Pols 3612 Final
Pendleton Civil Service Act
(1883): Did away with the "spoils system" and *made the hiring of federal employees merit based* -created a class of federal employment available only through competitive exams. -It said you have to be qualified for us to hire you for a job. These jobs could not be given away through the spoils system. Instead were going to get money from businesses. -The law led to an overall reduction in party reliance on government employees for political contributions, which then shifted the fundraising burden to business interests with major stakes in federal policy-making.
What structural biases are found in news content? What problems do these biases pose for viewers?
*1.) Personalized versus Institutional* -Events are often represented through private experiences. -Human focus obscures or distorts the most important features of events, the workings of political processes, power relations, and economic forces --Ex: Coverage of political issues if often reduced to trivial questions about the President's personal power, his political, scorecard, and his risks of public embarrassments -The personalized content of the news fits comfortable with the personalized styles of news delivery, where a message geared to personal concerns is delivered...more *2.) Dramatized versus Analytical News* -Events with dramatic properties are emphasized - conflict, problems, rising and falling action -Dramatization trivializes news content. It distracts attention from any broad or enduring significance the events may have had -As a result, chronic social problems and long-standing political issues often go unreported because they develop too slowly *3.) Fragmented versus Historical News* Events contain many images with few coherent connections. News sacrifices length and detail in favor of pace, change of scene, and personalization -All stories suffer from the absence of meaningful connections to one another. -Events that result from the same political or economic forces are often treated as though they were independent. -Long term trends and historical patterns are seldom made part of the news. *4.) Normalized News (Authority-Disorder Bias)* Events are presented through certain acceptable points of view. -Official sources are often given the last word. -Critiques of authority are rare, ritualized (e.g., press conferences), and superficial -Reports of deviant actors tend to discredit the actors involved, balance them with official reaction, and rarely receive follow-up implying that their actions were of little consequence.
501c's, 527s and Super Pacs
*501 (c)s* are tax-exempt non-profit organizations organized under 501(c) of the tax code, such as social welfare organizations, labor organizations and trade associations. They can engage in political activities as long as that is not their "primary purpose." Donors to these groups need not be disclosed.The Citizens United decision allows 501(c)s to fund unlimited independent expenditures and electioneering communications from their general treasuries. *527s* are tax exempt organizations that can evade FEC regulation because they don't directly advocate for/against the election of individuals. They're usually run by interest groups, utilized for issue advocacy ads and voter mobilization. They're legal. DC fed appeals court ruled they can raise/spend money freely because they don't coordinate with campaigns. *Super Pacs* are independent, expenditure only committees, stemming from Citizens United. Contribute directly to candidates, limitless funds from individuals, political committees, corps and labor orgs if their purpose is only to make independent expenditures.
What are the contribution limits for presidential candidates? How must they be disclosed? What are the exceptions?
*A presidential candidate may use an unlimited amount of his or her own personal funds to finance his or her own campaign if he or she does not accept public funds.* Generally speaking, most prominent wealthy candidates do not take public funds because with public funds come a number of spending limits that you do not have to abide by if you don't accept them -Presidential candidates who accept public funds must agree to accept spending limits (~ $20 million + COLA) as a condition of eligibility and agree to limit their use of personal funds to no more than $50,000. -So you can see you are at a disadvantage if you don't have a lot of money and have to go the public funding way and deal with spending limits. -When using personal funds, a candidate may only use funds that the candidate individually owns and controls or up to one-half of funds owned jointly by a candidate and his or her spouse. ***Disclosure**** -Federal candidates must file periodic reports with the FEC that list each contribution of $200 or more that the campaign received and each disbursement of $200 or more that the campaign made. -This is so there is transparency for those who make significant contributions. -These reports must be filed by the candidate's committee on a semi-annual basis during non-election years and on a quarterly basis during election years. -Additional reports are also required before and after the election. -The FEC makes these reports available to the public through several means, including its website.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of online campaigning? Who were the pioneers of this method?
