains power after independence. pushes aside the then-ruler, King Muhammad (Bey) VIII al-Amin -rule after independence: 1. state-led industrialization, but private sector retaining important role; 2. most liberal personal status laws in the Arab world; 3. no democratic process: Destour dominates political process, marginalizes and coopts others; 4. pro-western foreign policy -renamed Constitutional Democratic Rally, or RCD, under Ben Ali's regime, and continues to have near political monopoly

Qatar's FP

-gives aid to Syrian opposition. getting annoyed now because: 1. (possibly unevenly distributed) aid from Saudi Arabia and Qatar causes resentment and conflict between Syrian opposition groups. 2. many groups that aren't Syrian opposition, claiming to be Syrian opposition to get money from Saudi Arabia and Qatar -also supported opposition in Libya Uses Al-Jazeera to further its own interests by affecting interesting outcomes in the Middle East? -rise as a regional power. broker of peace in regional conflicts

Qatar

-has Sunni majority and Shiite minority (5%) -has large expatriate population -a small Gulf emirate that gradually became a British protectorate in the 19th century. gained independence 1971 -ruling monarchy: Al Thani. British rule strengthened Al Thani -absolute monarchy -owns al-Jazeera -very rich and no people -No sign of opposition, no civil society or active political life. Far more guest workers than actual Qataris.

UAE (United Arab Emirates)

-has Sunni majority, Shiite minority (10-15%). has large expatriate population -a small Gulf Emirate that became a British protectorate in the 19th century. gains independence 1971 -now a super-rentier state and federal monarchy, made up of many small emirates that don't really compete with one another, & very limited consultative body -no significant sources of political discontent. Sees transnational Islamist movements as threat. Uses GCC as counterrevolutionary resource to slow rates of regime change

Elections under Abdelaziz Bouteflika

-imperfect presidential elections (1999, 2004) -most recent (2007) parliamentary elections: "Presidential Alliance" (FLN, RND, & the Islamist MSP) win 249/389 seats, with remainder going to smaller Islamist, Berber, leftist, and independent parties -Bouteflika elected to third term in April 2009 with 90.24% of the vote. will probably not run again

Mohammed Mossadegh

-leader of Iran -tries to nationalize British petroleum company --> West boycotts Iranian petrol --> Iranian economy hit hard -1953, with help of CIA, Mossadegh is arrested, and shah replaces him

Aden

-located in South Yemen -strategically located --> occupied by Britain 1839-1967 (128 years)

International cascades

-mimicking other people -applicable to many different areas -double informational challenge in authoritarian regimes: no independent media, so how do I know that other people are as unhappy with the regime as I am? -steps: 1.police violence 2. intermediate actors 3. media coverage

vizirs

-ministers of the Ottoman Empire, starting with its rise -were embedded into a sophisticated bureaucratic system

current Sunni demographics

-much more Sunnis than Shiites now -majority of Yemen's, Kuwait's, Saudi Arabia's, UAE's, and Qatar's population -minority of Bahrain's population (but has a Sunni monarchy, and military) & Oman.

'Ali's end

-murdered by Kharijite. Kharijites were supporters of Ali but turn against him when he stops war against Uthman's supporters and questions whether Uthman's murder was justified. Ali's murder is turning point because last of Muhammad's close followers now gone --> Muslim unity shattered

Wafd Party

-one of the most important nationalist movements in Egypt -secular reformist -was not as popular among the masses as Muslim Brotherhood was

Saad Zughul

-organizer of Egyptian independence movement from British -arrested by Brits --> riots --> Brit concessions, rejected by Egyptians --> Brit declares Egypt independent 1922, but with caveats

Hadith

-part of Shari'a -collection of what Muhammad said

ijma

-part of Shari'a -consensus, first of the community, and later of religious scholars (ulema)

Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab

-preacher, mid-18th C. started a revivalist/fundamentalist, restitutionist, puritanical political-religious form of Islam, known as Wahhabism, or the Muwahhidun movement. his word spread through the Najd region in Arabia -believed those who worship at saints' tombs should be killed because they were idol worshippers -Ottoman Empire couldn't fight back against Wahhabis (supporters of al-Wahhab). Egypt, when it is in the Levant, tries fighting them

dhimmi/ djimmi

-protected community -rejects the misconception that Islam is a militant religion -rejects the misconception that Islam is an intolerant religion (Jews were protected under djimmi system) -conquered people were protected under the djimmi system as long as they accepted being under Muslim rule

