Political Science 201 Final

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Age

(18-29)younger people are more likely to be Democrats or Independent (30-49) more likely to be independent or Democrat (50-64) more likely to be democratic (65+) evenly split between Democratic and Republican

3. party identification as tally of experiences

- a third explanation is that party identification reflects experiences with political leaders and representatives, especially the presidents from each of the parties -americans hold their presidents, and to a lesser extend Congress, accountable for the economic performance of the country and success in foreign affairs. --a bad economy or a disastrous military intervention will lead voters to disapprove of the president and to lower their assessment of the president's party's ability to govern --when things go well, voters infer that the incumbent party has a good approach to running national affairs -with each successive presidency and their experience of it, individuals update their beliefs about which party is better able to govern

Who can't vote in the US?

- children under 18 - non-citizens - people in prison, and in most states ex-felons

how PR came about in the Democratic presidential primary elections

--during the 1988 primary season, Jesse Jackson routinely won 20% of the vote in the primaries but ended up with only about 5% of the delegates. To make the Democratic National Convention and the party more representative of its disparate voting groups, Jackson negotiated with other party leaders to change the delegate allocation rules so that delegates within congressional districts would be assigned on a proportional basis

ex of spatial issues

--ex: minimum wages ---low-wage workers and unions favor minimum wages because they benefit from them. low-wage workers will earn higher wages, and union members expect all wages to be pushed up with the minimum wage. ---employers and investors tend not to like the minimum wage because it increases labor cost and reduces profit margins ---this is a example of how spatial issues have a range of policy options and a lack of consensus on the right policy

Understand partisan gerrymandering .

--those in charge of redistricting may try to manipulate the new map to increase the likelihood of a particular outcome, such as the election of a majority of seats for one party or social interest. -it is easy to draw intentionally an unfair electoral map. -to facilitate districting, the Census Bureau divides the nation into very small geographic areas, called blocks, which typically contain a few dozen people. US House districts contain over 700,000 people -political mapmakers combine various local areas, down to census blocks, to construct legislative districts -those seeking political advantage try to make as many districts as possible that contain a majority of their own voters, maximizing the number of seats won for a given division of the vote --there are constraints on political cartography: ---the district populations must be equal ---and all parts of the district must touch (be contiguous)

Best predictor of who votes:

-Age and Education are best predictor -Engagement with community -Internal efficacy -Strength of partisanship -Sex

nominating candidates:

-Article I, Section 4, of the Constitution makes only a few provisions for elections. --it delegates to the states the power to set the "times, places, and manner of holding elections," even those for US senators and representatives --it does however reserve to Congress the power to make such laws if it chooses to do so --President must be at least 35 years of age, a natural born citizen, and a resident of the US for at least 14 years --a senator must be at least age 30, a US citizen for at least 9 years, and a resident of the state he or she represents --a member of the House must be at least 25, a US citizen for 7 years, and a resident of the state he or she represents

How we voted before the Australian ballot

-Before the 1880s, Americans voted in different ways: --some voted in public meetings --some voted on paper ballots printed by the political parties or by slates of candidates distributed to the voters -Voters chose which ballot they wished to submit-- A Republican ballot, a Democratic ballot, a Populist ballot, a Greenback ballot, and so forth. --the ballots were often printed on different-colored papers so the voters could distinguish among them, and so that the local party workers could observe who cast which ballots --with these party ballots, voters couldn't choose candidates from different parties for different offices; they had to vote the party line

FECA has been reformed many times, most importantly the:

-Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA, also called the McCain-Feingold Act, after senators John McCain and Russell Feingold, its primary sponsors in the Senate) -this act prohibited unlimited party spending (called soft money) and banned certain sorts of political attack advertisements from interest groups in the last weeks of a campaign

Buckley v. Valeo

-FECA originally went much further than the law that survives today -Congress originally passed mandatory caps on spending by House and Senate candidates and prohibited organization from running their own independent campaigns on behalf or in opposition to a candidate -in 1976, Buckley v. Valeo the Court ruled that "money is speech," but the government also has a compelling interest in protecting elections from corrupt practices, such as bribery through large campaign donations. --the justices declared the limits on candidate spending unconstitutional because they violated free speech rights of candidates and groups --however, the need to protect the integrity of the electoral process led to justices to leave contribution limits in place. --the presidential public-funding system was also validated because its voluntary. -candidates can opt into the system, but they are not required to; hence, there is no violation of free speech

when is voter turnout higher?

-General elections - National Elections - Close Elections - States with Stronger 2 Party Competition - When Parties are Very Active in a Specific Election - Partisan Elections --Nonpartisan elections

What was the significance of Baker v. Carr?

-In a series of decisions beginning with Baker v. Carr in 1962, the US Supreme Court ruled by enabling federal courts to intervene in and to decide redistricting cases -In 1964, Reynolds v. Sims, the SC ruled that all federal and state legislative districts must have equal populations: one person, one vote. -before 1962 state legislative districts often had highly unequal populations, which meant that some votes in effect counted more than others: --this produced a pattern of overrepresentation of rural areas and underrepresentation of must urban areas, and, especially, suburban counties -- this pattern arose from neglect: ---most state constitutions require redistricting to keep district populations equal, but as urban populations grew, especially in the first half of the 20th century, those in power realized that redistricting might jeopardize their own re-election. ---As a result, the legislatures chose to do nothing. ---with each successive decade, representation in the US became more unequal, and there seemed to be no way to force the state legislatures to act. ---Finally, the US Supreme Court ruled, in a series of important cases, that unequal representation violated the 14th amendment guarantee of equal protection under the law. ---by 1971, nearly every legislative district in the US elected one representative, and the populations of the districts for each legislative chamber were equal

Nonpartisan/Top Two Primary

-Louisiana, California, Washington use this -single "nonpartisan" primary --all candidates on ONE ballot regardless of party organization all competing against each other -majority vote to win seat outright (don't have to go to a general election) -if no candidate gets majority, then runoff between two two vote getters in general election

While the right to vote is universal, the exercise of this right is not. % of those eligible to vote that actually do so in the presidential, midterm elections for congress, local city elections

-Presidential election: approx. 60% -midterm elections for Congress: 45% -local elections: 10-20%

what is majority rule?

-a candidate must receive at least 50 percent of all votes in order to win --ex: Louisiana and Georgia require a candidate to receive an outright majority in an election in order to be declared a winner. If no candidate receives a majority in an election, a runoff election is held about one month later between the two candidates, who received the most votes in the first round

What do lobbyists do?

-a lobbyist is any person who shall engage himself for pay or any consideration for the purpose of attempting to influence the passage or defeat any legislation of the Congress of the United States -lobbyist badger and buttonhole legislators, administrators, and committee staff members with facts about pertinent issues and facts or claims about public support of them -often testify on behalf of their clients at congressional committee and agency hearings -sometimes help their clients identify potential allies with whom to construct coalitions -provide research and information to government officials -draft proposed legislation or regulations to be introduced by friendly lawmakers -talk to reporters, place ads in newspapers, and organize letter-writing, email, and telegram campaigns -also play an important role in fundraising, helping to direct clients' contributions to members of Congress and presidential candidates -organize and even launch comprehensive campaigns that combine simulated grassroots activity with information and campaign funding for members of Congress

nomination by convention

-a nominating convention is a formal caucus bound by a number of rules that govern participation and nominating procedures. -conventions are meetings of delegates elected by part members from the relevant county (a county convention) or state (a state convention). -delegates to each party's national convention (which nominates the party's presidential candidate) are chosen by party members on a state-by-state basis; there is no single national delegate selection process

rationale behind Duverger's Law: the strategic behavior of politicians part 2

-a politician with a centrist orientation also cannot win the election if the center-right and center-left parties are not too extreme --the center-right party would win all votes of voters on the right and on the center-right. the same is true for the center-left party. --that would leave only a small segment of true centrists for a potential centrist party -hence, if the current parties are not too extreme, there is no incentive for a third party to enter a two-party system when plurality rule is the criterion for winning