*Advantages:* -The cost of disseminating information is miniscule -Candidates can devise their own messages and control the content of presentations -Communication with the press can be improved --News releases and press advisories can be mailed electronically to journalists --Journalists can constantly retrieve texts of speeches, endorsements, etc -It can facilitate the recruitment and mobilization of volunteers -It can facilitate the channeling of donations -Allows for precise targeting procedures --As more people begin accessing candidates' Web sites, the personal identification information (the "cookies") provided by Internet users when they log onto commercial Web services -Communication can be dynamic, responsive to unfolding campaign events *Disadvantages:* -Internet political activities are taken less seriously -The campaign lacks control over distribution --Targeting groups is more problematic --Opponents can monitor activities -The size of the audience is small -It creates problems for campaign organizations --Where in the hierarchy should the online campaign manager be placed *Pioneers* -In 1992, the Clinton campaign became the first presidential campaign to have an Internet presence (Bush did not have one). --Content was limited to a biography, slogans, and issues positions.
Describe three trends in political advertising?
*An increasing amount of money is being spent on a growing number of ads. $1 billion was spent on advertising in the 2005-2006 midterm election compared to $300 million in the 1997-1998 campaign season.* -More out-of-town money is buying ads in your elections. --Political parties account for as much as 70 percent of issue ads. --Party spending is primarily controlled by the national political party committees and groups operating out of Washington, D.C. --The party committees also transfer large amounts of funds to state and local political party committees. -Local candidates' control is diminishing. --The majority of national party committees' issue ads as pure attack ads as compared to only a quarter of local candidate campaign ads
Contribution limits for individuals
*An individual may spend personal funds to make contributions to influence federal elections subject to specific limits.* -For the 2019-2020 election cycle, an individual may give $2,800 per election to a federal candidate*** -Primary and general elections count separately, for a total of $5600 to a single candidate in an election cycle. -An individual may give $5,000 per year to a political action committee or "PAC".****
What is the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002? How have Supreme Court decisions undermined its intent?
*BCRA tried to diminish the role of soft money in campaign financing*, by prohibiting national political party committees from raising or spending any funds not subject to federal limits, even for state and local races or issue discussion -The advertising ads were starting to smell a lot like advocacy ads, surrounding issues --healthcare issue - it would become clear that they were saying its painfully obvious to the viewer that your talking about opposition to the opponent's campaign and register for the opposite party/vote for the opposite party -BCRA tried to end the proliferation of issue advocacy ads, by defining as "electioneering communications" broadcast ads that name a federal candidate within 60 days of a general election, and prohibiting any such ad paid for by a corporation or paid for by an unincorporated entity using any corporate or union funds. *Challenges to the BCRA* In *McConnell v. Federal Election Commission*, the Supreme Court upheld by a 5-4 vote the key provisions of the law, including the soft money ban. -Its OK to put limits on soft money. -However, in next decision they said you can't ban those ads though. -In *Federal Election Commission v. Wisconsin Right to Life*, held that issue ads may not be banned from the months preceding a primary or general election. -In *Citizens United v Federal Election Commission*, held that the BCRA was in violation of corporations' and unions' First Amendment rights. --They can actually advocate the election or opposition of a particular candidate. --Corporations and unions are no longer barred from promoting the election of one candidate over another candidate. -This opens the floodgates for corporations and unions dominating campaign finance.
What did the Supreme Court case Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission find? What does it mean for corporations?
*Citizens United found that 2 provisions of the Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA) were unconstitutional under the 1st Amendment.* The decision struck down the decades-long prohibition on corporations using their general treasury funds to make independent expenditures. -It also found unconstitutional the already weakened provisions of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA) that prohibited corporations from using their general treasury funds for "electioneering communications." -The Court upheld disclaimer and disclosure requirements, noting they "impose no ceiling on campaign-related activities" and that "transparency enables the electorate to make informed decisions and give proper weight to different speakers and messages." *What it Means* Corporations May Now Finance Independent Federal Political Advertising and Other Political Communications. -Corporations have a First Amendment right to finance independent advertising that expressly advocates the election or defeat of a clearly identified candidate, and to disseminate such information, at any time up until election day. -Companies can basically fund ad campaigns supporting or opposing a candidate with one caveat: --Citizens United says candidates can also get support in a different way --> a company could set up an organization and fund ads saying Vote for ___ as long as they don't talk to the candidate or their campaign. -Old campaign managers often run the super-PAC associated with whoever is running. *Citizens United overturned rules that limited expenditures by companies and labor unions, as long as they don't coordinate with the campaigns.* -Corporations and Individuals May Now Finance Tax Exempt Groups to Advocate in Federal Elections. -Many corporations remain reticent to engage directly in federal campaigns for fear of alienating a segment of their customer base. -Citizens United recognizes that trade associations and exempt social welfare organizations have a similar First Amendment right to use corporate funds to finance media advocacy directly for or against federal candidates.
