Politics in the Middle East Final

Palestine Population (1922):

755,000 residents, with 71,000 Christian, 84,000 Jew, 600,000 Arab Muslim (about 80% of population)

Palestine population (1935):

1.25 million: 100,000 Christian, 325,000 Jew, 825,000 Arab Muslim (about 66% of population)

First known inhabitants of Jerusalem:

Canaanites, about 2500 B.C.

Know where these rivers are located:

Euphrates, Tigris, Jordan,

U.S. Strategic Petroleum Reserve

Located in four salt caverns in the Gulf Coast at Texas-Louisiana border Reserve was established in the 1970's as response to oil embargo by OPEC and to offset emergency loss of imported oil Capacity to hold 700 million barrels Only tapped during 1990 Gulf Crisis and after Hurricane Katrina

Know what these people look like:

PP 1: Ben Gurion, Sharif Husayn of Mecca, Pres. Truman, Nasser,

2. Strategic umbrella for water

Strategic grouping capable of intimidating Syria and Iraq (at least while ruled by Hussein, also perhaps after) needed to facilitate large-scale regional water planning because extensive water use proposals require establishment of pipelines and energy grids stretching across borders. A political and military structure that can ensure the security of these carriers is a prerequisite to effective water sharing

Theodor Herzl:

leader of World Zionist Organization, formed in 1897, wanted a Jewish homeland. There was already discrimination against Jews in Europe

Fracking

~Amazing increase in "working old fields" ~Horizontal drilling and high pressure from water and chemicals breaks up shale formations, releasing additional oil and gas ~Will U.S. become energy independent? Maybe by 2020 ~North Dakota, Pennsylvania, Texas are producing heavily ~Texas' Permian Basin currently produces 1/3 of U.S. oil

1948 War

~On May 15, the next day, Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, and Syria invaded to overwhelm the announced state and find some other solution (enforcing the Partition Plan?—no) ~Israel had no aircraft or tanks, and Arabs vastly superior in equipment & soldiers. Egypt moved toward Tel Aviv& Jordan took West Bank & Jerusalem. Israel attacked from all sides, & early on there were several victories for the Arabs ~However, Czechoslovakia (from Russia) sold arms to Israel, turning war in its favor. U.S. gave no arms. But balance of power in the war changed, and Israel went on offensive ~In addition, Egyptian army was not battle-tested, nor was its leader, playboy King Farouk. Egypt's army was stopped 20 miles from Tel Aviv ~After 3 weeks, Arab advances stalled on all fronts ~UN brokered a truce that ended fighting in 1-1949. Israel had extended its pre-partition borders, Egypt acquired Gaza Strip, Jordan gained West Bank of the Jordan River, and Jerusalem divided into Israeli and Jordanian sectors. ~Arabs thought that a peace treaty would be acknowledgement of defeat, though, and they refused to recognize Israel's right to exist. Thus, 1949 agreement was only an armistice/ceasefire Arab countries made no real attempt to solve problem of refugees who were living in camps in the various countries. Perhaps 780,000 of 1,300,000 Arabs residents were displaced, and have not returned to this day. Palestinians refer to the day when Israel declared its statehood as "Al Naqba," which means "catastrophe" in Arabic ~After 1948 war, Jews occupied 77% of Palestine. Much better than proposed 56% of Partition Plan. David Ben Gurion elected PM and Labor Party was victorious in first Knesset (parliament election). Multiple Jewish settlements established in Israel, and more immigrants came ~1950, Israel unilaterally declared Jerusalem its national capital. The declaration was pronounced invalid by UN because original Partition Plan designated the city as being under UN administration

Palestine population (1947):

2 million residents: 100,000 Christians, 600,000 Jews, 1.3 million Arabs (65% of population)

Why do Arabs claim Israel?

About 1700, Abraham (then Isaac, Jacob, etc.) covenant with God established, to be His people, and for future possession of the land. Ishmael and Isaac were half-brothers. Because Ishmael was firstborn, Arabs claim the land promised

Promise of Oil for U.S.from Saudi Arabia (Part 3)

After WWII, ME oil needed to fuel rebuilding efforts in the U.S. and Marshall Plan for Western Europe, especially as they moved from an coal to oil-based economy. And oil was needed to contain communism. In the Great Oil Deal of 1947, Saudi Arabia allowed ARAMCO to add two extra U.S. companies, Esso (Exxon) and Socony Vacuum (Mobil), to join Standard (Chevron) and Texaco to develop Arabian reserves. SOCAL had been reformulated into the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO). By the 1970s, SArabia was the top oil producer and exporter in the world Truman Doctrine, announced in 3-48, helped further develop new relationship between SArabia and U.S. Establishment of Israel later in 5-48, though, tested the Saudi and U.S. oil relationship. Could the Arab states live with Israel? U.S. government put in hard position. ARAMCO acted in sense like diplomats for the U.S., and eventually SArabia used its negotiating position to work out 50/50 division of profits with U.S. companies in 1950 Strong economic relationship between the countries continues to this day. (Even after 2016 Iran JCPOA (nuclear agreement) and changes to the 2016 Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act?)

To win WWI and gain control of part of ME after war:

British consented to three contradictory agreements, which have subsequently greatly influenced ME. Important reason agreements occurred was because unknown how war would progress and conclude. In addition, agreements were also not considered at same level of government—promises made by persons at different times with different amounts of authority

During WWI, who fought for ME territory and oil?

Germans, Ottoman Turks, Russians, British, and French

"50 years War" (First Arab-Israeli War)

Haganah, the Jewish Army, tried to protect the convoys fighting along the supply route from Jewish-held Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. Haganah eliminated several small Arab villages along the route. On 4-9-48, two extremist Jewish groups (the Irgun and the Stern Gang) initiated an attack on Deir Yassin (a city not directly on the transportation route, and having about 750 population). At least 110 Arabs were killed in fierce house-to-house fighting. After the fighting ended, 14 Arab prisoners were massacred outside the city. Some reports were that as many 254 Palestinians were killed that day. The remaining city residents fled to Jerusalem, where Arab leader Dr. Hussein Khaldi decided to publicize that women were raped & children murdered, in addition to the killings. He wanted to encourage neighboring states to mobilize their armies and come to the aid of the Palestine Arabs. Results:, scared other people from their villages. Estimates range from 750,000 - approx. one million of the Arab population fled in next few months to neighboring countries

Saudi Arabia Reserves

In ME, SArabia has nearly half the region's petroleum, with over 50 on and offshore fields Ghawar Field is the world's largest—produces slightly more than 50% of Saudi Aramco's total production Shaybah Field in the Empty Quarter of Saudi Arabia is 300 square miles and holds some 14 billion barrels of Arab extra-light, one of best grades of crude oil

1955 Offer of Aid for High Aswan Dam; Nationalization of canal (part 2)

Nasser seized Canal one week later and took over offices of the Anglo-French Company. Bold nationalization of the Canal allowed him to acquire revenue to finance Aswan (about $25 million profit/year)(the Soviets eventually contributed to the dam project). Although Nasser promised that the Suez Company would be compensated for its loss, Britain, France, and Israel began plotting to take back the Canal and overthrow Nasser Months of negotiation in international community followed, including through the UN, but nothing was accomplished. U.S. did not favor military action; Eisenhower had just ended the fighting in Korea and in 1956 was running for re-election as man of peace. U.S. didn't care who ran Canal, and hoped that passage would be available to whoever paid transit fees

Gigantic Gas Field Discovered in 2010 Between Cyprus and Israel

On maritime border of Israel, Lebanon, Gaza Strip, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus Will be one of world's richest natural gas reserves—Levant Basin Province Located between countries with mutual hatred Largest section discovered so far by Noble Energy, Leviathan Gas Field in 2010, believed to contain 20 trillion cubic feet of natural gas and 4.2 billion barrels of oil Tamar Field, found in 2009, also off Israel's coast is estimated to have 9 trillion cubic feet of gas Israel in state of war with Lebanon and does not recognize de-facto Hamas Palestinian government in Gaza Strip

1967 War

~"Six-Day War" ~June 5-10, 1967 ~Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Syria ~After period of high tension between Israel and its neighbors for months, including threatening statements and actions of Nasser and Egypt's taking Straits of Tehran, this led to Israel's pre-emptive act (surprise attack) against Egypt's Air Force ~Outcome was swift and decisive Israeli victory 5 days later ~Israel took effective control of Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula (from Egypt), West Bank and East Jerusalem (from Jordan), and the Golan Heights (from Syria) ~Opinions are divided on whether Israel's attack against Egypt's airfields was an act of aggression or a preemptive strike of a defensive nature ~Most important/pivotal point in securing Israel's future and addressing Arabism

1973 War (part 1)

~"Yom Kippur War" ~Oct. 6 to 25, 1973, between Israel and coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria ~War started when the coalition launched joint surprise attack on Israel on Yom Kippur (holiest day in Judaism—the Day of Atonement, with themes of atonement and repentance; Jews traditionally observe this holy day with 25-hour period of fasting and intensive prayer, often spending most of the day in synagogue services). Attack also coincided with the Muslim holy month of Ramadan ~Egyptian and Syrian forces crossed ceasefire lines to enter the Israeli-held Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights ~Both U.S. and USSR initiated massive resupply efforts to their respective allies during the war, and this led to a near-confrontation between the two nuclear superpowers ~War began with massive and successful Egyptian crossing of the Suez Canal during the first three days, after which they dug in, settling into a stalemate. Syrians coordinated their attack on the Heights and made threatening gains against the greatly outnumbered Israelis

1983 Beirut Marines Bombing

~10-23-83, during Lebanese Civil War, two truck bombs struck separate buildings housing U.S. and French military forces (part of Multinational Force in Lebanon) ~Killed 299 servicemen (241 Americans) ~Islamic Jihad claimed responsibility, but organization front for Hezbollah, receiving help from Iran ~Explosives used at Marine barracks equivalent to 12,000 pounds TNT ~Deadliest single-day death toll for Marines since Battle of Iwo Jima of World War II, and deadliest single attack on Americans overseas since World War II ~Blasts led to withdrawal of the international peacekeeping force from Lebanon, where they had been stationed since the withdrawal of the Palestine Liberation Organization following the Israeli 1982 invasion of Lebanon ~Major factor leading Iran to attack the barracks was America's support for Iraq in the Iran-Iraq War (extending $2.5 billion in trade credit to Iraq while halting shipments of arms to Iran)

Balfour Declaration:

~11-2-1917, penned by Arthur James Balfour of Foreign Office, promised Britain would support Jewish homeland in Palestine. Designed to encourage Jewish support in war effort against Germany and to help solidify U.S. opinion to enter war (occurred in 3-1917) ~Called for Great Britain at war's conclusion to do what it could for "the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people." Supposedly Jewish "homeland" in Palestine would be configured or managed to not prejudice Arab rights in Palestine or Jewish rights in other lands

Great Britain and Oil; World War I (Part 3)