Saif al-Islam al-Qaddafi

-relative of Muammar Qaddafi -projects image as progressive reformer, and possible successor to Qaddafi. this helps with Libyan's attempt to reorient FP post-9/11

Husayn

-religious leader -son of Ali -supported by Shiites -competed with Yazid -630: insurrection against Umayyads and Husayn -murdered -Muharram: month of remembrance for Husayn's martyrdom

Mutawwai'in

-religious police: enforce standards of morality. Example: no women driving! -important in Saudi society

ulama/ ulema

-religious scholars. advise political rulers. example: Al-Azhar -embedded into Saudi Arabian society -needed for ijma -trained in schools called madrasahs. open to anyone who shows "promise" -political role: hold leaders accountable

Oman's response to Arab Spring

-response to Arab Spring: announced $2.6 billion in additional expenditures, not including new payments to the unemployed (April). new consultative assembly elections Oct 2011

UAE's responses to Arab Spring

-response to Arab Spring:raised retirement wages for military personnel, subsidized bread and rice prices, promised to spend $1.6 billion to develop the infrastructure of the underdeveloped northern emirates, and in July announced that some 1,235 land plots had been distributed to citizens in the country's west. -political concessions: elections for (federal) consultative council Sep 2011

Habib Bourguiba

-ruled Tunisia with Destourian Socialist Party after its independence in 1956. first president of Tunisia -under his rule: 1. state-led industrialization, but private sector retaining important role; 2. most liberal personal status laws in the Arab world; 3. no democratic process: Destour dominates political process, marginalizes and coopts others; 4. pro-western foreign policy, and Westernization; 5. secularization -deposed by his own party in 1987 on grounds of senility, replaced by Ben Ali

Houari Boumedienne

-ruler of Algeria, 1965-1978 -under his rule: statist developments, financed by oil and gas exports; and mounting debt

Chadli Benjedid

-ruler of Algeria, 1978-1992 -during his rule: 1. economic crisis, leads to political and economic reform; 2. rise of Islamic Salvation Front (FIS); 3. local elections (1990), national elections (1991-2). army intervenes to avert FIS victory, plunging the country into civil war

King Muhammad VI (Morocco)

-ruler of Morocco, 1999-present. succeeded Hassan II -liberalization, then restriction, then liberalization again... -uses makhzen -granted reforms quickly in response to Arab Spring

Sulayman the Magnificent

-ruler of Ottoman Empire c. 1566, when it reached its zenith

Muhammad Ibn Sa'ud

-ruler of Saudi Arabia during conquest and first rise of Saudi power (1774-1818)

Abd al-Aziz bin Abd al-Rahman Al Saud

-ruler of Saudi Arabia during second rise of Saudi power (1902-?)

King Muhammad VIII al-Amin

-ruler of Tunisia when granted independence in 1956 -pushed aside by Destourian Socialist Party

Abdelaziz Bouteflika's rule

-rules Algeria as a hybrid regime, starting 1999 -periodic unrest in Berber areas (April 2001-) (Berbers around 15-20% of population) --> in some reform measures, including Berber education (July 2003) -responded to Arab Spring by increasing funding for unemployed youth, thus easing the pressure from the youth for change.

King Idris al-Senussi

-rules Libya as monarchy from independence in 1951 until military coup in 1969, when "free officers" overthrow him -under his rule, oil was discovered (1959) and started being exported (1963)

Al Khalifa

-ruling family in Bahrain -wasn't a monarchy before British rule. strengthened by British rule. -Emir Hamad ibn Isa Al Khalifa: allows for new constitution and reactivation of parliament (2002) -Bahraini Arab Spring: al Khalifa family attributes protests to Shiite uprising directed from Tehran

Al Thani

-ruling family in Qatar -wasn't a monarchy before British rule. strengthened by British rule.

Sherif Husayn

-sherif of Mecca and emir of the Hijaz -Hasemite governor of Mecca and Medina

Economic atmosphere under Abdelaziz Bouteflika

-some economic improvement after over a decade of decline (especially with increases in oil prices), but unemployment and poverty remain high

Hama

-stronghold of Muslim Brotherhood in Syria -attacked by government during current civil war because of resistance from Islamist Sunnis -center of resistance to the Syrian regime -Bashar al-Assad's father also attacked Hama during his civil war.