Madisonian theory

-according to the Madisonian theory, a good constitution encourages multitudes of interests so that no single interest can every tyrannize the others. -the basic assumption is that competition among interest will produce balance and compromise, with all the interests regulating one another. -today this Madisonian principle of regulation is called pluralism --according to pluralist theory, all interests are and should be free to compete for influence in the US. --the outcome of this competition is compromise and moderation, because no group is likely to be able to achieve any of its goals without accommodating some of the views of its many competitors --there are tens of thousands of organized groups in the US today, but the huge number of interest groups competing for influence does not mean that all interests are fully and equally represented in the American political process ---the political deck is heavily stacked in favor of those interests that are able to organize and that wield substantial economic, social, and institutional resources on behalf of their cause. ---this means that interest group politics, taken as a whole, works more to the advantage of some types of interests than others

within the political parties, the nomination process in most states:

-allocates delegates to the parties' national conventions on the basis of House districts, and thus population. -However, some states choose their delegates on a statewide basis, with all districts selecting multiple delegates to the party conventions

periodic redistricting

-although it corrects the problem of unequal representation, it invites another problem: --those in charge of redistricting may try to manipulate the new map to increase the likelihood of a particular outcome, such as the election of a majority of seats for one party or social interest. -- this problem arose with some of the earliest congressional district maps ---ex: an egregious map of the 1812 Massachusetts House districts drawn with the imprimatur of Gov. Elbridge Gerry prompted an editorial writer in the Boston Gazette to dub a very strangely shaped district the "Gerry-Mander"

campaigns

-american politician campaigns are freewheeling events with few restrictions on what candidates may say or do -candidates in hotly contested House and Senate races spend millions of dollars to advertise on television and radio, as well as direct mail and door-to-door canvassing -those seeking office are in a race to become as well known and as well liked as possible and to get more of their supporters to vote -federal laws limit how much an individual or organization may give to a candidate, but with the exception of presidential campaigns, place no restrictions on how much a candidate or party committee may spend

Australian Ballot

-an electoral format that presents the names of all the candidates for any given office on the same ballot. -introduced at the end of the 18th century - the Australian Ballot replaced the partisan ballot and facilitated split-ticket voting

Single-member districts

-an electorate that is allowed to elect only one representative from each district -the typical method of representation in the United States

What is an interest group?

-an interest group is an organized group of individuals or organizations that makes policy-related appeals to governments. -individuals form groups and engage in collective action to increase the chances that their views will be heard and their interests treated favorably by the government -they are organized to influence governmental decisions; they are sometimes referred to as lobbies

political parties in the US today

-are not tightly disciplined, hierarchical organizations. they never have been -rather, the American parties consist of extensive networks of politicians, interest groups, activists and donors, consultants, and voters. -some of these pieces of the parties, such as the party caucuses in Congress, seem to have more influence over the policies and political strategies pursued by the parties than others --but each of these political players shapes the ability of the party to influence what government does

the national convention

-at the national level, the party's most important institution is the national convention -Run by National Political Party Organizations --Democratic National Committee (DNC) --Republican National Committee (RNC) -the convention is attended by delegates from each of the states -as a group, they nominate the party's presidential and vice-presidential candidates, draft the party's campaign platform for the presidential race, and approve changes in the rules and regulations governing party procedures. -before WWII, presidential nominations occupied most of the time, energy, and effort expended at the national convention. the nomination process required days of negotiation and compromise among state party leaders and often required many ballots before a nominee was selected. -in recent years, presidential candidates have nominated themselves by winning enough delegate support in primary elections to win the official nomination on the first ballot -the convention itself has played little or no role in selecting candidates

initiative process potential advantages and disadvantages

-ballot propositions involve policies that the state legislature cannot (or does not want to) resolve. --like referendum issues, these are often highly emotional, and consequently, not always well suited to resolution in the electoral arena -on the other hand, one of the virtues of the initiative is that it may force action --that is, leaders in the legislature may induce recalcitrant legislators to move on controversial issues by using as a threat the possibility that a worse outcome will result from inaction

The secret ballot:

-became widespread at the end of the 19th century in response to corrupt practices in the public voting -it is a strong assertion of the individual -- the vote is meant to reflect the individual's mind: what the individuals knows about the choices and what his or her own preferences are about government--not the influence of others

the national committee

-between conventions, each national political party is technically headed by its national committee -these national committees raise campaign funds, head off factional disputes within the party, and endeavor to enhance the party's media image

Region

-between the Civil War and the 1960s, the Solid South was Democratic bastion. -today, much of the South has become solidly Republican in national elections, although it is more divided in state elections -the area of greatest Democratic strength is the Northeast and the Far West -the Midwest is a battleground more or less evenly divided between the two parties

the use of districts to magnify the power of the majority has been a particular problem for minorities

-blacks and hispanics constitute roughly a quarter of the population. -districts crafter without regard to race would spread the minority vote across many districts, making it unlikely that those groups would be a sufficiently large segment in any one district to elect proportionate numbers of blacks of Hispanic to the legislature -this problem, compounded by the historic discrimination against blacks and Hispanics, led Congress to amend the Voting Rights Act in 1982

the election calendar

-campaigns are long because of the election calendar --American elections proceed in two steps: the party primary elections and the general election -general elections for federal offices are set by the US Constitution to take place on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November -the first presidential caucuses and primaries come early in January and last through the beginning of June --state and congressional primaries do not follow the same calendar, but most occur in the spring and early summer, with a handful of some states waiting to hold their nominating elections until September of the election year -the immediate result of this yearlong calendar of elections is to stretch the campaigns over the entire election year

what it takes to win

-campaigns are very expensive; millions of dollars to advertise and persuade people to vote and how to vote -campaigns inform voters, and they do so through competition -campaigns are also very long, spanning years --campaigns for presidency officially launch a year and a half to two years in advance of Election day. --serious campaigns for the US House begin at least a year ahead of the general election and often span the better part of two years -to use the term of the Federal Election Commission, an election is a two-year cycle, not a single day or even the period between Labor Day and Election Day loosely referred to as "the general election"

delegates

-candidate needs majority of delegates votes to win (not just a plurality) -unpledged delegates (superdelegates) --party leaders and elected officials --each state gets a certain number of delegates generally based on population and it is also based on states that have a history of support for that political party in the past -pledged delegates --determined by state primaries and caucuses --have to vote based on what their state want

candidate characteristics

-candidates personal attributes always influence voters' decisions -the more important characteristics that affect voters' choices are race, ethnicity, religion, gender, geography, and social background -in general, voters prefer candidates who are closer to themselves in terms of these candidates --voters presume that such candidates are likely to have views and perspectives close to their own --moreover, they may be proud to see someone of their ethnic, religious, or geographic background in a position of leadership -this is why for many years politicians sought to "balance the ticket," making certain that their party's ticket included members of as many important groups as possible -the characteristics could also repel others --many voters are prejudiced against candidates of certain ethnic, racial, or religious groups.

rationale behind Duverger's Law: the strategic behavior of politicians part 1

-consider how politicians would think about the prospects of forming a new party -suppose that there already are two parties, a center-right party and a center-left party. --a politician from the far right, for example, might be unhappy that the parties do not represent the ideals she espouses. She wants a far-right policy most, a center-right policy less, and least of all a center-left policy. --one solution for the far-right politician is to leave the center-right party and form a far-right party. --the problem with doing that is that it helps the center-left party. a far-right party splits the vote of those on the right without affecting the vote for the center-left party. --under plurality rule, the center-left party would almost certainly win, an outcome that the far-right politician likes even less -thus, the politicians on the extremes cannot gain by forming a new party.

The Australian ballot: this came about in an era of administrative reform in government throughout the United States.

-county governments took on the job of formatting and printing ballots, and the conduct of elections became an administrative task of government rather than a political activity of the parties -it also reflected the efforts of state governments to break the hold of local political organizations: --all ballots are identical under the Australian form, making it difficult to observe who votes for which party -more importantly, voters could choose any candidate for office, breaking the hold of parties over the vote -changed from the party ballot to split-ticket voting. --the party ballot made it impossible to choose particular candidates without voting for an entire list of candidates nominated by a party or slave. ---the electorate could express a desire for change only as a vote against all candidates of the party in power

majority-minority districts

-created from the Voting Rights Act in 1982 -containing majorities of black or Hispanic people -they are a direct reaction against the majoritarian pressures created by districts -Can make MM district if 1.Minority group lives close enough together 2. Votes as a block 3. Usually loses to majority block -- But can't ignore other redistricting rules. -even with the rule, blacks and Hispanics make up only 15% of members of the Congress, even though they accounted for 26$ of the vote in 2012

is prospective or retrospective voting more important?