~1928, heads of Standard, Anglo Persian, &Royal Dutch Shell met secretly in Scotland to divide world markets and share facilities. Over-supply from USSR had flooded supply, and companies wanted cooperation, not competition. Drew up "as is" agreement which started a cartel everywhere but in U.S. (due to the anti-monopoly federal law). But competitive pressures, such as those from American wildcatters, were too great to make agreement stick long-term ~Because of finds in U.S. in 1920s, especially in Texas and OK, boom towns began like Seminole, Big Lake, Bartlesville, Odessa, Midland. Well near Henderson, TX led to East Texas boom that dwarfed others, provided jobs during Depression, & field grew to 45 miles long by 10 miles wide—"The Black Giant." Kilgore was "richest acre on the earth." Prices dropped to 2 cents a barrel due to great supply from Independents. TX &OK governors used armed force to stop fighting between companies and Independents, and regulations were created for production safety—in TX, martial law declared and Texas Railroad Commission was assigned to set production quotas to try to stabilize prices ~FDR named Interior Director Harold Ickes as national oil administrator to address nationwide problem of supply and price. FDR saw oil as vital natural resource, key to American civilization. Ickes found that pro-rationing (production quotas) was hated. Standard, largest East Texas producer, proposed to make a national reserve of East Texas oil. This was not widely accepted, and instead quotas and regulations were put into place. OPEC later used this as a pattern of organization

First Shots of Cold War were inthe Middle East: 1945-47 Iran Crisis (part 2)

~1939, WWII started in Europe. Palestine relatively quiet during War, but in ME Germany wanted Suez Canal, regional communications facilities, and oil. Allies fought back across North Africa. UK and U.S. sent war supplies through western Iran to USSR (its northern ports frozen most of year) ~Two years into WWII, in summer 1941, Germany attacked USSR. One reason was because Hitler wanted Soviet oil. In North Africa campaign by Rommel, eastern drive made to cut off supplies to USSR and oil to Britain. In 8-1941, British and Soviet forces moved into Iran to protect supply route and Abadan refinery. First thing Soviets and British did when entering was to depose reigning Shah (Reza Pahlavi, who later died in South Africa exile in 1944) because of pro-German stance, and put his 21 year old son Mohammed Reza Pahlavi on throne ~1942 treaty allowed occupation but required foreign forces to leave six months after war. British held southern and middle of Iran (some U.S. troops came later); Soviets in north—strategic reason (shared 1,100 mi. border) along with interest in oil. At 12-43 Tehran Conference, the Allies reaffirmed withdrawal to occur six months after war's end

Terrorist Acts Prior to 9-11-01

~1983, Hezbollah bombed Marine Barracks in Beirut, 299 servicemen killed ~1988, Libya bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, 270 killed ~1993, Al Qaeda car bomb in World Trade Center basement, 6 killed, 1,000 injured ~1994, Hezbollah bombed Jewish cultural center in Buenos Aires, 85 killed ~1995, Fed. Building in Oklahoma City bombed by Timothy McVeigh (motive—tyrannical government), 168 killed ~1996, Al Qaeda car bomb at Khobar Towers in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, 19 U.S. airmen killed ~1998, U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania leveled by Al Qaeda truck bombs, 224 killed, 4,600 wounded ~2000, USS Cole bombed by Al Qaeda via motor boat at Aden, Yemen, 17 sailors killed

Truman Doctrine

~3-12-47, Pres. Truman addressed Joint Session of Congress. Greece and Turkey faced grave threats, and unless U.S. offered help, "we may endanger the peace of the world—and we shall surely endanger the welfare of this Nation." History seemed to be repeating—Soviet threat appeared to be a regenerated Hitler threat ~Most famous words in speech became known as the Truman Doctrine, the guide to U.S. foreign policy for remainder of Cold War: "I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures." ~Truman asked for $400 million from Congress for support of the Greek and Turkish governments Speech became traditional marker starting the Cold War

High Priest welcomes Alexander to Jerusalem:

~323, Ptolemy I of Egypt took Palestine into his kingdom ~198, Seleucid king Antiochus III conquered Judea, making it tributary to Syria ~164, Jews strong enough to recapture Jerusalem from forces of Antiochus IV, and the Maccabees (or Hasmoneans) ruled over a second Jewish state ~63 B.C., Rome took Jerusalem and ME. Romans set up a local dynasty, the house of Herod, to rule most of Palestine. Herod the Great (40-4 B.C.) rebuilt much of Jerusalem, including the Temple. But by 18 B.C. Roman governors had ultimate control—one of them, Pontius Pilate, authorized execution of Jesus Christ ~33 A.D., Christ established new covenant (old covenant ended)

Invasion of Europe:

~6-6-1944, D-Day for Allies on Normandy. Afterward, Gen. George Patten needed oil for Third Army's advance, but outran supplies. "Red Ball Express" carried gas in jerry cans, but Eisenhower divided available gasoline among Montgomery, First Army, & Third Army to advance on broad front. Historians believe if Patten given gasoline as priority the European Theater would have ended 9 months earlier ~Air Force also tried to destroy Germany's synthetic oil plants. The German company IG had used slave labor to build the plants. After factories were wiped out, new German Luftwaffe jets (the world's first jets) so short of fuel were hauled to runway by cows

Quick Word about Oil:

~65% of world's proven reserves in ME ~After WWII, U.S. oil exports fell below imports for first time ~Arab oil embargo against U.S. due to U.S. support of Israel in 1973 War ~U.S. has considerable dependence on imported oil, and one important reason that 1991 Gulf War fought (Saddam would have controlled about 1/2 of oil). West European allies get 60% of oil and Japan 90% from Gulf ~19.5M barrels of oil consumed in U.S. daily, and over 50% imported/day. Americans, 5% of world's population, use 1/4 of its oil, and produce largest GNP by far (world is dependent on this). China second largest consumer ~Saudi Arabia, world's largest supplier (20% of world reserves are in Saudi Arabia), also exporter of Islamic fundamentalism ~Fracking (from shale deposits) can make U.S. self-sufficient

High Priest welcomes Alexander to Jerusalem: (Part 2)

~70, Jewish rebellion suppressed by Rome; Temple destroyed (only Western Wall remains) ~132, Second rebellion against Rome, Judaism totally eradicated from Palestine in 135 A.D. and remaining Jews scattered in "diaspora" ~638, during Muslim conquests, Arabs moved into Palestine and took Jerusalem (continued for 400 years after last Crusade). Built (688-91) Dome of the Rock mosque on site of Temple ~1096, 1147, 1189, 1202, 1218, and 1228, Crusades—based on a desire to save the "Holy Land" from the Muslim "infidels." After Crusaders conquered Jerusalem in 1099 and established a Crusader state, Saladin recaptured the city for the Muslims in 1187. The Ayyubid and Mameluke dynasties ruled until 1517, when the Ottomans took city ~1453-1922, Ottoman Empire controlled the Middle East

1991 Persian Gulf War

~8-2-90 to 2-28-91, commonly referred to as the Gulf War ~Waged by UN-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by U.S. against Iraq in response to its invasion and annexation of Kuwait ~Fear that Saddam would then take Saudi Arabia and its vast oil and gas riches, and the Holy Mosque ~Invasion of Kuwait by Iraq that began 8-2-90 met with international condemnation, and brought immediate economic sanctions by the Security Council (this did not dislodge Iraq) ~Pres. Bush, with approval of the Kingdom, deployed U.S. forces into Saudi Arabia and urged other countries to send their own forces ~War was marked by the beginning of live news on the front lines of the fight, with the primacy of network CNN (which had bribed Iraq w/positive coverage in lead-up to the war) ~War also became the "Video Game War" after daily broadcast images on board U.S. jets and bombers during Operation Desert Storm; war also known for advances in technology such as "smart bombs," such as Tomahawk cruise missiles used with pinpoint accuracy

Early history of Israel:

~About 1020, first Jewish state established by Saul, David, Solomon. David captured Jerusalem about 1000 B.C. ~About 922, Solomonic reign ended and nation divided in two (Israel and Judah) ~722, Assyrians took Northern Kingdom of Israel ~586, Babylonia (under Nebuchadnezzar) defeated Southern Kingdom of Judea and destroyed first Temple, and captivity followed (Jews exiled to Babylonia) ~516, Cyrus the Great of Persia conquered Babylonia and allowed Jews to return ~Second Temple (re-)built ~332, Greeks (under Alexander the Great) took most of ME including Jerusalem

1978 Camp David Peace Accords (part 2)

~Accords did not mention the Golan Heights, Syria, or Lebanon, nor Jerusalem ~Israel agreed to withdraw armed forces from the Sinai, evacuate its civilian inhabitants, and restored it to Egypt in return for normal diplomatic relations with Egypt, guaranted freedom of passage through the Suez Canal & the Straits of Tiran, and a restriction on the forces Egypt could place on the Sinai peninsula, especially within 20-40 km from Israel ~Israel also agreed to limit its forces a smaller distance (3 km) from Egyptian border, and to guarantee free passage between Egypt and Jordan ~Israel also returned Egypt's Abu-Rudeis oil fields in western Sinai ~Agreement also resulted in U.S. committing to several billion dollars worth of annual subsidies to governments of both Israel and Egypt, subsidies which continue to this day, and are given as a mixture of grants and aid packages committed to purchasing U.S. material. From 1979 (the year of the peace agreement) to 1997, Egypt received military aid of $1.3 billion annually, which also helped modernize its military (this is beyond economic, humanitarian, and other aid, which has totaled more than U.S. $25 billion). USSR-bloc supplied until 1979, Egypt now received American weaponry such as M1A1 Abrams Tanks, Apache gunships, and F-16 fighter jets. Israel has received $3 billion annually since 1985 in grants and military aid packages

War in the Pacific; Conclusion:

~Admiral Nimitz took command of U.S. Pacific Navy in 12-41, and knew Japan had long supply line from Dutch East Indies to Japan. Six months after Pearl, America ready to attack Midway Island. Four Japanese carriers were sunk, which was turning point of war. U.S. submarines across South Pacific began sinking Japan's supply ships, and roving U.S. oil tankers kept American ships at sea ~As war came to an end, Japanese citizens tried to use pine roots for aviation fuel but did not have enough because 100,000 roots were needed for one plane's mission. One reason Kamikaze pilots were then recruited was so that no return fuel would be needed ~50 million lives lost in WWII. Oil imperative to the outcome, and Allies would not have triumphed without access to the new life-blood of the military. Gas rationing in U.S. lifted 24 hours after war in Pacific (and WWII) ended

High Priest welcomes Alexander to Jerusalem: (Part 3)

~After WWI and Ottomans lost their empire, UK had mandate over what today is called Israel ~1947, UN proposed to divide/partition the Palestine Mandate in two parts in response to the Holocaust and desire of Palestinians to have a country. Would have been first time in history, or at least about 3,000 years, that Jews and Arabs living there would have had self-government. Plan called for internationalization of Jerusalem. Arabs rejected this resolution, and, from 1949, Jerusalem was divided into an Israeli and a Jordanian sector (Jordan won the Old City in 1949)(The overall city remained divided until 1967 when Israel won it all) ~1948, Israel declared independence, 5 Arab states attacked Israel ~1948 to 1967, West Bank part of Jordan and Gaza part of Egypt—but Arab World did not attempt to create a Palestinian state ~1967, Six Day War/1967 War (Question most focused on: Who owns land—based on possessions before or after the War?) ~Israel took entire city of Jerusalem in Six Day War. Israeli government guarantees religious freedom and protection of all holy places. Many Arabs live within Israel's current territory, and others live in West Bank and Gaza Strip

Great Britain and Oil; World War I (Part 2)