What are high and low stimulus elections? How do they differ?
*Elections vary in the amount of interest and attention they generate.* -Differences in levels of interest in elections are a result of 5 factors: 1.)Differences in media coverage 2.)Significance attached by voters to the office 3.)Importance of issues raised in the campaign\ 4.)Attractiveness of the candidates 5.)Competitiveness of the contests Variation in these factors leads to *"high stimulus" and "low stimulus."*
Why were there no presidential debates from 1960 to 1976? What change led to their revival? Are they popular with TV viewers?
*Front-runners did not want to share the stage with opponents and the equal-time provisions of the Communications Act of 1934 made it a legislative obstacle* ... *One problem continually raised about presidential debates was the equal time rule* The 1934 Communications Act (section 315) "requires radio and television stations and cable systems which originate their own programming to treat legally qualified political candidates equally when it comes to selling or giving away air time." -If any licensee shall permit any person who is a legally qualified candidate for any political office to use a broadcasting station, he shall afford equal opportunities to all other such candidates for that office in the use of such broadcasting station. " -Legally qualified" means, in part, that a person be a declared candidate. Timing of the announcement that someone is running for office is important because it triggers the equal time rule. -In 1960 when Richard Nixon and John F. Kennedy launched the first series of television debates; Congress suspended Section 315 so that third party candidates could be barred from participating. *In 1975 the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) amended the equal time provision, declaring presidential debates "bona fide news events," which, if hosted by a third party, exempted debates from the equal time provision* The League of Women Voters quickly volunteered to sponsor, or "initiate" the debates. -The LWV codified the formats of presidential debates, splitting them into categories based on how questions are asked. The league used an open format, allowing follow-up questions among candidates. -The league ran a tight ship from 1976 to '88. As a nonpartisan organization, it was ardent in affording equal time to all candidates. -The LWV's refusal to acquiesce to candidates' demands made presidential debates a powerful force in U.S. politics. When Jimmy Carter refused to debate with both Republican nominee Ronald Reagan and independent candidate John Anderson in 1980, the LWV held the debate without Carter. Reagan went on to win the election, and his performance at the debates without Carter to contend with was one factor in his win *Although popular, debate ratings are slowly decreasing*
What is gatekeeping? What principles are gatekeeping decisions based? How do these principles manifest themselves in news coverage?
*Gatekeepers are able to control the public's knowledge of events by letting some stories pass through the system but keeping others out* -The mass media picks a very modest amount to report on -The biggest danger is not knowing anything, not even if there's a bias -Gatekeeping decisions are based on 4 principles: 1.) Substantive importance *Rank in governmental and other hierarchies* **The president is most important **Other federal officials are judged by the extent to which they affect, change, or oppose the president's policies or affect the notion **Non-governmental leaders who come into contact with the govt hierarchy **This means that many things that emerge - were going to miss because it takes a long time for local issues to get to the top of the hierarchy **This makes it difficult for Americans to think about public policy in a proactive way *Impact on the nation and the national interest* **Importance is given by activities carried out by the entire nation or carried out in behalf of the nation (space exploration) *Impact on large numbers of people* **The larger the number of people affected by a story, the more important its deemed to be *Significance for the past and the future* **Keep track of anniversaries **Assign importance to record-breaking events and firsts 2.) Audience interest *People stories* **Ordinary people acting in extraordinary ways **Extraordinary people acting in ordinary ways *Role reversals* **People departing from expected roles: criminal going straight *Human-interest stories* **Unusual experiences that evoke audience sympathy, pity, or admiration, such as victims of tragic illnesses *Expose anecdotes* **Actors and activities violating enduring values (ex business desecrating the environment) *Hero stories* **Ordinary who overcome nature or villains 3.) Product considerations -Medium considerations --Video and still pictures available -Format considerations --Length --Structure *Every story must have a beginning, middle, and end --Novelty "Peg": a recent event on which to hang old stories (new school year) 4.) Corporate culture -Shareholder preference -Advertiser preferences --Avoid negative light on those who pay the bills -Editorial preferences -Don't piss of the advertisers -White collar crime is only covered if it reaches a certain caliber - but street crime is covered every day. Why? Because those white collar people often have a stake in the media, or there is no video.
What was the significance of the 1960 presidential debates? Why did they come about? What was their impact?