-depends on the strategies of the competing candidates -candidates always endeavor to define the issues of an election in terms that will serve their interests -incumbents running during a period of prosperity will seek to take credit for the economy's happy state and define the election as revolving around their record of success... this strategy encourages retrospective voting -an insurgent running during a period of economic uncertainty will tell voter it is time for a change and ask them to make prospective judgements....this strategy encourages prospective voting. --ex: Barack Obama in 2008 election

501c(4) organizations and Super PACS.

-each can raise and spend unlimited amounts on campaigns -Super PACS are subject to more disclosure laws

The Sixth Party System shift had results:

-each party became ideologically more homogenous after the 1980s -party loyalty in Congress, which had been weak between 1950s and the 1970s, became a more potent force -the 1990s witnessed a dramatic resurgence of party-line voting in Congress -ideological differences in the same party can cause internal divisions and can cause problems passing legislature, etc -the ideological gap between the two parties has been exacerbated by two factors: each party's dependence on ideologically motivated activists and the changes in the presidential nominating system that was introduced during the 1970s --the demands of party activists have pushed Democrats further to the left and Republicans further to the right --often efforts by politicians to reach compromises on key issues are attacked by party activists as "sellouts," leading to stalemates on such matters as the budget and judicial appointments

In what ways are interest groups unrepresentative of the interests of the public?

-economic interests overrepresented -membership in interest groups is not randomly distributed in the population -people with higher incomes, higher levels of education, and management or professional occupations are much more likely to be members of groups than are those who occupy the lower runs on the socioeconomic ladder -well-educated upper-income professionals are more likely to have the time and money, and to have acquired through the educational process the concerns and skills, needed to play a role in a group or association -moreover, for business and professional people, group membership can provide personal contacts and access to information that can help their careers -corporate entities, businesses and trade associations, usually have ample resources to form or participate in groups that seek to advance their cause. --the result is that interest group politics in the US tends to have a pronounced upper-class bias

Plurality rule and winner take all in the Republican party

-even when there are many candidates, the primary elections are decided rather quickly. --ex: John McCain had won a smaller share of the vote in the primary elections through March 5, 2008, than either of the two main Democratic contestants, Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama, but by the beginning of March, McCain had virtually sewn up the Republican nomination.

most interest groups require money

-every group must build a financial structure capable of sustaining an organization and funding the group's activities -most groups rely on yearly membership dues and voluntary contributors from sympathizers -many also sell members some ancillary services, such as insurance and vacation tours

most interest groups require leadership

-every group must have a leadership and decision-making structure -for some groups, this structure is very simple -for others, it can involve hundreds of local chapters that are melded into a national apparatus. -finally, most groups include an agency that actually carries out the group's tasks. --this may be a research organization, a public relations office, or a lobbying office in Washington or a state capital

incumbency advantage in the South

-ex: Democratic dominance in the South from the 1890's through 1960's-- a political arrangement termed the Solid South -during this period, election laws were employed to exclude blacks and many poor whites from primary elections, and Republicans comprised a relatively small part of the electorate -as a result, Democrats won nearly every House seat, Senate seat, and gubernatorial race in the South from the end of Reconstruction through the passage of the Voting Rights Act in 1965 -shifting political alignments in the South during the 1960s and 1970s brought a rapid rise in Republican fortunes in the South and with that the benefits of electoral competition

disadvantages of initiatives and referendums

-expensive -slowing down government action -making bad laws

Rules that the US doesn't have:

-federal and state laws do not limit: --the amount of television and other forms of advertising --total campaign spending -- the activities of groups and parties on behalf of candidates --how the media cover the campaigns.

Most interest groups require members

-first most groups must attract and keep members --usually, groups appeal to members not only by promoting political goals or policies that they favor but also by providing them with direct economic or social benefits. ----ex: AARP, which promotes the interests of social citizens, at the same time offers members a variety of insurance benefits and commercial discounts. --similarly, many groups whose goals are chiefly economic or political also seek to attract members through social interaction and good fellowship --thus, the local chapters of many national groups provide their members with a congenial social environment while collecting dues that finance the national office's political efforts.

there are different types of plurality systems

-first past the past --this is the system currently used in the US that combines plurality rule with single-member districts -winner takes all --the electoral college is this type of plurality system in which the candidate who receives the most votes wins all of the delegates

Traditional Democratic Domination of the South

-from Reconstruction (1877) until 1995, no Southern state legislative chamber was ever controlled by Republicans -1964 southern states now switch and start voting for republican candidate -1976 southern states go back to democratic party

what is issue voting?

-governments make policies and laws on a variety of issues that affect the public -voters who disagree with those policies and laws on principle or who think those policies have failed will vote against those who made the decisions -voters who support the policies or like the outcomes that government has produced will support the incumbent legislatures or party -these policies are not taken as constants or fixed attributes of the candidates or parties. rather, politicians choose what kinds of laws to enact and what kinds of administrative actions to take with the express aim of attracting electoral support -voters have preferences about what policies the government pursues or what outcomes result, and they choose the candidates and parties that produce the best results or most preferred law

Why are interest groups susceptible to collective action problems? Why are large groups even more susceptible?

-groups of individuals pursuing some common interest or shared objective consists of individuals who bear some cost or make some contribution on behalf of the joint goal -each individual of a very large number of individuals has in the simplest situation, two options: to contribute or to not contribute to achieving the jointly shared objective -if the number of contributors to the group enterprise is sufficiently large, a group goal is achieved. -However, if the group goal is achieved, then every member of the group enjoys its benefits, whether she contributed to its achievement or not --Thus, interest groups are problematic because individuals are tempted to free ride on the efforts of others, making it difficult to achieve outcomes that are best for all -large groups are more susceptible because: 1. large groups tend to be anonymous 2. in the anonymity of the large-group context, it is especially plausible to claim that no one individual's contribution makes much difference 3. problem of enforcement. --they can't punish a slacker because by definition, they cannot prevent the slacker from receiving the benefits of collection action should those benefits materialize

to facilitate collective action in the electoral process: the relationship between collective action by groups and party electoral strategy is clearly a two-way street.

-groups that align with a party provide that party with essential electoral resources, including a reliable voting bloc, money, personnel, and even candidates. -when they party they support wins, these interests gain influence over public policy. -of course there are risks as well: an organized interest may suffer if the party it supports loses the election

Proportional Representation in the Democratic Party

-has the effect of further stretching out the nominating season --if a candidate wins a plurality of 40% of the vote in a state's Democratic primary, he wins roughly 40% of the delegates --as a result, it takes many more victories in the Democratic primaries to accumulate sufficient delegates to lock the nomination. --ex: in 2008, Obama and Clinton split the votes and delegates almost equally, and Obama won by the barest of majorities.

what do state laws regulate in regards to election rules?