~After WWI, contest began for oil among Royal Dutch Shell, Anglo Persian, and Standard's progeny. Calouste Gulbenkian had purchased rights to oil in Mesotopmaia (he controlled the Turkish Petroleum Company's oil concession, gained from Turkey in 1914). This became "the prize" sought by French&British after Ottomans were defeated.Gulbenkian stood in their way and demanded 5% of all net profits, not just from Iraq but anywhere in ME. Became known as "Mr. 5%," and was pursued primarily by Standard Oil of NJ ~In America, thirst for oil increased for citizens desiring to drive in 1920s as prices dropped for autos. Henry Ford's production of cars skyrocketed. U.S. emerged as new power after WWI. U.S. oil interests represented by Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover. U.S. and others were afraid oil would run out, and companies searched for crude oil anywhere ~1927, gusher blew in Iraq with 90,000 barrels a day, astonishing find. First discovery in Arab ME. So, in 7-1928 a "red line" deal was struck among several companies and Gulbenkian, on his terms. Geographic extent of agreement included everything in former Ottoman Empire (from Saudi Arabia to Iraq to Syria to Turkey. Gulbenkian became world's richest man

Promise of Oil for U.S.from Saudi Arabia (Part 2)

~After the Yalta Conference, mid-February 1945, President Roosevelt met King Saud on cruiser USS Quincy in Great Bitter Lake in the Suez Canal. Before agreeing to meet, king (bedouin at heart) asked his advisers two questions about the U.S. president. "Tell me, does he believe in God, and do they [the Americans] have any colonies?" Real question Saudi king was asking was how do Americans use their vast power. Like the Europeans—in pursuit of colonies, self-interest and imperium—or on behalf of higher values? ~FDR was interested in a Jewish homeland in Palestine, oil, and the postwar configuration of the region. King wanted U.S. in SArabia instead of British—he knew that oil money would develop the Kingdom, and the King thought his country was already encircled by UK, Iran, and Egypt. Saud suggested that the displaced Jews who survived the war be given a national homeland in Germany, because it had caused the problem in the first place. This was the first time that oil and Israel were discussed simultaneously ~King slept on deck in a tent, and FDR gave him a DC-3 and crew (for a year) and a Lincoln Continental (two). Churchill later met with King Saud and gave him a Rolls Royce (why did the king reject this gift?)

Turkey - Syria - Iraq

~Along Euphrates (1,700 miles long) and Tigris Rivers (1,150 miles, 25% more water), relations between Turkey and Syria exacerbated since 1980s by growing water tensions ~Despite 1987 treaty ensuring Syrian access to Euphrates water, Turkish development threatens to marginalize or eliminate access. Iraq aggression in 1990 and tensions between Syria and Turkey regarding Kurds also resulted in few water-sharing agreements in 1990s. Southeast Anatolia (GAP) Project begun in 1997 gives Turkey extensive control. Filling reservoir behind Ataturk Dam highlighted Syrian vulnerability. Further complicating issue was Syria's support during 1990s for extremist PKK (Kurdish Workers' Party) in insurgency against Turkey, which then threatened water blockade. In 1998, only military threat by Turkey forced Pres. Assad to expel PKK leader Abdullah Ocalan ~Syria and Iraq, both downstream, threatened by Turkey's large-scale consolidation efforts. Once fully operational, GAP (22 dams& 17 electric plants planned on Euphrates and the Tigris to irrigate vast tracts of land and produce half of Turkey's electricity) may reduce Euphrates water to Syria by 40% and Iraq by 80%. Ataturk Dam, fourth largest in world, has reservoir of 11 trillion gallons ~As of 2016, with Iraq controlled by Iran and Syria in civil war, no water cooperation

1980-88 Iran-Iraq War (part 1)

~Also known as First Persian Gulf War, longest conventional war of Twentieth Century ~War began when Iraq invaded Iran, launching simultaneous invasion by air and land ~Long history of border disputes and fears of Shia Islam insurgency among Iraq's long-suppressed Shia majority who were influenced by 1979 Iranian Revolution; Iraq (Saddam Hussein) also aiming to replace Iran as the dominant Persian Gulf state, and wanted oil ~Iraq made limited progress into Iran and within several months repelled by the Iranians who regained virtually all lost territory by June 1982. For next six years, Iran was on the offensive ~Despite calls for ceasefire by UN Security Council, war continued until August 1988. War finally ended with UN-brokered ceasefire. Last POWs not exchanged until 2003

Tehran, 12-1943 (part 2)

~At 12-1945 conference in Moscow of Allied foreign ministers (after WWII had ended 9-2-45), U.S. Sec. of State James Byrnes asked Stalin when USSR troops would be pulled out. Stalin gave no firm date. Byrnes feared USSR sweeping toward Persian Gulf. Truman was furious and claimed it was more evidence that USSR post-war ambitions expansionist (as in Eastern Europe) ~Truman didn't believe FDR's idea of post-war cooperation was working, so began to demand firmer policy against USSR—testing ground for policy became Iran. Truman believed the only thing Stalin understood was how many divisions you have, and that force must be met by force ~Iran represented the beginning of U.S. Cold War deterrence policy through "containment"

First Shots of Cold War were inthe Middle East: 1945-47 Iran Crisis (part 1)

~Biggest decision for Pres. Truman after dropping atomic bombs and starting Marshall Plan was how to handle the Iranian Crisis ~Crisis roots since WWI when Russia withdrew troops from Baku to fight in Bolshevik Revolution, and Great Britain became dominant force in Iran. In 1930s U.S. started to have interest in ME oil, especially Saudi Arabia and Bahrain, but until WWII U.S. exported more oil than imported. USSR decided as WWII ended that it wanted part of Iranian oil ~Great Britain dominance resented by Iranians because of heavy-handed meddling in politics. Shah Reza Pahlavi (ruler since 1925) began in 1930s to look for counterweight but unwisely chose Germany. Over 1,000 German advisers in Iran when WWII broke out (Iran = "Aryan" in Persian). Syria and Iraq also both pro-German

Sykes-Picot agreement:

~Britain signed secret Sykes-Picot Agreement with France and Russia in 5-1916 ~Specified that areas in Fertile Crescent to be divided by Great Britain and France after WWI victory

New Jewish country (1946):

~British divided Palestine and created an independent Palestine-Arab state called Jordan ~Arabs owned about 94% of land, but Plan proposed to give 56% to a Jewish state. Given the ownership and population ("facts on the ground"), it appeared inequitable. But more immigration was expected and UN member states wanted to rectify the "sins" of the Holocaust ~In fall 1947, Truman opted to support partition. He was taken by Biblical aspect of issue (Jews/Israel were God's people historically). But he also had domestic political considerations—Jewish U.S. lobby strongly supported a state, along with many Protestants. And 11-1948 election looming. William Quandt (Peace Process) picks up—domestic issues, the international system, and bureaucratic infighting drive U.S. ME policy

Increasing Pressures in Palestine:

~British mandate in Palestine was unique because agreement/document contained essential points of Balfour Declaration (in which Jewish homeland in Palestine was supported). Mandate was seen as anti-Arab because Great Britain allowed increased Jewish immigration ~British divided Palestine into two administrative districts, and Jews were permitted on west side but not east side (as of 2015, there were no Jews living in modern Jordan)

1978 Camp David Peace Accords (part 1)

~Camp David Accords were signed by Egyptian Pres. Anwar Sadat & Israeli PM Menachem began 9-17-1978, following 13 days of negotiations at the U.S. Presidential retreat in Maryland, under assistance of U.S. Pres. Jimmy Carter ~The two framework agreements were signed at White House and were witnessed by Carter ~Second of these frameworks, A Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel, led directly to the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty and resulted in Sadat and Begin sharing the 1978 Nobel Peace Price ~Little progress achieved on the first framework, A Framework for Peace in the Middle East, which dealt with the Palestinian territories

Failed Rescue Attempt

~Carter approved secret mission, "Operation Eagle Claw" Eight RH-53D helicopters flew from carrier USS Nimitz to remote road serving as airstrip in Great Salt Desert of Eastern Iran to meet waiting C-130 transport and refueling airplanes ~One helicopter did not make it to "Desert One" with avionics failures and returned, one had fracture in rotor blade and abandoned ~Radio silence en route resulted their flying separately and arriving late. Silence also prevented them from requesting permission to fly above the sandstorm as C-130s did ~Mission plan called for minimum of six helicopters but of those arriving one had failed hydraulics system, so helicopter squadron commander decided to ground it ~Delta commander, Col. Beckwith, recommended aborting mission, approved by Carter. As helicopters repositioned themselves for refueling, one ran into tanker aircraft and crashed, killing 8 servicemen and injuring several ~After mission & its failure made known, Khomeini's prestige skyrocketed in Iran as he credited divine intervention ~In U.S., Carter's political popularity and prospects for re-election in 1980 damaged ~Secretary of State Cyrus Vance resigned (had opposed mission)

Tehran, 12-1943 (part 1)

~Crisis began quietly in spring 1944 when British and U.S. oil companies applied for concessions; fall 1944 USSR submitted request. Iran decided to delay decisions until after War ~Soviets aimed to be regional power after two major wars. Recouping their economic losses also an important aim, so Stalin wanted to withdraw troops only if concession signed ~British no longer had power to sustain their position. In addition, London realized post-war American quest for petroleum in ME would be counterweight against Soviets ~In summer 1945, rebellion broke out among Azerbajzan people in Iran as part of Iranian Communist Party (USSR supported), and Soviets prevented Iranian troops from responding. This greatly upset the Shah and other Iranians

Pipelines

~Crude can be transported hundreds of miles in pipelines, which are essential to the petroleum industry. More than 9,000 miles of large-diameter crude oil pipelines are in the ME, from oil fields to refineries and/or shipping terminals ~International pipelines are particularly susceptible to shutdowns due to disputes with neighboring states or sabotage by rebels or terrorists ~Egypt and Israel have pipelines that allow oil transport from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean for tankers too large for the Suez Canal

Major Oil Facilities

~Crude is first gathered from wells, natural gas is then separated, and oil refined. The crude is divided into a series of hydrocarbons, from the lightest fractions (i.e., gasoline) through middle distillates (kerosene and jet fuel) to heavy fractions (fuel oil and asphalt) ~In past decades, ME crude directly exported by tanker ship to consuming countries. It is still mainly delivered this way, via VLCC (very large crude carriers, "supertankers") ~Over past decade, more petroleum was refined in producing states and products either consumed locally or exported in a more valuable refined form. Refineries were built in Iran, Bahrain, and Saudi Arabia soon after production began there, and now every ME state has at least one refinery (SArabia has 9)

"Cyprus to grant new gas drilling license," AP, 2-5-13

~Cyprus will give France's Total SA a license to drill for offshore oil and gas deposits, a move the cash-strapped country hopes will yield much-needed revenue. The covers drilling in two of 13 blocks on the southern coast that make up the country's 19,700 square mile exclusive economic zone. The two blocks lie west of a gas field — now being developed by U.S. firm Noble Energy and its Israeli partner Delek — that holds an estimated 5-8 trillion cubic feet (140-230 billion cubic meters). ~The deal comes two weeks after Cyprus licensed a consortium made up of Italy's ENI SpA and South Korea's Kogas to drill in three other blocks. ~New revenue from gas production would be good news for cash-strapped Cyprus, which is trying to finalize an international rescue loan of as much as €17 billion ($23 billion) — roughly equivalent to the country's entire economic output — for its ailing banks and economy. Cypriot waters are estimated to hold at least 60 trillion cubic feet (1.7 trillion cubic meters) of gas. That would be plenty to cover domestic needs for decades and supply Europe's growing demand for the fossil fuel. The start of gas exports has been set for 2019. ~Cyprus' gas ambitions face strong opposition from Turkey, which doesn't recognize it as a sovereign country. Cyprus was split into an internationally recognized Greek Cypriot south and a breakaway Turkish Cypriot north in 1974, when Turkey invaded after a coup by supporters of Union with Greece. Turkey says Turkish Cypriot rights are being ignored, has claimed some of Cyprus' offshore blocks as its own, and has warned that it would react strongly to gas exploration by Cyprus. Cyprus says exploiting its natural resources is its sovereign right backed by the United Nations and the European Union and that Turkish Cypriots can reap the benefits once a political accord reunifying the island is reached.