*On 26 September 1960, 70 million U.S. viewers tuned in to watch Senator John Kennedy of Massachusetts and Vice President Richard Nixon in the first-ever televised presidential debate.* -It was the first of 4 televised "Great Debates" between Kennedy and Nixon. The 1960 general election presidential debates came about for three reasons: 1.) Both candidates (Nixon and Kennedy) saw political advantage to using television 2.) The national networks were eager to prove they could be civic-minded without federal regulations; and three debates were seen as a part of a larger movement to reform presidential campaigns. 3.) Congress suspended the equal time provision of the Communications Act of 1934, to allow a two man debate. *The impact on the election of 1960 was significant, albeit subtle.* Commentators broadly agree that the first debate accelerated Democratic support for Kennedy. -Rather than encouraging viewers to change their vote, the debates appear to have simply solidified prior allegiances. -At election time, more than half of all voters reported that the Great Debates had influenced their opinion; 6% reported that their vote was the result of the debates alone. -->Thus, regardless of whether the debates changed the election result, voters pointed to the debates as a significant reason for electing Kennedy.
Mobilization Model
*Participation is a response to political opportunities structured by person's environment.* -The mobilization model asserts that participation is a response to contextual cues and political opportunities structured by the individual's environment. -Mobilization results from the direct efforts of candidate/party organizations or voluntary associations OR indirectly via television coverage of political events and issues. -Scholars have claimed that mobilization factors account for approximately half of the decline in voter turnout since 1960, as well as the decline in party-related participation activity -This argues that were dwelling too much on costs and benefits and we need to focus on social/contextual clues that alert people in how they should be partaking in social norms. -This is becoming a big part of election campaigns - people are much more likely to vote if they are contacted and asked to do so.
What is party identification? How is it measured? Why is it important?
*Partisanship (or party identification) is the sense of attachment or belonging that an individual feels for a party. Partisanship orients individuals in their political environment.* -Party identification is a relatively uncomplicated measure determined by responses to the following questions: -->Generally speaking, do you usually think of yourself as a Republican, a Democrat, an independent, or what? -->(If R or D) Would you call yourself a strong (R or D) or a not very strong (R or D)? -->(If I) Do you think of yourself as closer to the Republican party or to the Democratic party? -These questions provide seven categories of participants in the electorate according to intensity of partisanship. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ *The model asserts that the principal motivation behind voting is party identification (PID), which is believed to be a long-term stable psychological affinity for one of the two major parties.* When you grow up, you are influenced by your socioeconomic status. You are steered from where you grow up, how you grew up, etc. PID serves as a perceptual screen and a voting cue. -One needs not understand any of the issues or the candidates to make electoral decisions. The primary influencers are neighborhood you grew up in, religious place of worship, and the school you went to. -These all align to push you towards one affiliation or another. If you move, this may change and new socializations can cause you to adopt a certain party identification. -It's not only how we vote, but how we see the issues and the candidates.
What criteria are necessary for issue voting? Is it common? On what issues does it occur the most?
*People don't normally vote on the issue, they normally justify it post voting for their party's candidate.* In order for a voter to cast issue-based vote - If you're going to vote according to the issues, you need to meet these criteria***: -Voter must be aware of issue and have an opinion -->Tell me right now the issues you are prioritizing. -Issue must arouse some intensity of feeling for the voter -Voter must be aware of the candidates' positions on the issue -Voter must select the candidate who is closest to the voter on the issue Position-Issues: Those issues, on which parties are differentiated by their advocacy of alternative position. Example: abortion
What are the pros and cons of low voter turnout?
*Pros* Democratic health -Voters are satisfied Intense citizen engagement can be associated with oppression of minorities and other injustices Civic engagement can have negative effects -It can cause people to feel frustrated and powerless Elites are more competent -"The typical citizen drops down to a lower level of mental performance as soon as he enters the political field." - Joseph Schumpeter *Cons* Low turnout reflects a "phony" politics -Not addressing the real issues people care most about -Government has lost our trust, we don't feel we can really make a difference Voters and others who regularly participate are unrepresentative -Wealthier, whiter, better educated The people need to advance their own interests, hold elites accountable -"There is not now, and never will be, a class of empathetic, non-self-interested elites who can be trusted to advance the common good." The common sense of ordinary people -Strong moral sense Our system is based on the democratic ideal -Government by and for the people as a whole -Cannot be truly free without a voice in government
What is a symbol? What are its two dimensions? How does news coverage promote symbols?