-how votes are cast and counted -the procedures for registering voters -candidate qualifications for all elected officials other than members of Congress and the president -the procedures for nominating candidates and getting on the ballot -the operations of the parties -the conduct of all state and local elections

2. party identification as ideological affinity

-however strong generational transmission of party identifications may be, the dissonance between identities and issues must surely weaken the pull of party, which suggests a second theory of party. -this second idea is that party identification reflects underlying ideologies of voters and policy positions of parties -the relatively high degree of party loyalty in Congress and other branches of government means that voters can reasonably anticipate how politicians will act in office -citizens identify with parties that pursue public policies more to their liking -the party labels act as brand names and help voters choose the candidates that will best match their preferences. -voters need not know the details of an individual candidate's voting record or campaign promises in order to understand how that politician will likely behave on important matters. -as such, party labels provide an informational shortcut for voters.

ex of how majority vote leads to disproportionate share of the seats

-in 2010, the Republicans won 53.5 percent of the two party vote nationwide for the US House, but 55.6 percent of the seats -as an empirical matter, the US, when the election is a tie, the parties win equal shares of the vote, and for every 1 percent of the vote above 50% a party gains an additional 2% of the seats -in 2012, however, Democrats and Republicans finished in a virtual tie for popular votes cast for the two parties in House races, but the GOP won 54% of the seats --this anomaly was in part the result of the Republican advantage in redrawing district boundaries. ---these boundaries are drawn by state legislatures, and in 2010 the GOP won control of a majority of these bodies. ---Candidate recruitment, retirements, and reapportionment also played a role -the electoral college tends to magnify the vote even more dramatically: --in 2012, Barack Obama won 51% of the vote nationwide, but he captured nearly 62% of the electoral college delegates.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission

-in 2010, the Supreme Court reinforced its reasoning in Buckley v. Valeo in the case Citizens United. v. FEC -in Citizens United, the justices ruled that the BCRA of 2002 had erred in imposing restrictions on independent spending by corporations. -it overturned key components of the BCRA and reversed its ruling in the case that had upheld BCRA, McConnell v. FEC. -the majority opinion struck down limits on independent expenditures from corporate treasuries but kept in place limits on direct contributions from corporations and other organization to candidates. -the majority opinion went further than past decisions, in solidifying corporations' right to free political speech, on par with the right to free speech of individuals. --in the wake of this decision, two sorts of organizations formed--501c(4) organizations, which derive their title from the section of the tax code that allows such entities, and Super PACS.

Type of Electoral District: electoral college

-in Presidential elections, every state is allocated votes in the electoral college equal to its number of US senators (two) plus its number of House members. -the states are the districts, and each state chooses all of its electors in a statewide vote -the electors commit to casting their votes for a certain candidate in the electoral college

referendum voting

-in addition to voting for candidates, 24 states also provide for referendum voting. -the referendum process allows citizens to vote directly on proposed laws or other governmental actions. -referendums may come about in two ways: --first, some state constitutions and laws require that certain types of legislation (such as bonds or property tax increases) be approved by popular vote. --second, people may get a measure put on the ballot by obtaining enough signatures of registered voters to a petition. -in recent years, voters in several states have voted to set limits on tax rates, block state and local spending proposals, define marriage, and prohibit social services for illegal immigrants.

what is an open primary?

-in an open primary, individuals declare their party affiliation on the day of the primary election. -to do so, they simply go to the polling place and ask for the ballot of a particular party --the open primary allows each voter to consider candidates and issues before deciding whether to participate and in which party's contest to participate

House districts and state legislative districts are not static

-in order to comply with the dictum of equal population representation, they must be remade every decade -every 10 years, the US census updates the official population figures of the states, as well as population counts, to a fine level of geographical detail -the politicians, their staffs, party consultants, and others with a stake in the outcome use the census data to craft a new district map; ultimately, the legislatures must pass and the governors must sign a law defining new US House and state legislative districts

why are campaigns long?

-in part to the effort required to mount a campaign --communicating with all the eligible voters in America is an expensive and time-consuming enterprise -it is further extended by the election calendar

nomination by primary election

-in primary elections, party members select the party's nominees directly rather than selecting convention delegates who then select the nominees -primaries are for from perfect replacements for conventions because it is rare that more than 25% of the enrolled voters participate -nevertheless, they have replaced conventions as the dominant method of nomination -primary elections fall mainly into two categories: --closed primary --open primary -primaries are more open than conventions or caucuses to new issues and new types of candidates

The Sixth Party System: Republicans

-in the 1960s, conservative Republicans argued that me-tooism was a recipe for continual failure and sought to reposition the party as a genuine alternative to the Democrats. -In 1964, the Republican presidential candidate, Barry Goldwater, argued in favor of substantially reduced levels of taxation and spending, less government regulation of the economy, and the elimination of many federal social programs. -Although Goldwater was defeated by Lyndon Johnson, the ideas he espoused continue to be major themes of the Republican Party -The Goldwater message, however, was not enough to lead Republicans to victory. It took Richard Nixon's "southern strategy" to give the Republicans the votes it needed to end Democratic dominance in the political process -Nixon appealed strongly to disaffected white southerners, and with the help of George Wallace, sparked the shift of voters that eventually gave the once-hated "party of Lincoln" a strong position in all the states of the formal confederacy -in the 1980s, under Ronald Reagan, Republicans added religious conservatives who were offended by Democratic support of abortion rights as well as alleged Democratic disdain for traditional cultural and religious values

Type of Electoral District: Senate districts

-in the US Senate, the states are the districts. -they have multiple members and unequal populations

material benefits

-include anything that can be measured monetarily, such as special services, goods, and even money -a broad range of material benefits can be offered by groups to attract members. --these benefits include discount purchasing, shared advertising, and health and retirement insurance

What are the different ways that interest groups try to influence policy?

-insider strategies: gaining access to key decision makers and using the courts -outsider strategies: going public and using electoral tactics

What are selective benefits and how to the limit free riding?

-interest grips offer numerous incentives to join. most important, they make various selective benefits available only to group members. -this removes the free-riding option for certain benefits, which makes participation more attractive for the individual -these benefits can be informational, material, solidary, or purposive

interests groups are primarily economic... so economic interests are overrepresented

-interest groups are generally supported by groups of producers or manufacturers in a particular economic sector. --ex: American Farm Bureau Federation, which represent small business owners -at the same time that broadly representative groups such as these are active in Washington, specific companies--such as Disney, Shell, Microsoft, and General Motors--may be active on certain issues that are of particular concern to them -labor organizations, although fewer in number and more limited in their financial resources, are extremely active lobbyists. --the AFL-CIO, the United Mine Workers, and and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters are examples of groups that lobby on behalf of organized labor. -lobbies have arisen to further the interests of public employees --the most significant example being the American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees -professional lobbies such as the American Bar Association and the American Medical Association have been particularly successful in furthering their interests in state and federal legislatures

using electoral politics

-interest groups seek to use the electoral process to elect the right legislators in the first place and ensure that those who are elected will owe them a debt of gratitude for their support -groups invest far more resources in lobbying than electoral politics -nevertheless, financial support and campaign activism can be important tools for organized interests -initiative and referendum are another political tactic sponsored by interest groups seeking to circumvent legislative opposition to their goals

using the courts

-interests groups sometimes turn to the courts to augment other avenues of access -they can use the courts to affect public policy in at least three ways: 1. by bringing suit directly on behalf of the group itself 2. by financing suits brought by other individuals 3. by filing a companion brief as amicus curiae (friend of the court) to an existing court case

purposive benefits

-involves the appeal of the purpose of an interest group -the benefits of religious interest groups are good examples of this benefit type --ex: the Christian right is a powerful movement made up of a number of interest groups that offer virtually no material benefits to their members. -the growth and success of these groups depend on the religious identification and affirmation of their members. --ex: both the abolition and the prohibition movements were driven by religious interest groups whose main attractions were nonmaterial benefits -ideology itself, or the sharing of a commonly developed ideology, is another important nonmaterial benefit --ex: many successful interest groups have been citizens' groups or public interests groups whose members are brought together largely around shared ideological goals

issues may be distinguished as spatial and valence issues. what is valence issues?

-issues on which voters do not care about the means (the policy) only the ends (the outcome) -voters care about having peaceful and prosperous lives, quite apart from how they are achieved

issues may be distinguished as spatial and valence issues. what is spatial issues?

-issues on which voters have preferences over what policy is pursued. -on many issues voters have beliefs about which policies will lead to the best outcomes, or they have moral convictions that lead them to value the means, not just the ends

Proportional representation is the opposite of Duverger's Law because

-it creates an incentive for more parties and candidates to enter, because they will win seats in proportion to their support among the national electorate -PR systems often have a multitude of parties, none of which represents a decisive majority -elections in PR systems rarely decide which party will lead the government and often leads to coalition governments, because no one party wins enough seats to govern.

the system of single-member districts with equal populations was not part of the Founder's original design.