Israel and Jordan

~Despite 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty (which established comprehensive guidelines regulating distribution, preservation, and availability of water from Jordan and Yarmuk ), water conflicts risen to forefront of relations Jordan, fed only by underground sources and the Jordan River, has experienced escalating water deficit expected to reach 250 million cubic meters (third of current annual consumption) by 2010. For example, in Amman rations water—it is run in the city's pipes only two days a week, and children in Amman take a bath twice a month ~Israel captures and uses almost all available water from its National Water System (West Bank Mountain Aquifer, the Coastal Aquifer, and the Sea of Galilee) for expanding agricultural and industrial uses ~BTW, Israel has perhaps best water use plans in the world and produces more agriculture per square acre than any country in ME ~Facing looming deficit in water availability because of long drought, Israel halved annual allocation of 2 billion cubic feet to Jordan in 1999. Jordan was unable to sustain current levels of consumption and began water rationing. Israel faces reductions of internal sources due to expanding Palestinian populations in West Bank and Gaza Strip

1956 Suez Crisis (part 1)

~First to have idea of connecting Red and Mediterranean Seas was Pharaoh Necho in Sixth Century B.C.; did not finish. During Persian invasion of Egypt (also Sixth Century B.C.), Darius I ordered completion ~Canal consisted of 2 parts—1 linked Red Sea to Great Bitter Lake,& part linked Lake with Nile branch in Delta. Shortcut between Europe & India until Ptolemic Era (367-47 B.C.) but fell into disrepair. Re-dug during rule of Roman Emperor Trajan (98-117 A.D.),& later re-dug by Arab ruler Amr Ibn-Al-Aas around 700 A.D. Again went into disrepair & left behind after trade route around Africa discovered by Europeans. Napoleon's engineers brought back idea of Canal ~Suez Canal Company granted concession by Egypt for 99 years. Ferdinand de Lesseps, the "Great Engineer," designed plans and it was constructed by French (using Egyptian workers) starting in 1854; opened 1869

1955 Offer of Aid for High Aswan Dam; Nationalization of canal

~Despite dislike for Nasser's pan-Arabism and neutralism, Eisenhower used foreign aid to entice Nasser toward West. In 12-55, Eisenhower and Dulles promised large loan for the construction of High Aswan Dam, $1.3 billion from British, American, and World Bank monies. Dam would be source of electrical power, irrigation, and flood control and of vast importance to country's future. But when Egypt joined an anti-Israeli alliance with Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Yemen, and Cairo proceeded with plans to purchase Soviet-bloc arms, and because Egypt had just recognized the People's Republic of China, U.S. worried about Egyptian alignment. On top of this, Egypt had begun supporting the Algerian independence movement against France. In addition, Southern members of Congress asked why the U.S. should support a project that would permit Egypt to produce competitive cotton. ~1956, The Reporter magazine recorded what Nasser told Dulles, the Russians "have never occupied our territory ... but the British have been her for 70 years. ... How can I go to my people and tell them I am disregarding a killer with a pistol sixty miles from me at the Suez Canal to worry about somebody who is holding a knife a thousand miles away?" Nasser looked more menacing than simple nationalism after last British troops withdrawn 6-56. Due to continuing, if not increasing, refusal of Nasser to associate with the West, U.S. withdrew loan offer 7-19-56

The UN gets involved—Res. 242

~Due to the war, the Security Council met and passed Resolution 242 on 11-22-67. Arabs wanted total Israeli withdrawal from lands captured in the 1967 War. After lengthy discussion, the wording "withdrawal from territories conquered..." rather than "withdrawal from the territories conquered" was adopted. Advocates of the Arab cause chose to interpret the two as equivalent. The U.S. and other advocates of Israel interpreted it as allowing for minor border adjustments. The PLO chose to reject it entirely. ~The Resolution established a supposed formula for Arab-Israeli peace whereby Israel would first have to withdraw from some amount of territory in exchange for peace with its neighbors ("land for peace"), respect for the sovereignty of all states in the area, and the right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries ~Resolution has served as the general basis for negotiations since that time ~Israel has transferred Sinai back to Egypt, and Gaza to PA/Hamas governance, but this has not been "enough"—there is still pressure for Israel to give up West Bank and, to a certain extent, the Golan (but who would control Golan after the Syrian civil war?)

Coup Against King Farouk

~Egypt shaken by loss of the 1948 war ~"Free Officers" movement conducted coup against King Farouk 7-23-52, & included Anwar Sadat (future President) ~Gamal Abdel Nasser named new leader, pledged land reform and to eliminate British control of the Suez Canal ~Farouk headed for the French Riviera

1953 Iran Coup/Crisis (part 2)

~Eisenhower confronted with 2-year stalemate in Iran (and increased dictator-like control by PM) and decided to try to keep Iran out of Soviet sphere. He cut-off foreign aid to Iran and approved Operation Ajax with CIA, British, and Iranian agents to organize mobs. Weak Shah fled to Baghdad and Rome. PM Mossadeq arrested, spent 3 years in prison, lived out life at home. Shah returned, Britain received oil interests back, U.S. companies allowed to have part of market: UK 40%, U.S. 40%, Dutch and French companies 20%. New concession for Iran won 50/50 profit split ~Coup set ground for U.S. to be player in Iran, and it spent hundreds of millions of dollars 1950s to 1970s to build up military &secret police. Eventually close military& economic relationship between U.S. and Iran. But 25 years of dictatorship by Shah resulted in people's resentment of U.S., & nationalism began to grow against oil companies& West

Discovered and undiscovered oil

~Estimated world oil reserves are conservative. For example, Iraq is 90% unexplored. It's vast Western Desert region possibly contains as much as 100 billion barrels of oil in deep formations. And as of 2003, only 15 of Iraq's 73 discovered fields had been developed. Moreover, only 2,000 wells had been drilled (compared to about 1 million in Texas). In addition, unlike in neighboring SArabia and Kuwait, very few deep wells have been drilled in Iraq. All things considered, when probable oil reserves are added to proven reserves, it is entirely conceivable that Iraq contains between 200 billion and 300 billion barrels of crude oil reserves. It is also estimated that Iraq contains another 150 trillion cubic feet of probable reserves ~USGS estimates quarter of world's undiscovered oil and gas reserves under Arctic Ocean

Will we run out of oil? No

~Experts such as Association for the Study of Peak Oil have reported in the past that the major worldwide oil fields are being depleted, and impact will be felt by 2015 or 2020! ~Instead, the world is not running out of oil, but of cheap oil—crude lacking impurities that can be more easily found in established oil fields. Light, sweet crude has fewer impurities than heavy, sour crude, and is easier to refine ~Major finds still occur, such as (1) off Brazil's SE coast in 2007. (2) In 2006, tests of a deep-water well in the Gulf of Mexico indicated a significant oil discovery, which could boost U.S. oil and gas reserves by as much as 50%. The Jack 2 well was drilled about 5.3 miles deep by Chevron, Devon, and Statoil of Norway and had a flow of more than 6,000 barrels of oil per day. Could become nation's biggest new domestic source of oil since the discovery of Alaska's North Slope. Estimate of up to 15 billion barrels of oil and gas reserves. Drilled more than 20,000 feet under the sea floor below 7,000 feet of water for a total depth of 28,175 feet. (3) Large gas discovery between Cypress and Israel

How Bush DoctrineUsed Against Terrorism

~Fight Taliban and Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan ~Constitution and democracy building in Afghanistan ~Led world in attempting to root out Al Qaeda from 60 countries including Pakistan ~Invasion of Iraq in 2003, deposing of Saddam Hussein (but for 9-11, no Iraq invasion)(however, no "weaponized" WMD discovered) ~Iraq Constitution & democracy building during the decade

1. Resolving existing water disputes

~First step toward creation of regional political alliance over water issues depends on resolution of current disputes affecting moderate, alliance-building countries. (Is this possible?) ~Jordan and Israel, currently in escalating struggle over the Jordan River Basin water, need guarantees of water security and availability. Such needs could begin to be addressed through creation of trilateral (and potentially quadrilateral—oversight by the U.S.) Turkish-Israeli-Jordanian diplomatic track geared at resolving current conflicts over water

September 11, 2001 Attacks

~Four American Airlines planes hijacked ~2—World Trade Center towers, 1—Pentagon, 1—crashed in Pennsylvania on way to Washington, D.C. ~Almost 3,000 people killed ~Within two days, bin Laden and his organization, Al Qaeda, were blamed ~Most horrific terror attacks in history ~Worldwide scope—people from 90 countries died, large economic downturn

1956 Suez Crisis (part 2)

~France owned portion of Suez Canal Company. In 1875, Egypt's 44% ownership came on market, and UK acquired those shares (scheduled to last until 1968). Suez Canal Company became Anglo-French concern ~1882, Great Britain's military occupied Canal to maintain control of it and moved soldiers into Sudan. 1888 treaty with UK also gave Egypt right of nationalization—UK and France believed nationalization available only if compensation not paid ~Eventually British base was huge—60 miles long and 10 miles wide on each side of canal—to protect West's lifeline of oil. Egypt had long wanted control of Sudan because did not want hostile power to control Egypt's lifeblood—the Nile. In 1-56, Sudan finally gained independence from Great Britain. Thus, Egypt had two points of contention with Britain in the early 1950s—continued military presence in Egypt and loss of colonial control of its southern neighbor ~1953-55, Eisenhower impressed with President Nasser, thinking him forward looking& helpful in solving Arab-Israeli conflict. U.S. had welcomed Egypt coup and wanted to work with Nasser; U.S. hoped Egypt would align with West

3. Integrating water into regional strategic cooperation

~Further movement towards strategic water security could be assisted through integration of water as distinct element of coordination among strategic alliances taking shape in the region ~Creating solid political-military framework on water issues could initiate range of collaborative ventures such as mutual defense agreements over regional water supplies and the start of research and development efforts on issue of regional water sharing

Rommel and Middle East Oil:

~General Erwin Rommel understood vision for oil. German "Grand Strategy" included plans to dominate North Africa, Mediterranean, and across the ME (and to get oil). Rommel led German Africa Korps across North Africa and captured fuel stocks from British forces. Even used captured vehicles. Oil for the Korps was delivered to coast by ship, but British broke German codes and attacked ships ~Gen. Montgomery known for being over-cautious, would never attack without oil reserves—his oil came from ME and U.S. In U.S., 1,500 mile pipeline from East Texas to East Coast provided fuel for military in Europe ~Rommel's campaign fell apart because he ran out of oil in 6-1942, and he was stopped at Battle of El Alamein 100 miles west of Cairo

Early Oil Discoveries:

~George Bissell, real founder of world oil industry (teacher, lawyer, journalist), realized product called "rock oil" bubbling up as springs in Western PA could become illuminant to compete with or replace whale oil (which had gone up to $2.50/gallon) ~Bissell thought up idea of using the technology already being used to drill for water ~Hired Edwin Drake in 1859 on night before Civil War began and proved technique worked and there was ample supply ~Started first oil boom, and then oil industry ~For 40 years oil was illumination business, and kerosene its main product. Night lights changedlife on farms & in cities ~Within few years, oil almost totally produced by Standard Oil Company, grew into monopoly run by John D. Rockefeller—became richest man in America ~After Teddy Roosevelt Administration used Taft-Hartley anti-trust law against the monopoly, Standard Oil broken into Mobil, Esso, Conoco, Amoco, and other companies