*Symbols are words or images that stand for objects or ideas. Symbolic words are the key to effective messages.* Symbols permit the recounting and vicarious sharing of experiences with people who did not participate in those experiences firsthand. *Every symbol has two psychological effects:* -*Cognitive* - gives meaning to message. What does it mean, what is its dictionary definition/literal interpretation? You fill in the blanks - let the audience do the work. -*Affective* - triggers emotions about the message. When I hear the word or phrase it makes me feel SOMETHING. *News Value Magnify the Acceptance of Symbols* -By emphasizing style over content, the news exaggerates the drama and distinctiveness of messages -By reporting political performances as though they represented the real motives at stake, the news promotes the acceptance of messages -By implicitly endorsing official views and omitting alternative info, the news enhances the psychological appeal of the official meaning *From Symbol to News* -The salience, credibility, and image effects of political symbols depend on the ways they are presented to reporters. Through the careful preparation of messages, public officials often succeed in controlling the information pertaining to all the key elements of the news story: -the scene -the status of the actor -the motives or ends the political action is to serve -the significance of the action itself. *The goal is to control information pertaining to all the components of the unfolding real-life political drama and thereby control the content of the news stories written about the situation.* Attempts at the political manipulation of the news run along a continuum from fully controlled news events at one end, to partially controlled news events in the middle, to uncontrolled events at the other extreme.
What are the five party systems? When did they occur? What characterized them? Why did they end?
*The First Party System* (1796-1824) Federalists -Strong central government & economic policy -Northeast sectional concentration -Led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams -Sought a strong central government Democratic-republicans -Weak central government w/rural agrarian $$$ -South & Western states Federalist overreach themselves + War of 1812 stand -Dem-republicans take over=> era of good feelings -Led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison -Sought a weak federal government -South and Western states *The Second Party System* (1828-1856) Jackson & 1st mass political party => Democratic party -Rules expanding right to vote to all males 21 years + -Led by Andrew Jackson -Used party organization to mobilize voters -Used new convention system to select party nominee Whig party formed in opposition (primarily to Jackson) -Formed coalition: North's industrialist & South's $$ -Built a coalition of Northern Industrialists and rich Southerners -Led by Daniel Webster and Henry Clay at times *The Third Party System* (1860-1892) Slavery issue became more contentious by mid-1850s Whigs attempted to hold North-South coalition together -Avoid clear statement on slavery as result Democrats -Most Democrats were from the South -Fought many close elections with the Republicans Republican party formed & made clear anti-slavery aim -1860=> Lincoln=> Civil War=> Union Victory -Reconstruction=> Democratic South=> -Series of close presidential races follow *The Fourth Party System* 1896-1928 Democrat Cleveland => $$$ depression of 1893 -William Jennings Bryan nominated by Democrats: -"Cross of Gold" speech=> cheap $$$ for debts GOP blames poor economy on Cleveland -GOP's nominee McKinley wins landslide victory -Begins 32 year GOP control of presidency -(Woodrow Wilson only exception in 1912) Democrats -Cleveland in office during 1893 depression -WIlliam Jennings Bryan, running on populist platform was nominee Republicans -Blamed Democrats for economic problems -Nominated McKinley -Dominated the White House during this time *The Fifth Party System* 1932-1980s 1929 Stock Market Crash=> Great Depression -GOP Hoover offers balanced budget as solution -Nation's unemployment rises to 25% -Nation (voters) demands jobs & bold Federal action -GOP fails to produce $$$ recovery FDR's landslide & New Deal coalition begins major party shift of voters from one party to the other: -Poor, working class & unions align w/Democrats -Upper middle class & wealth align w/GOP -Above alignments cut across sectional lines -->(In contrast to previous sectional alignment of past party systems) -->Only exception? => The Solid South (why?) Democrats would dominate Congress as majority until 1960s -New Deal coalition would start to weaken from then on -Ended sometime in the 1980s Democrats -Roosevelt launches New Deal -Southerners remained loyal to party Republicans -Upper and middle class elsewhere moved towards Republicans -GOP made election inroads during the 1900s
What are the four eras of voter turnout? How has voter turnout in presidential elections changed over time? What are the primary demographic differences in turnout?