-it evolved over nearly 2 centuries, from 1790 to 1970 -Article II of the Constitution designed the House to represent the people, with the number of seats elected by each state allocated on the basis of population following each decennial census, and the Senate to represent the states -the Constitution originally specified that the state legislatures would choose the US senators, with each state choosing 2 senators to staggered 6-year terms. --that system was jettisoned in 1913 with the adoption of the 17 amendment, providing for direct election of senators - the Constitution said nothing about the election of individual House members or electors to the electoral college. That task fell to the states, and in early times the states used many different electoral systems for choosing their House delegations.

plurality rule advantage

-it gives voters the ability to choose individuals to represent them personally, not just political parties -it picks a definite winner without the need for runoff elections

periodic redistricting leading to gerrymandering

-it is easy to draw intentionally an unfair electoral map. -to facilitate districting, the Census Bureau divides the nation into very small geographic areas, called blocks, which typically contain a few dozen people. US House districts contain over 700,000 people -political mapmakers combine various local areas, down to census blocks, to construct legislative districts -those seeking political advantage try to make as many districts as possible that contain a majority of their own voters, maximizing the number of seats won for a given division of the vote --there are constraints on political cartography: ---the district populations must be equal ---and all parts of the district must touch (be contiguous)

Republican party on winning delegates

-it is left up to states -different types: --proportional representation --winner takes all --or a mixture

plurality rule in single-member districts has a very important consequence:

-it is the reason for two-party politics in the United States -around the world, countries with plurality rule in single-member districts have far fewer political parties than other nations. -typically, elections under plurality rule boil down to just two major parties that routinely compete for power, with one of them winning a majority of legislative seats outright

Federal Elections Campaign Act (FECA).

-it limited the amounts that a single individual could contribute to a candidate or party to $1,000 per election for individuals and $5,000 for organizations (these limits have since been increased) -it further regulated how business firms, unions, and other organizations could give money, prohibiting donations directly from the organization's treasury and requiring the establishment of a separate, segregated fund--a political action committee (PAC) -it established public funding for presidential campaigns and tied those funds to expenditure limits. - and it set up the Federal Election Commission (FEC) to oversee public disclosure of information and to enforce the laws. -it also established public funding for presidential campaigns. If a candidate agrees to abide by spending limits, that candidates campaign is eligible for matching funds in primary elections and full public funding in the general election

The Australian Ballot Significance

-it lists the names of all candidates running for a given office and allows the voter to select any candidate for any office -it is a secret ballot -all ballots are identical under the Australian form, making it difficult to observe who votes for which party -voters could choose any candidate for office -gave rise to split-ticket voting, in which some voters select candidates from different parties for different offices -creates the opportunity for voters to choose candidates as well as parties -created a necessary condition for the rise of the personal vote and the incumbency advantage -allows voters to cast a more sophisticated ballot that reflects both the performance of individual officeholders and assessments of the political parties as a whole

Australian ballot: what it does, where it came from

-it lists the names of all candidates running for a given office and allows the voter to select any candidate for any office -was introduced in Australia in 1851, and in the US today it is universal -in a 10-year period from 1885-1895, nearly every state adopted the Australian ballot, and with it, the secret ballot. -this came about in an era of administrative reform in government throughout the United States

religion:

-jews are among the Democratic Party's most loyal constituent group and have been since the New Deal. Nearly 90% of all Jewish Americans describe themselves as Democrats, although the percentage is declining among younger Jews. -Catholics were once a strongly pro-Democratic group but have been shifting toward the Republican party since the 1970s, when the Republicans began to focus on abortion and other social issues deemed important to Catholics -more religiously conservative Protestant who are religiously liberal, such as Unitarians and Episcopalians, tend to identify as Democrats. -Protestant fundamentalists, have been drawn to Republican's conservative stands on social issues, such as school prayer and abortion

the use of districts to magnify the power of the majority has been a particular problem for smaller parties

-just as districts magnify the number of seats won by the majority party, they shrink the representation of small parties -if a party wins 5% of the vote nationwide, it is difficult for it to win any seats or electoral college delegates unless the support for that party is highly concentrated in a particular geographic area --ex: the most successful 3rd party in recent history was the Reform party, started by Ross Perot in 1992. Perot won 19% of the presidential vote nationwide that year, but he won no electoral college delegates

recall election

-legal provisions for recall elections exist in 18 states -the recall is an electoral device that was introduced by early twentieth-century Populists to allow voters to remove governors or other state officials from office before the expiration of their term -federal officials such as the president and members of Congress are not subject to recall --generally speaking, a recall effort begins with a petition campaign.

Latent groups

-many individuals who share a common interest do not form interest groups --for example, college students could be said to share an interest in the cost and quality of education, but they have not organized to demand lower tuition, better facilities, or a more effective faculty. ---these students could be called a latent group -in many instances, the failure of a latent group to organize reflects the ability of individuals to achieve their goals without participating in an organized effort

more on valence issues

-some issues lack conflict: all people want the same outcome --all people want less crime, more prosperity and less poverty, less inflation, better health, peace, and security. -they may have different beliefs about what to do to attain those objectives, but they don't really care about the means; they do care about the outcome -in the context of elections, economic conditions are the most important valence issue --if voters are satisfied with their economic prospects, they tend to support the party in power, while voters unease about the economy tends to favor the opposition.

Realignment

-southern democrats becoming republican -started in 1964 -reaction to push for civil rights for black citizens -occurred slowly -started with split ticket voting -trickled down to state and local elections

spacial voting helps solve the adverse selection problem

-spatial voting is one way that voters solve the adverse selection problem --adverse selection arises if we choose people for office who do not fit with our interests, due to a lack of information about the candidates ---party identities might lead us to vote for people with whom we fundamentally disagree or will act contrary to our interests. --the "one price fits all" label of the parties may not correctly reflect how an individual candidate will vote on legislation --if voters choose candidates on the basis of what policies those candidates represent or promise to support, then voters can choose the right people to represent their interests and values

what is party identification?

-survey researches ascertain party identification with simple questions along the following lines: generally speaking, do you consider yourself to be a Democrat, a Republican, an Independent, or what? -survey researches further classify people by asking of those who choose a party whether they identify strongly or weakly with that party, and by asking independents whether they lean toward one party or another

Midterm Losses

-tendency of the party of the president to lose seats in the midterm election --mostly in the House of Representatives --partly because of turnout level --partly because over promises made in election year so people are always dissatisfied

Presidential Coattails

-tendency of voters to be more likely support candidates of the same party as the successful presidential candidate in a presidential election year --2010 was a good election year for Republicans

why we only have two competitive political parties?

-the American electoral system is winner take all. --whoever gets the most votes wins the congressional seat, whoever gets the most electoral votes wins the presidency -Duverger's Law: when your candidate has no chance to win, you turn to the less objectionable of the major party candidates who can win --the Democratic and Republican parties have positioned themselves as center-left and center-right parties, respectively, neither extremely liberal nor extremely conservative --the ideological positions they have chosen maintain their policy distinctiveness and still divide the electorate about equally --third parties are squeezed between the two parties and have no hope of gaining sufficient support to win, so most 3rd parties decide to stay out --voters dont vote for third parties because it could cause the major party it likes less to win, so they compromise by voting for the major party that doesn't fit their beliefs but is better than the other major party they hate more

Type of Electoral District: single-member district

-the US employs single-member districts with equal populations -this means that the U.S. House of Representatives, almost all state legislatures, and almost all local government have their own districts and elect one representative per district, and all of the districts for a given legislative body must have equal populations.

independent expenditures

-the balance between free speech and corruption has led to a system of limitations on direct campaign contributions to candidates and parties through political action committee. -for many groups, however, the limits are not adequate. they would like to communicate directly with voters about the election and advocate for one candidate or party -independent expenditures (Super PACS) are allowed to raise unlimited amounts of money from any source--individuals, businesses, or other associations -there are some restrictions: they must report donors to the FEC, and they are not allowed to directly coordinate their activities with political candidates -they are allowed to advertise for and against candidates

what is plurality rule?