Post-War Mandates and Holdings:

~Great Britain and France unable to reconcile the three agreements at WWI peace treaty meeting (1919 Paris Peace Conference), but they agreed to generally follow the Sykes-Picot Agreement and also the Balfour Declaration at the San Remo, Italy Conference in 4-1920 ~There the proposed League of Nations established system of ME mandates—meant to be temporary, allow self-determination to take root, and eventually result in independence ~Agreements divided Greater Syria so the French controlled the north and British the south. France received mandates in Lebanon and Syria, Britain oversaw mandates starting in 1923 for Palestine, Transjordan (Hashemite Kingdom was established under Abdullah), and Iraq (until 1932), and controlled the Gulf states and Aden

Invasion; Withdrawal

~Great Britain and France were itching for a military response to protect stockholders, protect against economic threat (loss of tolls), re-establish their hold in the region, and France did not want to influence the Algerians (where war was in second year). Both thought Nasser was marching to become a dictator and wanted him out of power. Without consulting U.S., UK and France secretly met with Israel and planned a military operation to regain Canal. Last met on October 24 outside of Paris (including David Ben Gurion, Moshe Dayan, and Shimon Peres). U.S. did not know about the planned invasion, despite U-2 spy plane overflights in Mediterranean. On Oct. 29, Israel invaded the Sinai and moved toward Canal. In "response," Britain and France announced moving to "protect" Canal (had already quietly prepositioned ships and troops). On Oct. 30, bombed Egyptian air fields, and Egyptian Army began retreating across the Sinai. They invaded Egypt and captured a part of the canal. Nasser blocked the canal with sunken ships, and Syria sabotaged pumping stations along the pipeline of the Iraq Petroleum Company. Few days later on Nov. 6, the UK and France agreed to a cease-fire ~U.S. used strong-arm tactics (freezing gold reserves of UK and France) to end crisis. America cut off official aid to Israel and threatened to cut off private aid. UK and France shamed by international community and forced to withdraw ~At same time as crisis, U.S. worried because Soviet tanks rolling into Hungary (into Budapest on Oct. 24 to crush rebellion). Timing of Suez precluded West from an effective response to Soviets

1958 Coup in Iraq

~Hashemite monarchy in Iraq met demise in early morning of 7-14-58, when General Abd al-Karim Qasim and Colonel Abd al-Salaam Aref overthrew the Iraqi government. The royal family was murdered (King Faysal II dismembered in the street) and PM Nuri as-Said was killed while trying to escape Baghdad. Many factors led to the revolution, including Baghdad Pact and the sense of Iraq's isolation from Arab politics ~Free Officers movement in Iraq disagreed with the Hashemite opposition to Nasserism and identification with West, and declared their government would "pursue an independent Arab national policy." In early 1959, Iraq withdrew from the Baghdad Pact. The Iraqi Revolution, along with civil unrest in Lebanon, echoed throughout the Arab world and created the perception that Middle East revolution was unstoppable ~Led to dictatorship of Saddam Hussein

"Great Man-Made River" Project

~Israelis and Palestinians have chafed for years over how to share the West Bank Mountain Aquifer. Replenishment is by rainfall is mostly near the Jordan River, but Israel draws about 85% of the aquifer's annual yield. Longstanding and sometimes heated negotiations deteriorated with the resumption of the intifada in 2000 ~Conflict is not inevitable, if water is seen as a solution to conflict with neighbors ~In fact, the only all-out water war in recorded history was fought 4,500 years ago, between the Umma and the Lagash of Sumeria. Clay-tablet peace treaty they agreed to displayed in Louvre

Israel and Palestinian Authority

~Historically troubled relations between Israel &Palestinians magnified by water. Struggle for possession of BOTH land and water has been two-pronged basis of their conflict ~To meet Israel's long-term water needs, best answer in late 1970s appeared as access to the Nile, a part of the Camp David talks. Israeli delegates there asked for 1% of the Nile to be diverted into a pipeline to the Negev . Pres. Sadat abandoned idea due to intense domestic opposition ~Efforts at water cooperation between Israel and the Palestinians have been ineffective. Despite the passage of Water Annex in 1995 Interim Agreement on the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the Palestinians continue to claim an uneven water allocation. Mutual reliance on West Bank Mountain Aquifer, under the West Bank territory (and currently providing 33% of Israel's water and 80% of Palestinian consumption), has created friction. Due to uncertain status of the West Bank, Israel's use of Aquifer not been fully implemented so Israel will not become dependent on a potentially Palestinian-controlled water source ~If Israel gives up the West Bank, would lose about a third of its freshwater supplies and control of southern Jordan River. Israel seems unlikely to agree to this. Israeli leaders believe borders (sovereignty) are most efficient way to distribute water and develop agriculture and industry

Hitler and Soviet Oil

~Hitler dreamed of possessing great oil fields of USSR, and 6-1941 Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarosa. In attacking USSR, Hitler was motivated by his hatred of the Slavs, his hatred of communism, but his two objectives were Moscow and the oil fields around Baku ~Blitzkreig had amazing successes at first, but the USSR was just too big for the Nazis to take quickly and without long-term resources. And without proper roads, twice as much gas was used. Then weather turned terrible with onset of winter and Germans stalled on outskirts of Moscow. German generals wanted to eliminate city but Hitler said to turn SE toward Black Sea and the Caucasus oil fields. Hitler was correct. But ill-conceived invasion of USSR halted just short of rich oil resources near Baku. In aftermath of Battle of Stalingrad, at 4 a.m., Hitler called General von Manstein, commander on Eastern Front, and lectured him about significance of oil in world politics. He screamed, "My generals don't understand anything about economics." Without Baku, Hitler knew he would not win the war

Great Britain and Oil; World War I (Part 1)

~In 1911, Winston Churchill as First Lord of the Admiralty proposed British Navy convert from coal to oil for greater speed and more efficient use of manpower. Seemed folly to some to no longer rely on secure Welsh coal instead of distant and insecure oil. UK purchased 51% of Anglo Persian to ensure oil for warships. In 8-1914, WWI broke out, only 7 weeks after Parliament approved Churchill's plan ~First time oil important in warfare when Paris saved at first of war by using taxi fleet (internal combustion engine) to rush French troops to front (British buses moved to France—painted khaki—also moved troops) ~Important lesson from WWI was strategic significance of oil—gas drove trucks, submarines, airplanes. One book after war was "The Shell That Hit Germany Hardest." Allies had oil advantage, and German failure to seize Baku was a key to final victory

1915 McMahon-Husayn communications:

~In 1915, official correspondence between Sir Henry McMahon, High Commissioner in Cairo, and Sharif Husayn of Mecca, governor of Ottoman province of Hijaz (Right) ~They agreed Husayn's Arab followers would revolt against Ottomans in Arabia and Syria, and Great Britain would send gold, advisers, and arms, and at end of war British would support Husayn's bid for restoration of Caliphate (and leadership in Arab world) and creation of an independent Arab state in part of former Ottoman lands

1956 Suez Crisis (part 3)

~In 7-54, UK announced abandoning Suez military base in phased withdrawal due to budgetary pressures, international criticism regarding colonialism, and because India had become independent in 1948 and secure "lifeline" no longer needed. Withdrawal to be complete by 1956. Base had served as buffer between Egypt and Israel. In addition, France and Great Britain assumed oil tankers would continue to pass through (in 1955, oil 2/3 of the canal's traffic) and they would still control it through civilian national workers supplemented with Egyptian employees ~But 1955 was a key year. Anthony Eden became British PM (and until 1956 Suez Crisis, U.S. approach to Middle East was to recognize British pre-eminence in area). U.S. and Egypt had change in relationship that year. Nasser attended non-aligned states conference and emerged with Nehru and Tito as leaders of "neutral" world (not democratic, not communist). Under Nasser's pan-Arabist leadership, Egypt denounced American-sponsored military alliances and spurned negotiations with Israel. Nasser also willing to accept aid from either the U.S. or USSR to increase his bargaining position, manipulating both sides ~Sec. of State Dulles had philosophical/ ideological/ religious problem with this because of his high moralistic stand against communism. Believed "neutral" meant if not with us, than with USSR, or at least easily manipulated. In Revelation 3.14 (regarding Laodicea), lukewarm followers are "spit out." See Hoopes, The Devil & John Foster Dulles. His view of evil&good, black&white, made for clear choices in the Cold War (very strong Presbyterian). Of course, he was not the only one to view Communists as evil. Both Dulles and Eisenhower influenced by Soviet aggression after WWII in Eastern Europe& in the Korean War.

External/Regional Influences and Constraints on U.S. Policy

~In Egypt, 7-23-52 "Free Officers" coup against King Farouk. Gamal Abdel Nasser named president, and he pledged to eliminate British control of Suez Canal Egypt's rivals in Arab world—Hashemites (Iraq, Jordan) and House of Saud ~1958 to 1967 Arab Cold War between radical republican regimes—Iraq, Egypt, Syria, Yemen (non-alignment or anti-Western approach, and confrontational approach to Israel) vs. moderate Arab world—Jordan, Saudi Arabia (pro-West, monarchies)

British Vacation of Mandate

~Last day of British rule was 5-14-48, and UN's role was to end when British left. Before partition could be implemented, Israel declared its sovereignty ~May 16 had been set by Jewish leadership (led by David Ben Gurion) as day to begin state, and they sought recognition from other states ~Secretary of State George Marshall believed land was being stolen, and opposed move. He was afraid of ME war, which could involve U.S., and five Arab armies were mobilizing to attack any Jewish state ~President Truman horrified by what Hitler had done to the Jews (six million killed), and strongly supported Jewish state

"A Rare Middle East Agreement, on Water," NYT, 12-9-13

~In a rare display of regional cooperation, representatives of Israel, Jordan, & the Palestinian Authority agreed to build a Red Sea-Dead Sea water project to benefit all 3 parties. ~The project addresses 2 problems: the acute shortage of clean fresh water in the region, especially in Jordan, and the rapid contraction of the Dead Sea. A new desalination plant is to be built in Aqaba, Jordan, to convert salt water from the Red Sea into fresh water to sell for use in southern Israel and southern Jordan — each would get 8-13 billion gallons a year. The process produces about the same amount of brine as a waste product; the brine would be piped more than 100 miles to help replenish the already very saline Dead Sea. A company will build & run the plant. ~Under the agreement, Israel will also provide Jordan with 8-13 billion gallons of fresh water from the Sea of Galilee, and the PA expect to be able to buy up to 8 billion gallons of additional fresh water from Israel at preferential prices. ~The agreement was signed at the Washington headquarters of the World Bank, a sponsor of the project. ~The water level in the Dead Sea has been dropping by more than three feet a year because most of the water in the Jordan River has been diverted by Israel, Jordan, or Syria for domestic use and irrigation. ~The project, estimated at least at $240 million, would be financed by donor countries and organizations, with the World Bank providing a bridge loan.