*The Founding Era (1789-1824)* The Founding Era (1789-1824) experienced the lowest turnout rates in American history. -The 6.3% turnout in 1792 stands as the lowest. -State elections were often preeminent. It was not uncommon for state legislatures to select directly the electors to the Electoral College. -The nation was very much a rugged frontier, voting was not easy to do since it required people to travel far to vote at county courthouses. *The Party Machine Era (1828-1896)* The Party Machine Era (1828-1896) experienced the highest turnout rates in the nation's history, routinely exceeding 80%. -The political machines created grassroots organizations to mobilize their supporters. -The Republican's effective "72 Hour Campaign" and Sen. Obama's emphasis on building voter mobilization organizations have their roots in the person-to-person style of politics fashioned during this era. *The Segregation Era (1900-1948)* The Segregation Era (1900-1948) segregated the electorate into voters and non-voters by Progressive Era reforms. -In the South, "reforms" were targeted to lower turnout among Blacks. -Secret ballot laws that made it difficult for the parties to monitor voting and reward people for voting in their preferred manner. -Reforms also included voter registration laws that were much more burdensome than today in that some states required voters to register as much as six months in advance of each election. -The cumulative effect of these changes in the electoral system was to reduce turnout rates by placing additional burdens on prospective voters. *The Nationalization Era (1952-present)* The Nationalization Era (1952-present) features greater federal government involvement in the conduct of elections. -The Voting Rights Act of 1965 did away with such barriers as literacy tests and empowered federal voter registrars to go into African-American communities in the South. -Voting eligibility was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1972. -Other major reforms during this era include the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 and the Help America Vote Act of 2002. *Who Votes* -Women are more likely to vote than men --Women's rates surpassed those of men for the first time in 1984. -Non-Hispanic White citizens have the highest levels of voter turnout, typically followed by Black citizens, Hispanic citizens, and Asian citizens. -The voting rate is higher among older than younger citizens. -Marital status is also associated with registration and voting patterns. -At each successive level of educational attainment, registration and voting rates increase. --The voting rate of citizens who have a bachelor's degree is about twice as high as that of citizens who had not completed high school. -Citizens with higher incomes are more likely to register/vote. --The voting rate among citizens living in families with annual incomes of $50,000 is about 50% higher than citizens living in families with incomes under $20,000.
Hatch Act (1939)
*The Hatch Act of 1939 banned political activity by federal employees not already covered by the Pendleton Act and banned the solicitation of political donations from all govt employees.* -You can't assess their wages but you can't go asking them for money either - leave them alone. -The Hatch Act permitted federal employees to vote in government elections but not to take an active part in partisan politics. Don't want conflict of interest -The Act also limited how much an individual employee could contribute to each party committee or federal candidate, and placed an aggregate limit on the amount an individual could give to parties and candidates.
What is the calculus of voting? What is the paradox of participation? How solves the paradox?
*The calculus of voting is the equation from the rational voter model.* U = P * [(Dem B + Rep B)/2] - C U=utility of the act (of voting etc.) P=the probability of casting a decisive vote Dem B=the expected political benefits from the Democrat winning Rep B = the expected political benefits from the Republican winning C=costs of the act of voting -->Someone will vote if PB > C *The paradox of participation is that contrary to predictions of rational choice models, voting in elections and other types of participation are fairly common.* *Solving the Paradox* P is the probability that an individual's vote will affect the outcome of an election B is the perceived benefit of that person's favored party/candidate being elected. D represents any social or personal gratification an individual gets from voting. C is the time, effort, and financial cost involved in voting. *Since P is virtually zero in most elections, PB is also near zero, and D is thus the most important element in motivating people to vote. For a person to vote, these factors must outweigh C..* -The D term - citizen Duty. People get social gratifications from going to the polls. PEOPLE WILL ONLY VOTE IF THEY MAKE A BREAK A TIE
How does the socio-psychological model of voting operate?
*The model asserts that the principal motivation behind voting is party identification (PID), which is believed to be a long-term stable psychological affinity for one of the two major parties.* When you grow up, you are influenced by your socioeconomic status. You are steered from where you grow up, how you grew up, etc. -PID serves as a perceptual screen and a voting cue. One needs not understand any of the issues or the candidates to make electoral decisions. -The primary influencers are neighborhood you grew up in, religious place of worship, and the school you went to. -->These all align to push you towards one affiliation or another. -->If you move, this may change and new socializations can cause you to adopt a certain party identification. *It's not only how we vote, but how we see the issues and the candidates.*
When did debates first play a role in the presidential primaries and general elections?