-the candidate who receives the most votes in the relevant district or constituency wins the election, even if that candidate doesn't receive a majority of votes -ex: suppose 2 parties nominate candidates for a seat and divide the vote such that one wins 34% and the other two each receive 33% of the vote. Under plurality rule, the candidate with 34% wins the seat, even though he did not win a majority of votes (more than 50%).

candidate characteristics part 2

-the characteristics of a candidate could also repel others --many voters are prejudiced against candidates of certain ethnic, racial, or religious groups. -voters also pay attention to candidates personality characteristics, such as their competence, honesty, and vigor -voters want these skills and attributes because the politicians who have them are more likely to produce good outcomes, such as laws that work, fair and honest administration of government, and ability to address crisis -candidates will emphasize certain qualities that they think all voters will value

Interest group v. PAC

-the difference is that PACs focus on helping their favored candidates win elections, and interest groups focus on influencing elected officials

although it involves voting, a referendum is not an election.

-the election is an institution of representative government. through an election, voters choose officials to act for them. -the referendum process, by contrast, is an institution of direct democracy; it allows voters to govern directly without intervention by government officials --the validity of referendum results, however, are subject to judicial action. ---if a court finds that a referendum outcome violates the state or national constitution, it can overturn the result.

campaign finance

-the expense, duration, and chaos of American campaigns have prompted many efforts at reform, including attempts to limit campaign spending, shorten the campaign season, and restrict what candidates and organizations can say in advertisements -the most sweeping reform came in 1971, when Congress passed the Federal Elections Campaign Act (FECA).

the second problem is the collective choice of policy

-the give-and-take within a legislature and between the legislature and the executive can make or break policy success and subsequent electoral success.

-the most common electoral strategy employed by interest groups is that of giving financial support to the parties or to particular candidates.

-the most common electoral strategy employed by interest groups is that of giving financial support to the parties or to particular candidates. --FECA requires each candidate or campaign committee to provide the full name and address, occupation, and principal business of each person who contributes more than $100. The FECA requires that any organization that wishes to contribute to a candidate must do so through a "separate and segregated fund"--a political action committee (PAC)

solidary benefits

-the most notable of this class of benefits are the friendship and "networking" opportunities that membership provides. -another benefit that has been important to many nonprofit and citizens' groups is consciousness-raising --ex: women's organizations that active participation conveys to each member an enhanced sense of her own value and a stronger ability to advance individual as well as collective civil rights

where is PR used in the United States

-the most substantial elections in which it is employed are the Democratic presidential primary elections. -ex: if a district elects 5 delegates, a candidate wins a delegate if the candidate receives at least 20% of the vote in the district, 2 delegates if the candidate wins at least 40% of the vote, and so forth. -have to get at least 15% of the vote to get any delegates -this means you dont have to win the majority of votes in the states elections to get a delegate but you do have to get at least 15% of the votes to get a delegate -prior to this rule, the Democratic party awarded all delegates from a given congressional district to the candidate who won a plurality of the vote. --like any districted system with plurality rule, this created a strong majoritarian tendency

Informational benefits

-the most widespread and important category of selective benefits offered to group members -information is provided through conferences, training programs, and newsletters and other periodicals sent automatically to those who have paid membership dues

Know how group affiliations affect party identification.

-the political parties draw support from most regions of the country and from Americans of every racial, economic, religious, and ethnic group. -The two parties don't draw equal support from members of every social stratum though -when we refer to the Democratic or Republican coalition, we mean the groups that generally support one or the other party. -party leaders try to build coalitions consisting of many groups, each of which wants a distinct policy or political benefit. -a variety of group characteristics are associated with party identification. these include race and ethnicity, gender, religion, region, and age.

to facilitate collective action in the electoral process

-the shape of party organization in the US has followed a simple rule: for every district where an election is held, there should be some kind of party unit --these units provide the brand name, the resources, the "buzz," and the link to the larger national organization, which all help the party's candidates arouse interest in their candidacy and stimulate commitment by voters -all of these activities facilitate collective action as they make it easier for voters to understand the choice of candidates and ultimately overcome the free riding that diminishes turnout in general elections. -party organization also enables and encourages electoral competition by groups. --ex: republican party has groups of small business and peak associations. the democratic party has been aligned with labor unions and reformers that want to regulate the economy

partisan loyalty

-the single strongest predictor of how a person will vote is that individual's attachment to a political party --the American National Election Study (ANES), exit polls, and media polls have found that even in times of great political change in the United States, the overwhelming majority of Americans identifies with one of the two major political parties and votes almost entirely in accordance with that identity

the decision to vote or not to vote correlates strongly with

-the social characteristics of individuals, especially age and education - it also depends on the electoral choices and context. --an individual who does not know anything about the candidates or dislikes all of the choices is unlikely to vote

what do federal laws regulate in regards to election rules?

-the time of congressional and presidential elections -the qualifications for office -the allocation of seats -the structure of electoral districts -and the qualifications and rights of voters

thousands of campaign organizations are at work during an election

-the two presidential campaigns operate 50 different state-level operations, with other campaigns competing for 34 Senate seats, 435 House seats, dozens of gubernatorial and other statewide offices, and thousands of state legislative seats. -there is relatively LITTLE coordination among these myriad campaigns, though they all simultaneously work toward the same end--persuading as many people as possible to vote for their candidate on Election Day

electoral districts have a particularly important political consequence:

-the use of districts to magnify the power of the majority --In a system like that of the US with two parties and single-member districts, the party that wins a majority of the vote nationwide tends to win a disproportionate share of the seats

In what ways do interest groups enhance democracy?

-there are an enormous number of interest groups in the US, and millions of Americans are members of one or more groups, at least to the extent of paying dues or attending an occasional meeting -by representing the interests of such large numbers of people and encouraging political participation, organized groups can and do enhance American democracy. -organized groups educate their members about issues that affect them -groups lobby members of Congress and the executive branch, engage in litigation, and generally represent their members' interest in the political arena -groups mobilize their members for elections and grassroots lobbying efforts, thus encouraging participation. -interest groups also monitor government programs to make certain that they do not adversely affect their members.

the laws and procedures governing elections have important consequences:

-they can skew the electorate toward one interest or another -they can create barriers to some sorts of political organizations -they can create a legislature that reflects the diversity of the population or one in which one segment of society dominates

economic voting is one way that voters solve the moral hazard problems

-they cannot monitor every policy that the government initiates. -they do, however, have a rudimentary way to hold the government accountable--staying the course when times are good, and voting for change when the economy sours.

the first problem is the problem of collective action

-this is chiefly an outgrowth of elections in which a candidate for office must attract campaign funds, assemble a group of activists and workers, mobilize prospective voters, and persuade them to vote for her.

ex of Duverger's Law:

-this sophisticated voting occurs often in US primary elections -John McCain was significantly more moderate than Mike Huckabee and Mitt Romney in the 2008 Republican presidential primaries, and he was more moderate than the typical Republican voter. --Nevertheless, he won the nomination easily because many Republicans understood that McCain represented their best chance in the general election.

rationale behind Duverger's Law

-two components: --the strategic behavior of politicians --the behavior of voters

the main alternative to plurality rule is: proportional representation

-under proportional representation, competing parties win legislative seats in proportion to their share of the popular vote --ex: if 3 parties running for seats in the legislature divide the vote such that one wins 34% and the other 2 receive 33% of the vote, the first party receives 34% of the seats and the other two receive 33% of the seats -this is rarely used in the United States

Class:

-upper income Americans are considerably more likely to affiliate with the Republicans -lower-income Americans are far more likely to identify with the Democrats -middle-class voters tend to split evenly between Democrats and Republicans -relatively affluent individuals who work in the public sector or such related institutions as foundations and universities also tend to affiliate with the Democrats -white voters with less than a college education have become less strongly affiliated with Democrats over time, but this is almost entirely in the South

ex of cracking:

-used in Mississippi during the 1960's and 1970's to prevent the election of black candidates to Congress. --although blacks were a clear majority within this district, discrimination against them in voter registration and a t the polls guaranteed the continual election of white congressmen. --with the passage of the Voting Rights Act in 1965, this district would almost surely be won by a black candidate or one favored by the black majority. --to prevent this from happening, the Mississippi state legislature drew new House districts in 1965 in order to minimize the voting power of the black population ---the black population was split across three districts and constituted a majority in none -Mississippi's gerrymandering scheme was preserved in the state's redistricting plans in 1972 and 1982 and helped prevent the election of any black representative until 1986, when Mike Espy become the first African American since Reconstruction to represent Mississippi in Congress

what is prospective voting versus retrospective voting?