1979 Hostage Crisis

~In first months 1979, Shah of Iran, on whom successive American administrations relied on as pillar of strength in a strategic and turbulent region, fell from power. Less than a year earlier, no analyst, inside or outside government, came close to predicting Shah in such trouble ~"His Imperial Majesty" had grandiose ambition—thought himself like great kings of past Persian empires, spent $100 million on his inauguration ~Mindsets of U.S. policymakers—thought mullahs could not adequately govern Iran (this has proven true), and people would not back them ~Shah so crucial to U.S. that American officials could hardly afford to ask themselves if Iran might fall

"Crude Diplomacy" After War

~In post-war America (and the world) demand for oil grew dramatically. Speed limit of 35 mph was lifted, and no more were families limited to only buying a maximum of five tires every year. Gas was just 21 cents/gallon and a housing boom, education boom, and baby boom ensued as people discovered that oil could make their lives better ~America has become increasingly dependent on imports which is different from after WWII when U.S. provided 85% of oil used by Allies—U.S. was then world's No. 1 exporter ~Most persons don't understand the degree to which American society has since been shaped by ability to have oil. For example, 40% of American marriages are proposed in automobiles—signpost of hydrocarbon society that oil has made possible

Discoveries inBaku, Sumatra, Texas, Iran

~In present-day Azerbajhan, next to the Caspian Sea, oil wells of 1870-71 in Russia made Baku a boom town. Fields run by Royal Dutch. In 1905, impending Russian Revolution forced the Czar's Baku workers to destroy the oil fields. ~First intentional torching of oilfields. One worker said they then understood the term, "All Hell has broken out." ~Sumatra, in the Dutch East Indies, also had naturally appearing oil. This resulted in 1885 well and local sultan's concession to Royal Dutch (today is Shell Oil) ~In SE Texas outside of Beaumont, "Spindletop" blew on 1-10-1901. At the time, no production in the world had ever reached the quantities it produced. They were only producing 50, 75, maybe 100 barrels a day. Spindletop came in at 100,000 a day, and in one year the potential was for more oil than had been produced up to that time ~In 1908, a geologist for Anglo Persian Oil (later British Petroleum, "BP," in 1951) struck oil in southwest Persia (later Iran). But ME did not know the many uses of oil yet

Gulf War pt. 2

~Initial military efforts to expel Iraqi troops from Kuwait began with aerial bombardment 1-17-91. Followed by ground assault on 2-23 ~Decisive victory for Coalition Forces, who liberated Kuwait and advanced into Iraqi territory. Coalition ceased their advance and declared cease-fire 100 hours after ground campaign started ~Aerial and ground combat was confined to Iraq, Kuwait, and areas on the border of Saudi Arabia. However, Iraq launched Scud missiles against coalition military targets in Saudi Arabia and against Israel ~Worst environmental disaster in history—Saddam ordering 1,000 oil wells set ablaze in Kuwait at war's end ~Eventually almost all of U.S. costs ($60 billion) were paid by Saudi Arabia and Kuwait in appreciation

Post War Situation/Fallout/Lessons from 1967 War

~Israel defeated Egypt, Syria, and Jordan. The war was a major blow to Arab morale, which still resonates ~Within 6 days, the face of the Middle East changed—Israel had the Gaza Strip, the Sinai, the West Bank (and Jerusalem), and the Golan Heights. Arabs questioned what should be done about Israel's occupation of Arab lands? At Camp David, the Sinai was returned to Egypt. The remaining lands in Israel's possession have poisoned relations but have also forced Arab states to deal with Israel to regain lost land (trade land for peace). What happens to Jerusalem? The Labor and Likud parties believe that Jerusalem will never be divided. Palestinians want East Jerusalem as their capital. Israel's claim over the whole of Jerusalem, the Arab eastern part of which it captured and annexed in the 1967, is not currently recognized by most of the international community ~Exacerbation of refugee problem in area. During the 1948-49 war, there was a mass exodus of Palestinians, perhaps 750,000. Now, another 1 million refugees were stateless

"Israeli, Jordanian officials signing historic agreement on water trade," JPost, 2-26-15

~Israeli and Jordanian government officials signed a bilateral agreement to exchange water and jointly funnel Red Sea brines to the shrinking Dead Sea. ~The full-fledged agreement is the result of a MOU signed among Israel, Jordan, and Palestinian officials in 2013 in Washington, D.C. ~Jordan and Israel will share the potable water produced by a future desalination plant in Aqaba, from which salty brines will be piped to the Dead Sea. In return for its portion of the desalinated water in the South, Israel will be doubling its sales of Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee) water to Jordan on the countries' northern border ~"In Washington, we just declared that we are going to sign an agreement," Maya Eldar, an advisor to Shalom on the project, told The Jerusalem Post on Thursday, over the phone from the signing ceremony. "This is a real agreement that is going to make sure the cooperation and relationship between Israel and Jordan is going to last." ~More specifically, the agreement involves the construction of a 65- to 80-million cubic meter desalination plant in Aqaba, from which Israel would buy some 35 m.cu.m. of water to convey to its desert south. Jordan will buy an additional 50 m.cu.m. of water from Lake Kinneret annually, roughly doubling its current allocation ~The agreement also will have the construction of a 200-kilometer pipeline to carry residual salt brines from the Aqaba desalination plant to the depleting Dead Sea ~While the original December 2013 memorandum of understanding also called for Israel to enable the direct sale of an additional 20 m.cu.m. of water from Mekorot national water company to the PA, that issue is being worked on separately ~In addition to the commitment to the water exchanges and Red Sea to Dead Sea pipeline construction, the signatories also committed to the formation of a Joint Administration Body for the project, where officials from both countries will be equally represented ~Eldar called the agreement signing an extension of the 1995 Israel-Jordan peace treaty

UAR (1958-61) and theArab Federation

~Major effort toward Arab unity was 1958 declaration of United Arab Republic between Syria & Egypt. Time of great statements of Arabism. Also, Baathites in Syria feared USSR, so they approached Nasser, undisputed leader of ME, and named him leader of UAR. Baath movement (based in Nazism) started in 1940s in Damascus, Nasser took many public ideas from them: three principles—Freedom (from colonialism, including Western presence in form of Israel), Socialism (wealth redistribution), and Unity (Pan Arab unity). ~To counter Egypto-Syrian monopoly of Pan-Arab appeal, two Hashemite kingdoms of Jordan and Iraq concluded in 1958 their own agreement establishing Arab Federation, preserving identity and autonomy of own states but providing for federal cabinet and rotation of capital between Amman and Baghdad ~But in UAR, Nasser banned all political parties. Syria quickly became subordinate to Egyptian control in military, political, economic, and administrative sectors. Marriage was short-lived, and Syria withdrew in 1961 due to desire for sovereignty. They were destined for collision based on what was meant by unity and who would control the state

Oil prior to World War II

~Modern warfare means mobile war. This was learned early on in the 1930s, especially by Hitler and Japan. Petroleum would be critical to victory in WWII ~Future Japanese Admiral Yamamato traveled across U.S. in 1920s and saw productivity of oil in America, which also supplied 80% of Japanese needs. Japan had few raw materials on its own islands. Japan invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria in 1931, and raw materials were shipped back to Japan. It was a blatant imperialistic move. Japan planned to dominate all of South Asia, and be autonomous. Japan also wanted the Dutch East Indies (including Sumatra) desperately, which had one of the most valuable oil reserves in the world, but it was legally claimed by Dutch, British, and American companies. Emperor appointed General Hideki Tojo to implement a plan, and he was named PM. Atrocities in China mounted, leading to great sympathy in U.S. and calls for an embargo. FDR feared embargo would cause war. Japan then invaded Indochina (Vietnam). As a result, U.S. froze Japanese funds in America, in effect creating oil embargo ~Hitler came to power (1933), built autobahn,&put Germany back to work. Thought motorization key to conquering others. But Germany had almost no oil of its own. German coal in the 1920s had been converted into a substance like oil, a synthetic oil, but this substance could not compete with cheap oil on world market. Hitler had learned the lesson of oil from General Ludendorff, (one of two commanders of the German Army in the First World War), about how lack of oil at end of war had been one of the main factors that led to Germany's surrender. Hitler was obsessed with oil

Chokepoint: Strait of Hormuz

~Most of the crude exported from Saudi Arabia, Iran, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait and Iraq—together with nearly all liquefied natural gas from lead exporter Qatar—must slip through 4-mile wide shipping channel between Oman and Iran ~Iran often threatens to close Hormuz

Results of the Suez Crisis

~Nasser and nationalism triumphed. Stout defense against British-French-Israeli invasion encouraged Arabs& was huge boost to Arab power for coming decade. Nasser also acquired a sense of invincibility. By 3-57, Canal sufficiently cleared for tankers to resume passage,& operated by Egypt ~For Israel, war was triumph. Although it withdrew from Peninsula, 10 years of semi-peace followed. In addition, it drew closer to U.S. through foreign aid totaling $374 million from 1952 to 1961 ~UN patrolled Sinai to keep Peninsula demilitarized and prevent Palestinian guerrillas from crossing into Israel. UN also oversaw Strait of Tiran (which Israel seized after Egypt had closed the strait prior to hostilities) ~War was defining point for "outside powers" in Middle East—before Suez, the U.S. saw Britain as guaranteeing Western interests. After Crisis, UK and French power on decline in region. In 1-57, PM Eden resigned, and U.S. power on rise. For Eisenhower outcome of war was personal success—11-56, he won landslide victory over Adlai Stevenson ~But region returned to uneasy balance without resolution of underlying issues. At the time, no Arab state had agreed to a peace treaty or recognized Israel

Israel and Syria

~Negotiations between Israel and Syria very sluggish, partly because of importance of the Golan Heights' water supplies for both parties ~Resources such as the Banyas Springs lie in the Golan Heights and drains into the Jordan ~About 25% of Israel's water supplies are from the Sea of Galilee and channeled to central and southern Israel ~Israel views maintaining access to this water-rich area as security issue, and not just for its strategic heights ~It would be very expensive for cash-strapped Syria to pump water 1,400 meters up the Golan Heights

Aquifers (part 1)

~Only 2.5% of world's water is fresh, and vast majority of that is frozen in glaciers and icecaps. Less than three-tenths of 1% of planet's freshwater is in lakes and rivers that have served as the major sources of water through most of human history, and some of that is drying up or becoming spoiled ~One answer is to go underground, where there is 100 times amount of water found on the surface. Until recently, it wasn't worth trying to get at that water—a cubic yard of it weighs about a ton. But with shortages now looming globally, that cost may be paid ~Little is known about ecological impact of deep aquifer pumping, especially since it's still not clear which sources are naturally refilled and which are true fossil aquifers—they exist in sealed spaces much like oil reserves, available for one-time consumption and then lost ~With scores of major aquifers crossing international boundaries, potential is rising for conflict and greedy "race to the pumps" ~Armed with seismic and core-drilling technologies long used by oil industry, and with funding from several international agencies, the International Association of Hydrogeologists has begun massive underground mapping project to determine outlines and volumes of the world's larger aquifers—first step to working out agreements among countries who share them

5. Use more desalinization/desalination

~Removal of dissolved ionic solids (salts) presents special problem in water treatment because such substances not readily removed by conventional water or wastewater treatment processes. Such processes are expensive both in terms of capital costs and energy requirements. Desalinization can cost over $1,000 per acre-foot (enough water to cover an acre of land one foot deep = 326,700 gallons) for seawater as compared to about $200 per acre-foot for water from normal supply sources ~For example, Israel building $423 million desalination plant, which upon completion in 2013 will join four others in providing the country with three-quarters of its drinking water. Government signed with Mekorot, the national water company, to build and operate the reverse osmosis plant in coastal city of Ashdod, which will produce 100 million cubic meters of desalinated seawater a year, 15% of Israel's household water use. Israel is two-thirds arid. To avoid further depleting its main fresh water source, the Sea of Galilee, it has become a world leader in desalination and wastewater recycling