*There were no general election debates, but there were three primary debates:* -In 1948, Republicans Harold Stassen and Thomas Dewey debated on radio before the Oregon primary. -In 1952, the Republican and Democratic contenders (or their representatives) answer two questions each at the annual convention of the League of Women Voters in the first nationally televised presidential debate. -In 1956, Democrats Estes Kefauver and Adlai Stevenson participated in the first nationally televised intra-party primary debate (before the Florida primary.) *The most vocal group advocating debates were political underdogs wanting to share the stage with incumbents.* -In 1940 Republican Wendell Wilkie, challenged FDR to debate the "fundamental issues" but was ignored by Roosevelt, who saw the challenge as a media stunt. In 1952, NBC and CBS agreed to give free time for the presidential nominees for each party, but neither candidate (Democrat Adlai Stevenson or Republican Dwight Eisenhower) accepted the offer.
How were campaign funds regulated prior to the Civil War? What methods did politicians rely on to secure funds?
*They weren't regulated at all. * -*Buying Votes * --Aaron Burr persuaded the New York state assembly to create an anti-Federalist state bank for the purpose of helping citizens buy land in order to gain votes. -*Rewarding contributors with favors and jobs* -*Squeezing corporations* --Political machines across the country used the threat of hostile legislation to force corporate interests into paying for the defeat of the measures. -*Applied assessments * --Party supporters who were appointed to government jobs were often required to give portions of their government salaries to the political party to support the party's political activities. --It was commonplace to "assess" people who are politically appointed govt jobs - they will pay a percentage of their paycheck to the political party that ensured they got that job
How are web sites used to approach undecided voters and journalists? How do campaign web sites treat candidates' opponents? How do voters and voter subgroups make use of the Internet? What is its impact?
*Undecided Voters*: Campaigns assumptions: -Voters' choices about which candidate to support would have already been made by the time they arrived at the site. -Only a minority of site visitors make up their minds as a result of a campaign web site. Several standard features of web sites serve double duty as resources for supporters and appeals to undecideds: -Issue sections detailing the candidates' issue positions -Biography sections that detail the candidates' backgrounds *Journalists*: Campaign assumptions: -The press increasingly use the Internet -The press are always looking for new information Strategies: -Archives of press releases, speeches, and news media stories (e.g., collected through Lexis-Nexis) about the candidates -Email updates to journalists on the campaign's email list - reduced time and expenses associated with faxes and telephone calls -Frequent updates to stimulate repeated visits - front page is designed to carry the message of the day and the organizing feature of the day -Live webcasts *Treatment of Opponents* -Candidates rarely offer side-by-side comparison with their opponents -Mention of the opponent emphasized their negatives --Broken promises --Fact checks --Record checks --Major party candidates do not mention minor party candidates -Rapid response to opponent's allegations -The Internet has not been a forum for negative campaigning by candidates *The internet is now on par with newspapers as a major source of campaign news* 26% of all adults get most of their election news from the internet, compared with 28% who get their election news from newspapers -34% of 18-29 year olds rely on the internet, compared with the 20% who rely on newspapers as a major source of campaign news. *Knowledge and Feeling Effects* Web sites made a small difference on candidate knowledge for a minority of people. -About one third of people reported that they learned something new about the candidate as a person or about the candidate's position on issues. 1-9% of research subjects in their laboratory settings increased their political knowledge by viewing candidate web sites. Web sites did not seem to change people's feeling about the candidates. -Among the small fraction of people in who opposed the candidate whose site they saw, most reported that the web sites had essentially no effect on whether they supported the candidate.
What are the primary presidential communication strategies? What are examples of each?
*Winning Favor* - being accessible and arranging for creature comforts *Shaping the News Flow* - create news, restrict contacts with media to photo ops *Orchestrating coverage* - staging public ceremonies
What is a pseudo-event? What are its primary features? Why are they undertaken? What are their effects?