-voters choice of issues usually involves a mix of their judgements about the past behavior of competing parties and candidates hopes and fears about candidates' future behavior. --choices that focus on FUTURE behavior are is called prospective voting --choices that focus on PAST behavior is called retrospective voting

rationale behind Duverger's Law: the behavior of voters

-voters do not want to waste their votes -if voters understand that the extremist party or candidate cannot win, they will vote for the more moderate alternative. -although second best for extremist voters, the moderate has a better chance of winning --this logic leads the extremist voters to choose the moderate party or candidate in order to have a better chance selecting a candidate more to their liking. --extremist parties and candidates, then, have little incentive to enter a race, and when they do they usually attract few votes

Convenience voting

-voting by mail or voting early at a polling center or town hall

Public voting in the first century of the Republic: how it was done and consequences

-voting was conducted in the open -it led to vote buying and voter intimidation -American history is full of lore involving urban party workers paying poor voters for their support or intimidating members of the opposing party to keep them from voting. -when voting is public, the choices individuals make reflect the group as well as their own thinking --groupthink--the tendency of the pack to follow particular individuals or to reflect a public conversation rather than each individuals private information -public voting also demands more of the individual: --more time and more attention to the decision making process --ex: attending a caucus, is an all-evening affair --as a result, public voting tends to draw in a much smaller and more committed electorate

what survived from Buckley

-what survived Buckley is a system in which candidates, groups, and parties may spend as much as they like to win office, but donations must come in small amounts. -in an expensive election, campaigns must accumulate their resources from large numbers of individuals and groups. -this is a more democratic process of campaign finance, but it increases the effort and time needed to construct a campaign

Controversy over Dates

-when should primaries and caucuses be held?? --determined by state central committees --but DNC and RNC try to control -advantages of voting early: --rest of country watches how the early states vote (huge impact by helping narrowing out the field of candidates)

Know the typical voting turnout in presidential and midterm election years.

-when the president is on the ticket, turnout exceeds 60% of the eligible electorate -when the president isn't on the ticket, turnout plummets. it drops to 45% in midterm congressional elections -and as many as 10 to 20% points in odd-year local election -Best Prediction of Who Votes: The biggest two are age and education. More older people vote than younger, and those with higher education are more likely to vote because of political knowledge. Engagement with community, internal efficacy, strength of partisanship, and sex (women more than men) are other indicators.

The Sixth Party System: Democrats

-while Republicans built a political base with economic and social conservatives and white southerners, the Democratic Party maintained its support among unionized workers and upper-middle class intellectuals and professionals. -Democrats also appealed strongly to racial minorities -the 1965 Voting Rights Act had greatly increased the participation of black voters in the South and helped the Democratic Party retain some congressional and Senate seats in the South. -the Democrats appealed strongly to Americans concerned about abortion rights, gay rights, feminism, environmentalism, and other progressive social causes -the results have been something of a draw: --Democrats have won 5 out of the 12 elections since the passage of the Voting Rights Act and held at least one chamber of Congress for most of that time -Republicans surged in the south, but came at the expense of the old-line Republicans in the northeast. --New England, once the bedrock of the Republican party, had not one Republican US House member after the 2008 election

gender:

-women are somewhat more likely to support Democrats, and men are somewhat more likely to support Republicans --this difference is known as the gender gap and it is somewhat new in American politics. -early studies in the 1920s show that women tended to by slightly more Republican, and they more strongly favored the prohibition of alcohol than men did -the modern gender gap emerged full-fledged in the 1980 presidential election

elections are occasions when multiple principals--the citizens--choose political agents to act on their behalf. What two problems arise for the principals?

1. Are we selecting the best people for the job? This is the problem of adverse selection. 2. Once elected, do the politicians do the job as we wish them to? this is a problem of moral hazard.

Four features of US election laws:

1. Who. The US provides for universal adult suffrage--all citizens over the age of 18 have the right to vote 2. How. Americans vote in secret and choose among candidates for particular office using a form of the ballot called the "Australian ballot" 3. Where. The US selects almost all elected offices through single-member districts that have equal populations--one person, one vote 4. What it takes to win. For most offices in the US, the candidate who wins the most votes among all of those competing for a given seat wins the election

which candidates or party voters choose depends primarily on three factors

1. partisan loyalties 2. issues 3. candidate characteristics -partisan loyalties tend to be the strongest predictor of the vote, though party attachments also reflect issues and experience with candidates -party, issues, and candidates act together to shape voter choice

In what ways does party identification form?

1. party identification as psychological attachment -we have over time developed an affinity for a political party; part of our political identity attachment comes through process of Political Socialization Process by which individuals are shaped by others political views through interactions --greatest impact through youth and young ages -agents of socialization --family (foremost) --education --social groups --political conditions 2. party identification as ideological affinity -Political attitude (or opinion) specific preference on a particular issue --these preferences are mostly linked -Ideology --underlying belief system that helps us organize our political attitudes --can be logical or associative 3. party identification as tally of experiences -constantly updating political views and party affiliation based on whats going on at the time. -as things change we don't discard political views but we build upon them

there are three distinct views about what party identification is. they are not necessarily exclusive of each other, but they point to very different understandings of the nature of party identification and its effect on elections

1. party identification as psychological attachment 2. party identification as ideological affinity 3. party identification as tally of experiences

Understand the various forms of direct democracy in the states and the costs and benefits of each.

1. referendum- allows citizens to vote directly on proposed laws or other governmental actions --cost: the validity of referendum results are subject to judicial action --benefit: gives an impassioned electoral majority the opportunity to reverse legislation that displeases it, thus affecting the initial calculations of agenda setters 2. initiative- citizens may petition to place a policy proposal on the ballot to be approved or rejected by the electorate -steps: --Drafting --Fiscal analysis --Petition (signature requirement) --Campaigning --Voting ---cost: ballot propositions involve politics that the state legislature can't or doesn't want to resolve. often highly emotional issues and not well suited to resolution in the electoral arena ---benefit: it may force action. 3. recall-the removal of a public official by popular vote --cost: hard to get enough signatures to bring matter to statewide vote. --benefit: it keeps agenda setters on their toes to avoid being ousted --Mostly used on local level --- 2 governors ----1921 North Dakota ----2003 California

2 exceptions to the requirements of single-member districts with equal populations

1. the U.S. Senate 2. Electoral College -the Supreme Court led stand the unequal district populations in the Senate and the electoral college because the representation of states in the Senate is specified in the Constitution.

How much of the federal budget is spent on interest on the national debt?

12%

party ballot vs. Australian ballot: Australian ballot

Australian ballot: -the possibility of split-ticket voting created greater fragmentation in the control of government in the United States -because the Australian ballot permitted voters to choose for each office separately, it lessened the likelihood that the electorate would sweep an entirely new administration into power -ticket splitting led to increasingly divided control of government as well as the rise of personal voting

Independent expenditures (and to what extent they are regulated)

Citizens United v. FEC (2010) -advertising that tries to impact an election outcome, but money does not go through campaign -independent of candidates but on their behalf -unlimited amounts of money from any source -"Super PACS" --must report donors to the FEC --not allowed to directly coordinate with campaign

1967 Apportionment Act

Congress forbade the use of anything but single-member districts

Missed questions from previous exams: True or false: 15% of our federal budget currently goes toward paying financing the national debt

False

Missed questions from previous exams: The federal agency with authority over credit rates and lending activities of important banks?

Federal Reserve System

Baker v. Carr

In a series of decisions beginning with Baker v. Carr in 1962, the US Supreme Court ruled by enabling federal courts to intervene in and to decide redistricting cases. Reynolds v. Sims, in 1964, ruled that all federal and state legislative districts must have equal populations: one person, one vote.

4 types of selective benefits:

Informational benefits, material benefits, solidary benefits, purposive benefits

Missed questions from previous exams: Presidents prefer Supreme Court candidates to mirror preferences, but why can't the candidates always live up to these preferences?

Judicial independence

Duverger's Law

Law of politics, formalized by Maurice Duverger, stating that plurality-rule electoral systems will tend to have two political parties

Missed questions from previous exams: True or False: in recent elections, over 90% of House incumbents have been reelected ?