Revolution

~Overthrow of Iran's monarchy (Pahlavi dynasty) under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and replacement with Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini ~Revolution resulted in policeman of region losing grip and ending of West's influence on east side of Persian Gulf ~Iran hostage crisis was diplomatic crisis between Iran& U.S. ~Islamic students and militants took over U.S. Embassy in Tehran in support of Iranian Revolution ~52 U.S. citizens held hostage for 444 days, 11-4-79 to 1-20-981 ~After failed attempts to negotiate release, U.S. military attempted rescue on 4-24-80, but failed with destruction of two aircraft and eight servicemen dying ~Crisis ended with signing of Algiers Accords 1-19-81 (immediate freeing of hostages, unfreezing of $7.9 billion of Iranian assets, immunity from lawsuits Iran might have faced in U.S.)& hostages formally released the following day, just minutes after new American president Reagan sworn in ~Crisis is perhaps pivotal episode in history of Iran and U.S. relations ~Crisis (and weak response) was major reason for U.S. President Jimmy Carter's defeat in 11-80 presidential election ~In Iran, event strengthened prestige of Ayatollah and political power of those supporting theocracy and who opposed the West ~And in Iran, hostage taking remains as of 2016 a component of foreign policy—hostages have monetary and political value

Water in ME (part 2)

~Per capita water availability in ME has become worst in world, only 33% of Asian and 15% of African levels ~87% of all freshwater in ME used in low-value agriculture. 1% goes to industrial and municipal uses, compared with 31% worldwide. Water used mainly for agriculture constrains economic growth ~Inefficiency not confined to agriculture—half of municipal water lost to leakages in delivery networks, thefts, or inaccurate metering ~45 million people do not have safe water, and many suffer intestinal parasitic diseases. "Safe" cities—Istanbul, Nicosia, Baghdad, Cairo, Damascus, Tel Aviv. Not safe—Ankara, Beirut, Amman; bottled water essential

Late 1980s Iran-Contra Affair

~Political scandal which came to light in 12-86; senior U.S. figures agreed to facilitate arms sales to Iran (subject of arms embargo) to secure release of hostages in Beirut, and to fund Nicaraguan Contras ~Began as operation to improve U.S.-Iranian relations—Israel would ship U.S. weapons to relatively moderate, politically influential group of Iranians; U.S. would resupply Israel and receive payment. Recipients promised to do everything in their power to achieve release of six U.S. hostages being held by Hezbollah ~Large parts of plan devised by Lt. Col. Oliver North of the National Security Council in 1985. While Pres. Reagan was supporter of the Contra cause, no evidence has been found showing he authorized this part of plan ~After weapon sales revealed, Reagan appeared on t.v. and stated weapons transfers occurred but U.S. did not trade arms for hostages (which would have been against his oft-stated public comments). Investigation compounded when volumes of documents destroyed or withheld from Congress investigators by officials ~In 3-87, Reagan took responsibility for actions for which he was unaware, admitting what began as strategic opening deteriorated into trading arms for hostages ~Investigations by Congress and Reagan-appointed Tower Commission led to 14 officials charged with crimes, and 11 convicted including Sec. of Defense Caspar Weinberger. All pardoned by G.H.W. Bush, who had been vice-president at the time of events

"Axis of Evil"

~Pres. Bush's 2002 State of the Union address ~Iraq, Iran, North Korea—all nation-states (more dangerous than Al Qaeda) ~Based on their support of terrorism, pursuit of WMD, connection to proliferation channels, and oppression of neighbors ~Phrase created diplomatic tensions

Increased U.S. Activity in 1950s

~Pres. Eisenhower and Sec. of State John Foster Dulles policy—Soviet containment in Europe expanded to other regions, and nationalistic movements (i.e., Nasser's socialism) treated as Communist allies, especially if "neutrality" invited diplomatic and economic relations with USSR ~Eisenhower concerned with colonialism and principle of self-determination/ decolonization. Dulles thought colonialism immoral and wanted to dismantle it, but dilemma because the institution helped to economically support U.S. allies. Ex. UK's ME interests—Iran and Iraq oil, Suez Canal, Arab Legion in Jordan, Gulf military bases ~U.S. bureaucratic conflict between "Egypt firsters" (lower levels of State Department, claiming Egypt most important country—largest population and military, intellectual center of Arab world, Nasser undisputed leader of region) opposed by "Baghdad pacters" (including Eisenhower, Dulles)(wanted military defense allegiances because radical nationalism of Nasser seen as threat to regional order and Western oil interests). To maintain Western influence in ME and thwart Soviet expansion, Washington in 1955 promoted the Baghdad Pact (military alliance of Britain, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan)

What Was U.S. Response to Beirut bombing?

~Pres. Reagan called it a "despicable act" and pledged to keep a military force in Lebanon. In retaliation for the attacks, France launched an airstrike in the Bekaa Valley. In fact, there was no serious retaliation for the Beirut bombing from the U.S. besides a few shellings ~U.S. multi service-ground support units withdrawn from Beirut after the attack and due to retaliatory threats, leaving by 2-26-84 ~What was lesson learned by the "terrorists"? Attack and the U.S. will leave. In short, the attack and response gave boost to the growth of Shiite organization Hezbollah, leading it to be seen in militant circles as "the spearhead of the sacred Muslim struggle against foreign occupation"; it certainly emboldened Iran

Lessons from Crisis

~Previewed how the Cold War would play out: Distrust of Soviets by U.S., and vice versa—in response to Soviet moves or "non-movements" the U.S. adopted policy of containment or confrontation; battle for resources; and that Third World countries were not easily manipulated pawns ~It also appeared the Iranian Crisis was resolved because the U.S. stepped in with economic support for Iranians. In other words, Soviets had threatened with bayonets, but U.S. beckoned with soft power. Presidential historians have generally credited Truman with acting firmly, deliberately, and as forward-thinking ~Stalin to blame for the Crisis (historian John Lewis Gaddis)—he did not withdraw his troops in Eastern Europe or from Iran after WWII (as promised). Stalin understood that where troops stopped was where spheres of influence would begin

1980-88 Iran-Iraq War (part 2)

~War came at great cost in lives and economic damage—half million Iraqi and Iranian soldiers died with many more injured—and war brought neither reparations nor change in borders ~This war often compared to World War I, with similar tactics including large scale trench warfare, manned machine-gun posts, bayonet charges, human wave attacks (Iran's use of children for this), extensive use of chemical weapons such as mustard gas by Iraq and Iraqi Kurdish civilians

Saudi Arabia

~Saudi Arabia's crisis stems from its lack of rivers and permanent bodies of water. It relies heavily upon underground water sources for agricultural and potable water to supplement desalination. At present, 90% of Saudi's non-renewable deep-well water is utilized. These resources, already low, have been significantly eroded due to pollution from agricultural activity and more recently by Persian Gulf War—Iraq's burning of Kuwait's oil wells contaminated some underground water sources ~Current situation regarding water has affected stability of Saudi regime. Though buoyed by oil revenues, which have facilitated massive desalination, Saudi Arabia has been unable to address its growing water concerns. So it has begun to seek other water sources, which has had pronounced effects on the region. Saudi Arabia's extensive exploration into underground aquifers in its Eastern Province has reduced water available for Qatar and Bahrain. Disputes have also arisen between Saudi Arabia and Jordan over the Qa Disi Aquifer ~Saudi Arabia operates 27 desalination plants and produces close to 3 million cubic metres of water per day. KSA is the world's largest desalinated water producer

Bush Doctrine

~Sept. 20 Address to Congress: U.S. foreign policy to find terrorists for "acts of war" and because "freedom and democracy are under attack" ~"Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists" ~Multiple countries joined fight because of loss of citizens ~Unprecedented NATO approval of joint action when member attacked ~Pakistan agreed to cooperate

1953 Iran Coup/Crisis (part 1)

~Since 1945-47 Crisis, UK still dominated. Anglo Iranian oil company half-owned by Great Britain (its biggest foreign asset), and Iran had become major oil state ~This was time when nations (peoples) across colonized world demanded sovereignty and declared European control over. Iranians not content for UK to make more money from Iran oil than Iranians ~In Iran in 1951, Anglo Iranian nationalized and British companies kicked out by new PM Mohammed Mossadegh/Mossadeq. Companies and UK then dismayed about Iraq breaking contracts and losing their large investments ~Mossadeq fiercely anti-British, nationalistic, and usually greeted guests in pajamas while in bed (bodyguards nearby). In response, international oil companies put world-wide boycott on Iranian oil. UK thought about "Plan Y," military intervention to seize island of Abadan, world's largest refinery. Believed if their oil production in Persia/Iran was nationalized, what would some other Middle East state do next, nationalize the Suez Canal? ~U.S. pressed against armed action, fearing British southern action would encourage Soviet movement in north, and Iran falling behind Iron Curtain

Other Minerals in the Middle East

~Solid fuels. Coal—Iran, especially Turkey ~Metals. Usually found in metallic ores in mineralized igneous and crystalline rocks ~(a) Turkey—greatest variety and quantity of metal ores. Bauxite, chromite, copper, zinc, gold, iron, silver ~(b) Iran—copper, chromium, iron ore, lead, zinc, molybdenum ~Salt—most widely produced solid mineral. Found in most states, especially Egypt, Turkey, Iran ~Phosphate—for fertilizer. Jordan is region's leading producer ~Potash, asbestos—Jordan

Withdrawal of U.S. Troops 12-11

~Some U.S. and NATO trainers left in Iraq ~Questionable whether Iraq could police or protect itself ~U.S. withdrawal from Iraq still left it with forces in the region—20,000 troops in Kuwait, major air base in Qatar, 5th Fleet's homeport in Bahrain ~U.S. embassy in Baghdad was largest in world—11K employees ~But balance of power is in flux. The U.S. invasion of Iraq toppled a Sunni-led regime and brought in a Shiite-led government, many of whose leaders had friendly ties with Iranian leaders, having spent years in exile in Iran ~Iran is trying to influence Iraq (PM Maliki is Shiite). Saudi Arabia views Maliki as untrustworthy. King Abdullah has been up front with U.S. officials. "I don't trust this man, he's an Iranian agent," Abdullah said, according to U.S. Embassy cable disclosed by Wikileaks ~Saudi Arabia doesn't allow direct flights between its capital, Riyadh, and Baghdad, and doesn't permit direct trade between the two countries. Kingdom is building a fence along the closed 500-mile border. The replacement of Saddam Hussein's Sunni-led regime with Maliki's Shiite-led government has unsettled the playing field between Sunnis and Shiites ~SArabia also upset that Iraq, under its 2005 constitution, is not an Arab state, but multi-ethnic, multi-religious, multi-sect country. Saudi Arabia has tribal ties with Iraq

7. Increase regional research and development

~States need to increase R&D regarding water ~Possible innovations include initiation of "water harvesting" efforts through construction of micro-scale dams and aquifers to gather rainfall and storm run-off. These steps work with houses ~Initiatives will increase agricultural and potable supplies of regional nations. Studies indicate that such techniques could provide 5% increase to water supplies of Jordan and the PA

Promise of Oil for U.S.from Saudi Arabia (Part 1)