Sunnism in political history

-the Levant: uneasy balance: Druze, Sunni Muslims, & Maronite Christians -religious ideology of Ottoman Empire. Ottoman Empire rivals with Shia Safavid Empire - legacy for today

diwanniyya

-traditional male gathering in homes. Institutional practice in Kuwait -informal means of political participation used by both regime and opposition

Expansion of Islam under Uthman

-under his rule, the abode of Islam (dar al-Islam) expanded to Egypt, North Africa, Armenia, Syria, Iraq, and Persia, where it pushed back the Byzantines and vanquished the Sassanid Persian empire.

Neo-Destour

-urban middle-class movement in Tunisia that led the struggle for independence from France

Abd al-Rab Mansur al-Hadi

-vice president of Yemen, with Saleh as president -with GCC deal, Saleh allowed for transfer of power to al-Hadi -confirmed as interim president in Fall 2012 election

common trends in Gulf states

1. "ruling family members continue to dominate important government and security ministries" 2. "political parties and independent labour unions...illegal" 3. leadership succession chosen by regime 4. judicial system not independent from regime 5. "constitutions...reserve little power for elected bodies" -real power in Gulf states is informal

Economist

Algeria's Election: Still Waiting for Democracy -political spectrum: 1. Abdallah Djaballah (FJD): Islamist reformers. 2. Bouguerra Soltani (Hamas). 3. Islamist parties, echo Muslim Brotherhood and Nahda. include Salafists (extreme): shun parliamentary politics. cynicism about election from voters -context: Abdelaziz Bouteflika, ruler 1999-. Le Pouvoir. civil war. Arab Spring: regime claims it's protecting people from bad instability caused by the Spring. increase funding for unemployed youth

Hamid

Egypt's Uncomfortable Challenge: Balancing Security and Civil Liberties -censorship of controversial al-Dustour article brings to question balance of security & civil liberties in Egypt. al-Dustour article implicitly incited violence against government -such not criminalized in West because of norms (widespread legitimacy of civilian government). compare with Egypt: military prominence in history, and extralegal transition -this censorship has eroded legitimacy of Brotherhood and Egypt's institutions

Pelham

How Morocco Dodged the Arab Spring -no real answer...because king is economically involved? because of cronyism? because of makhzen? -things that are wrong with Morocco: -cronyism and obscene wealth of king -discontent. lack of confidence with new constitution -officials submissive and uncritical of king -political repression -gross inequality in living conditions -abysmal education for commoners

Brown

Still Hope for Egypt's Constitution -Constituent Assembly divided up into committees for drafting constitution. members of committees keep on changing -Islamists dominant. non-Islamists threaten to leave committees. Islamists have incentive to include non-Islamists because want constitution to appear as result of consensus -will probably be similar to 1971 constitution. will probably be more liberal than previous Egyptian governmental documents -controversies: 1. rights provisions. 2. structures of gov't -challenges: 1. lack of consensus. 2. troubled legal legacy

Ryan

The New Arab Cold War and the Struggle for Syria -cold war of '50s-'60s: revolutionary pan-Arab states that want to dissolve borders vs. conservative Arab states. -new cold war: people vs. their conservative regimes. playing out in Syria. Syrian conflict has regional and international dimensions -pan-Arabism: then (state-led, interested in international) vs. now (public-led, interested in domestic) comparison of Nasser and Hisrallah -similarities: both played out in Syria; proxy wars

PBS Frontline video

The Regime Responds (Syria) -Hafiz: led military coup, cronyistic, repressed ethnoreligious challenges, took USSR aid, allied with Iran (same enemies). -Arab Spring: protests --> crackdown --> increased and more unified protests -Alawites: 2 million people. see fight existentially -older brother killed --> Bashar al-Assad prepped as heir. hope for change, but he goes by playbook -turning point: Islamist Sunni resistance --> attack on Hama (center of resistance)

Muharram

month of remembrance for Husayn's martyrdom

mutjahids

spokesmen for the clergy in Iran

5 Pillars of Islam

1. testimony of faith (shahadah) 2. prayer 5 times/ day in direction of Kaaba (holy shrine in Mecca). most important time: Friday noon. imam: prayer leader 3. fasting during (lunar) month of Ramadan 4. alms of the poor: give proportion of income to the poor. zakat: obligatory. sadaqa: non-obligatory 5. the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) once in life -slightly different between Shiites and Sunnis

Pickard

Libya's Constitutional Controversy -60-person congress will draft new constitution -unclear constitution-writing process. congress appointed or elected? timeline? -important question: distribution of political & economic power; protection of human rights; relationship between state & religion. should Libya base new constit. of 1951 constit.? doesn't account for economic transformation in past 60 years -context: domestic security, economic development transitional justice challenges