True

Gender gap

a distinctive pattern of voting behavior reflecting the differences in views between women and men

Referendum

a measure proposed or passed by a legislature that is referred to the vote of the electorate for approval or rejection

Proportional representation

a multiple-member district system that allows each political party representation in proportion to its percentage of the vote

Caucus

a normally closed meeting of a political or legislative group to select candidates, plan strategy, or make decisions regarding legislative matters

third party

a party that organizes to compete against the two major American political parties

closed primary

a primary election in which only those who registered with the party a specified period before the primary election day can participate

Open primary

a primary election in which voters can choose on the primary election day itself which party's primary to vote in

Political Action Committees (PACs)

a private group that raises and distributes finds for use in election campaigns

initiative

a process by which citizens may petition to place a policy proposal on the ballot for public vote

median-voter theorem

a proposition predicting that when policy options can be arrayed along a single dimension, majority rule will pick the policy most preferred by the voter whose ideal policy is to the left of half of the voters and to the right of exactly half of the voters

Plurality rule

a type of electoral system in which victory goes to the individual who gets the most votes in an election, but not necessarily a majority of the votes cast

majority rule

a type of electoral system in which, to win a seat in a representative body, a candidate must receive a majority (50% plus one) of all the votes cast in the relevant district

lobbying

an attempt by a group to influence the policy process through persuasion of government officials

Issue voting

an individual's propensity to select candidates or parties based on the extend to which the individual agrees with one candidate more than others on specific issues

party identification

an individuals attachment to a particular political party, which might be based on issues, ideology, past experience, or upbringing

spatial issues

an issue for which a range of possible options or policies can be ordered, say, from liberal to conservative or from most expensive to least expensive

Valence issues

an issue or aspect of a choice for which all voters prefer a higher value, in contrast to a spatial issue. -for example, voters prefer their politicians to be honest, and honesty is a valence issue

Interest Group

an organized group of individuals or organizations that makes policy-related appeals to government

political party

an organized group that attempts to influence government by electing its members to office

all elections in the United States and all elected officials...:

are tied to geographically based constituencies rather than to the national electorate as a whole. -this is certainly true for the House and Senate -it applies to presidential elections, in which candidates focus on winning key states in the electoral college rather than on winning a majority of the popular vote

Selective Benefits

benefits that do not go to everyone but, rather are distributed selectively--only to those who contribute to the group enterprise

Missed questions from previous exams: Temporary Assistance to Needy Families funds are given to the states as?

block grants

the third factor that influences voters' decisions

candidate characteristics

Missed questions from previous exams: The amount government is permitted to borrow

debt ceiling

other systems also use plurality- and majority-rule criteria

ex: some city councils still have multimember districts. the top vote getters win the seats. --if there are, say, seven seats to fill, the seven candidates who win the most votes each win a seat.

Missed questions from previous exams: Electing members of the House of Representatives every two years did not prevent the threat of

excessive democracy

what is a closed primary?

in a closed primary, participation is limited to individuals who have previously declared their affiliation by registering with the party

party machine

in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the local party organization that controlled local politics through patronage and the nomination process

Multi-member districts in Congress

in which a district would elect more than one legislator.

Compulsory voting

is a system in which electors are obliged to vote in elections or attend a polling place on voting day. If an eligible voter does not attend a polling place, he or she may be subject to punitive measures such as fines or community service.

the second factor that influence voter's decisions

issues and policy preferences

Missed questions from previous exams: what isn't true about National Popular Vote Interstate Compact

it requires states to split their electoral college votes among candidates

the responsibility for making all laws go smoothly on Election Day falls on??

local election offices, roughly 5000, in counties and municipalities. -workers in location election offices: --manage the registration lists --prepare the ballots and voting machinery --set up polling places --recruit and train poll workers --tally and certify the votes

**electoral districts, then, create a very strong tendency toward

majority rule

party ballot vs. Australian ballot: party ballot

party ballot: -the party ballot made it impossible to choose particular candidates without voting for an entire list of candidates nominated by a party or slave. -under the party ballot, the electorate could express a desire for change only as a vote against all candidates of the party in power -an insurgent party could more readily be swept to power at all levels of government in a given election. - a strong national tide toward one of the parties in the presidential election would change not just the presidency but also political control of every state and locality that gave a majority of its votes to that presidential candidate's party -the party ballot thus reinforced the effect of elections on party control of government and public policy

What it takes to win. a prominent feature of US electoral law is the criterion for winning, which in the US is determined through

plurality rule

the real standard as a defining characteristic of democracy is

plurality rule

Missed questions from previous exams: constitutional prohibition against government depriving citizens of life, liberty, and property without due process of law is a

procedural restraint

Understand the significance of switching from public voting to private voting methods and of the Australian ballot.

public voting: - led to vote buying and voter intimidation. - the choices' individuals make reflect the group as well as their own thinking. -It also demands more of the individual--more time and more attention to the decision making process. --As a result, public voting tends to draw in a much smaller and more committed electorate The Australian ballot: - created the secret ballot. --Here, the vote is meant to reflect the individual's mind: what the individuals knows about the choices and what his or her own preferences are about government--not the influence of others. --the ballots are identical so that you cant observe who votes for which party -got rid of straight-party voting and created split-ticket voting by allowing the voters to choose any candidate for any office

Cracking in terms of racial gerrymandering

redrawing congressional district boundaries in such a way to divide and disperse a black population that would have constituted a majority within the original district

direct democracy

referendum voting, initiative process, and recall elections

Split ticket voting

some voters select candidates from different parties for different offices

Going public

the act of launching a media campaign to build popular support

gerrymandering

the apportionment of voters in districts in such a way as to give unfair advantage to one political party

turnout rate:

the number of people who vote in a given election divided by the number of people who are allowed to vote

electoral college

the presidential electors from each state who meet in their respective state capitals after the popular election to cast ballots for president and vice president

adverse selection

the problem of incomplete information--of choosing alternatives without fully knowing the details of available options

moral hazard

the problem of not knowing all aspects of the actions taken by an agent (nominally on behalf of the principal but potentially at the principal's expense)

nomination

the process by which political parties select their candidates for election to public office

direct democracy, even if it is not used aggressively, can change legislative, executive, and even judicial decision making.

the referendum, initiative, and recall all entail shifts in agenda-setting power: -the referendum gives an impassioned electoral majority the opportunity to reverse legislation that displeases it, thus affecting the initial strategic calculations of institutional agenda setters -the initiative inclines agenda setters toward action rather than inaction. --combining referendum and initiative, an institutional agenda setter is caught in a dilemma: ---do I act, risking a reversal via referendum, or do I maintain the status quo, risking an overturn via initiative. -the recall complements both of these choices, keeping institutional agenda setter on their toes to avoid being ousted

recall

the removal of a public official by popular vote

Missed questions from previous exams: the Supreme Court ruled that when a state law conflicts with federal law, the state law is deemed invalid under what?

the supremacy clause

Pluralism

the theory that all interests are and should be free to compete for influence in the government. the outcome of this competition is compromise and moderation

difference between political parties and interest groups

they can be distinguished from interest groups on the basis of their orientation --a political party seeks to control the entire government by electing its members to office, thereby controlling the government's personnel --interest groups, through campaign contributions and other forms of electoral assistance, are also concerned with electing politicians-- in particular, those who are inclined in their policy direction. ---but interest groups ordinarily do not sponsor candidates directly, and between elections they usually accept government and its personnel as givens and try to influence policies through them ---they are benefit seekers, whereas parted are composed mainly of office seekers

problem of moral hazard

this stems from hidden actions. once selected, representatives cannot easily be monitored. political leaders necessarily engage in many acts that do not attract public attention, such as making deals with other politicians to build a winning coalition for a particular bill. in these situations, we need to make sure that the decisions the politicians make are the ones we want them to make. however, voters cannot know everything about the candidates running for office or about politicians' actions once they are elected.

problem of adverse selection

this stems from hidden information. We want to choose the people who have the necessary competence to write smart legislation or what have our interest at heart, but we may not have the information to judge which candidate possess those characteristics.

Electoral Districts

today, the president, representatives, senators, governors, and many other state officers, state legislators, and most local officers are elected by the people through geographic areas called electoral districts

Political Science 201 Final

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