~Story of Saudi Arabian oil started in 1933 when King Abdulaziz bin Abdulrahman Al-Saud granted Standard Oil of California (SOCAL) right to prospect for oil in the newly established Kingdom. King Ibn Saud had used a network of relationships to weld tribes together into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in mid-1920s ~SOCAL had found a little oil on an island in Persian Gulf, so they came to SArabia looking for more. In 1933, the company had beaten out the British and gained a concession for $275,000, thought a steep price at the time. Company geologist Tom Barker went to SArabia in 1938 and discovered oil in commercially exploitable quantities in the Dammam Dome near the Persian Gulf. This had the effect of beginning a close relationship between the Kingdom and the U.S. Also in 1938, Mexico nationalized British and American companies, creating PEMEX. The start of World War II delayed development of the SArabian fields ~During WWII, Saudi was neutral. After the war, it was still an obscure kingdom, although three times bigger than Texas. It was thought to be just sand and camels. "Oil Czar" Harold Ickes, knowing of SOCAL's discovery, sent a leading American geologist, Everette DeGolyer, to the ME, who reported the proven and probable reserves of the region amounted to about 25 billion barrels. He also estimated beyond that up to 300 billion barrels, 1/3 of that in Saudi alone, and he predicted the Kingdom would become the single leading oil "prize" in all history

8. Distribute water by treaty

~The Helsinki Rules of 1966 call for water from internationally-shared water basins be shared according to population and need, with historical allocations in mind ~However, international law acknowledges the absolute sovereignty of states over their resources. Unless regional and/or international agreements are reached specifically about the waters of the Middle East (whether bilateral or multilateral agreements), the national needs for water by the steadily increasing populations will inevitably lead to more bitterness

"Saudi Arabia, South Korea sign nuclear cooperation agreement to build reactors," JPost, 3-4-15

~The leaders of Saudi Arabia and South Korea agreed to cooperate to build more than two small and medium-size nuclear reactors in projects worth as much as $2 billion ~South Korean President Park Geun-hye arrived in Riyadh and met with King Salman to discuss ways to enhance bilateral relations ~Before visiting Saudi Arabia, Park concluded a three-day visit to Kuwait. She is scheduled to continue to the United Arab Emirates and Qatar ~The two leaders signed a memorandum of understanding to build the Asian country's SMART reactors, designed by the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute specifically for Middle Eastern countries to generate electricity and desalinate seawater ~The agreement calls for a feasibility study to construct the reactors in Saudi Arabia, which should be completed by 2018

Jordan - Israel - Palestinian Authority - Syria

~Three modest rivers in and around Israel have economic and political significance beyond their physical dimensions ~(1) Jordan River has several headwaters draining southeastern Lebanon, southwestern Syria, and northern Israel ~Jordan's major tributary, the (2) Yarmuk, enters on east bank, just south of Sea of Galilee. Diversion of the Jordan and its tributaries for irrigation by Israel and Jordan utilizes most of the river's water before it reaches the Dead Sea ~Control over the (3) Litani River water in northern Lebanon also of great interest to area states

Aquifers (part 2)

~Time is of essence if political skirmishes are to be avoided, evidenced by recent events at the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer ~Nubian Aquifer beneath sands of Libya, Egypt, Chad, and Sudan. The Sahara once was wet, and underneath is huge amount of water as old as 30,000 years. Aquifer volume about 500,000 times annual flow of Nile, but only scant amounts added annually. Equal to lake larger than Germany and hundreds of yards deep. Having completed one of largest civil engineering projects on earth using hundreds of wells, Libya draws hundreds of millions of gallons per week (about flow of Rio Grande, 200 million cubic feet of water per day) and pumping it 2,000 miles north through subway-sized pipes to Tripoli and surrounding farms ~Other countries wonder if they'll use any; experts say dry in 50 years

Possible Water Solutions

~To date, volatile politics of the Middle East have prevented most water sharing. For example, Turkey's proposed 1987 "peace pipeline" (designed to carry water from the Turkish Seyhan and Ceyhan Rivers to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Israel, and other Gulf states) failed to progress beyond the planning stage as a result of regional fears. Other regional initiatives, such as importing water by sea and comprehensive interstate water allocation, have also failed ~Future efforts to normalize regional tensions over water will hinge upon equitable distribution of available water and creation of interstate relationships to ensure water availability. These developing alliances will require proper international support (usually from the U.S.)

Ataturk dam

~Trouble over the Euphrates expressed in simple, untenable equation. River in average year holds 35 billion cubic meters of water. But separate plans drawn up by Turkey, Syria, and Iraq for building dams and irrigating fields would taken together consume nearly half again more water than river holds ~Syria and Iraq want water divided roughly in thirds. Turkey claims more than half for itself saying any sharing must take into account Turkey's status as source of most Euphrates water and having population half again as big as Iraq's and Syria's put together ~GAP could nudge Syria and Iraq into strategic alliance

Tehran (part 3)

~U.S. soldiers left Iran in 1-46, and British left in early March. USSR stood alone in defiance of treaty, which required foreign troops leave by March 2. There to stay? Want to bring all Iran under their control? Want to acquire a warm-water port? ~On 3-5-46, Churchill gave his "Iron Curtain" speech in Fulton, Missouri. Truman agreed and thought USSR moving toward Near East and Mediterranean ~U.S. government's opinion influenced by 2-22-46 "Long Telegram" from George Kennan (in the Moscow embassy, later director of State Department's Policy Planning Staff), describing USSR as expansionist and only respected power, and that a policy of containment should be considered. Events in Iran became crisis because Soviets would not withdraw until it received concession, and Iran was not willing to consider concession until USSR left ~4-1946, Moscow and Tehran reached agreement, and Soviet troops left in May—Iran agreed to establish joint Iranian-Soviet oil company, subject to approval by parliament by vote within 5 months. Iranian PM then took strong stand against USSR-backed rebels, and in fall of 1946, U.S. offered $10,000,000 military aid to Iran. Iran armed forces defeated Soviet-backed rebellion and USSR took no steps to defend rebels. Not until 10-1947 did Iranian Parliament vote on proposed joint oil company; defeated 102-2 ~Iran remained under influence of UK for awhile, but creeping U.S. influence

Water in ME (part 1)

~Utilization of water most critical aspect of human experience in ME ~Water is ME's most valuable natural resource—you can't drink oil ~Disputes about water escalating. Despite existing agreements, dwindling resources in arid region increasingly affected by pollution, agricultural and industrial uses, and population growth ~Much water comes from three major waterways: Tigris-Euphrates, Nile, and Jordan Rivers. Overreliance on these resources has led to disputes (Ex. Iran-Iraq War partially from claims to Shatt al-Arab waterway) ~Water resources are plummeting. With 5% of world population, ME and North Africa contain only 0.9% of global water resources. Number of water-scarce states rose from 3 in 1955 (Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait) to 12 by 1990 (including Algeria, Israel, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, ~Somalia, Tunisia, UAE, Yemen). 7 join list by 2025 (Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Syria)

Start of World War II; Battle of Britain

~WWII began in 1939 when Germany invaded Poland in a Blitzkrieg. Germany used "lightning warfare" cause it could not afford to fight a long war (it would run out of raw materials). After the fall of Western Europe, the Battle of Britain began in summer of 1940 when Luftwaffe attacked. But because the U.S. had refined 100 octane fuel in the 1930s, British Spitfires had greater lift and maneuverability than Messerschmitts and the island was saved ~1941, General Tojo used U.S. oil embargo as justification to attack Pearl Harbor. The decision to attack was to protect Japan's flank as they moved toward the oil fields of Southeast Asia. Admiral Yamamoto, though, realized that to fight U.S. was like fighting the whole world, and that he must first take out U.S. naval fleet at Pearl Harbor to protect the Japanese oil supply and quickly win the war. Japan attacked on 12-7-41 and crippled the Pacific fleet (but fortunately did not catch U.S. aircraft carriers). Japan greatly erred by not attacking U.S. oil tanks in Hawaii. Ten weeks later Japan invaded Dutch East Indies

Egypt - Sudan - Ethiopia

~Water crisis has also materialized along Nile (world's longest river, 4,145 miles, although 32 other major rivers carry more water) ~Ethiopia has focused upon water distribution as issue of paramount concern. It cannot afford desalination, so increasingly objects to water uses of downstream Egypt and Sudan, claiming present allocation (under 1959 agreement) to be extremely inequitable. Ethiopia has hinted it may resort to unilateral exercise of sovereignty (Ex. Damming the Blue Nile—construction of the Grand Renaissance Dam) ~Egypt has long asserted aggressive control over Nile water. Situated downstream from long line of countries with access, water occupies a central plank of Egypt's foreign policy. Concerns regarding water dependency spurred efforts to trap and store water (including construction of the Aswan High Dam) during 1950s. Despite this, Egypt has become vulnerable. Affected by environmental factors, water availability has significantly decreased, making it increasingly dependent on the interstate dynamics of the region

4. Modernize domestic water distribution and processing

~Water networks in Jordan and the Occupied Territories currently lose up to 55% of carried water as result of leakage from old and damaged piping. In fact, major cities in Middle East struggle with serious shortages of water, gas, electricity, sewerage facilities, and telephones. Cairo, Ankara, Jeddah, Istanbul, and Beirut suffer water shortages during the long, dry summers because water distribution systems are inadequate ~Repair and reconstruction efforts by regional governments are desperately needed to increase the efficiency and capacities of existing systems ~To date, few funds have been set aside by these cities for maintenance of systems—they mainly have paid to install, not do upkeep

Water in ME (part 3)

~While progressive agricultural methods such as drip irrigation exist, used by only a few states. Nor have current desalination/desalinization efforts in region proven capable of meeting growing demands—high costs of desalination have limited results, even for energy-rich states. ~Regardless, several cities depend heavily on this—Kuwait City developed with virtually no surface or underground water, so it distills seawater for its water. Oil-rich Saudi Arabia has more than 30 such plants, and acquires more than 70% of its drinking water from desalination. The capital investment is too great for most states—such a program for Israel to supply a needed 700 million cubic meters/year could cost $1.8 billion ~Influenced by declining availability and quality, crisis zones have emerged. Conflicts involve Turkey, Syria, and Iraq over the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers; in the Jordan River Basin between Israel, the Palestinian Authority, Jordan, and Syria; among Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia over the Nile; and within Saudi Arabia ~Both the UN and the National Intelligence Council, a CIA advisory group, have warned the competition for water worldwide is likely to worsen. By 2015, 40% of world population (three billion) lived in countries where difficult or impossible to get enough water for basic needs

6. Decrease reliance on desalination

~While the only currently available method of addressing regional water woes, desalination is a dangerous and ultimately futile mechanism for change in region ~As water has risen in strategic value, so have imperatives regarding its security. Desalination may escalate potential for eruption of conflict if seen as prize that water-starved nations cannot resist ~Turning away from current desalination efforts would free up much-needed capital, but would not provide additional water

1973 War (part 2)

~Within a week, Israel recovered and launched a four-day counter-offensive, driving deep into Syria. To relieve this pressure, the Egyptians went back on the offensive, but were decisively defeated; the Israelis then counterattacked at the seam between two Egyptian armies, crossed the Suez Canal, and advanced southward and westward in over a week of heavy fighting ~On Oct. 22, a UN-brokered ceasefire quickly unraveled, with each side blaming the other for the breach. By 24 October, the Israelis had improved their positions considerably and completed their encirclement of Egypt's Third Army. This development led to tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. As a result, a second ceasefire was imposed cooperatively on October 25 to end the war. At the conclusion of hostilities, Israeli forces were 25 miles from Damascus and 60 miles from Cairo ~War had far-reaching implications. Arab World, humiliated by the lopsided rout of the Egyptian-Syrian-Jordanian alliance in the Six-Day War, felt psychologically vindicated by early successes in the conflict. In Israel, despite impressive operational and tactical achievements on the battlefield, the war effectively ended its sense of invincibility and complacency. The war also challenged many American assumptions; the U.S. began new efforts at mediation and peacemaking. These changes paved the way for the subsequent peace process at Camp David, Maryland