*an event or activity that exists for the sole purpose of the media publicity and serves little to no other function in real life. It's not news - but it's coverage.* -Without the media, nothing meaningful actually occurs at the event, so pseudo-events are considered "real" only after they are viewed through news. --If nobody showed up to take pictures of the women shaking the hand of the president, it's not a story. *Features of Pseudo-Events* A pseudo-event uses careful stage setting, scripting, and acting to create convincing images that have little to do with the underlying reality -It is not spontaneous, but has been planned, planted, or incited. -It is planted primarily for the purpose of being reported -It is ambiguous in terms of its relation to the underlying reality of the situation. --Whether it is "real" or not is less important than its newsworthiness and ability to gain favorable attention. -It is intended to be self-fulfilling
Rosser Reeves
*convinced Eisenhower that spot ads placed before and after popular TV programs would reach more viewers at lower cost.* Rosser Reeves did some of the earlier ads for aspirin and other popular products. RR approaches Dwight Eisenhower during the campaign and is like do you want to make an ad about you? The spots that followed (all of which feature either Ike himself or his cartoon likeness) were intended to portray him as a plain-speaking man of the people Stevenson, however, who disdained the use of television for campaigning, proved less skillful at handling the new medium, and refused even to appear in his own ads.
Tillman Act
*first legislation in the United States prohibiting monetary contribution to national political campaigns by corporations.* Basically banned direct corporate and bank contributions to campaigns, doesn't apply to corporate shareholders, officers.
Federal Corrupt Practices Act of 1925
-Aimed to regulate campaign finance by limiting campaign contributions and requiring public disclosure of campaign expenditures -one of the first attempts at campaign finance regulation -Did not include an enforcement mechanism, it was a weak attempt to fight corruption, and candidates found numerous loopholes in the law.
What is the Presidential Public Funding System? How does it work? What are some of the problems with it?
-As part of the 1974 Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA), Congress created a voluntary program of public financing for presidential elections that was designed to reduce the reliance on private funds and enhance the role of small individual donations in the financing of presidential campaigns. -The program offers public monies to qualified candidates, including major and minor party candidates, and national party committees to help pay the costs of a presidential campaign. -To qualify for public money, a candidate has to agree to limit the amount he or she will spend on a campaign. --The program was thus designed to help level the financial playing field in the race for the nation's highest office. --You'll only spend so much of your own money, as well as how much you can spend in every state. -->This is the tradeoff for free money. *The funding for this program, as established by the Revenue Act of 1971, comes from a tax checkoff on individual federal income tax forms.* Originally, individuals who pay income taxes could check a box on the tax form to designate $1 (or $2 if filing a joint return) to the Presidential Election Campaign Fund, an account maintained by the U.S. Treasury, for the purposes of financing the program. -In 1993, the amount of the checkoff was increased to $3 per individual or $6 per joint filer. -This is how we come up with revenue for campaign finance program. ~NOT AN EFFECTIVE AMOUNT OF MONEY~
What forms of gratification do people receive from voting?
-Complying with the social obligation to vote -Affirming one's allegiance to the political system -Affirming a partisan preference (also known as expressive voting, or voting for a candidate to express support, not to achieve any outcome) -Affirming one's importance to the political system; -Researching and making a decision for those who find politics interesting and entertaining, -This offsets the lack of tangible benefits gotten from voting. Voting is a comparison between psychic benefits and costs.
What major functions do the media perform for government officials?
-Planned events that have an element of spontaneity to them (e.g., press conference). The president gets to determine who is in the room for press conferences. -They come out, give a short speech and steers the journalists in the room to the topic they want to talk about. --*All of it is designed to manipulate the press in the way they want.* Journalists don't always play along (Partially) -A common means of handling partially controlled situations is to anticipate and prevent possible moments of spontaneity in advance. --There is a seating chart where known reporters that have a good relationship are indicated. -In a press conference, opening remarks can be written in a newsworthy style, reporters can be called on or ignored, time limits can be imposed, and stage settings can be manipulated
What resources are necessary to overcome the barriers to voting?
-Time - participation requires free time away from responsibilities (opportunity costs) -Money - participation requires money either directly or indirectly -Civic Skills - participation requires the ability to gather, process, and disseminate information. What are the skill sets that you derive from going to college? Bureaucratic skills.
What four ways do campaigns engage supporters with Internet web sites? What methods are available online to pursue each?
1.) *Opinion reinforcement*: maintain positive impressions -Online advertisements - banners, video, hyperlinks ->Post white papers & issue statements -Offer and tailor email updates and rebuttals in response to the unfolding dynamics of the race. -Encourage supporters to disseminate updates and rebuttals via their own messages to email lists to which they subscribed or to various political discussion groups or chat rooms online. 2.) *Activism*: mobilize supporters to work on behalf of the campaign -Calendars of upcoming events -Embedded and intercept advertisements soliciting volunteers -Email invitations to participate offline -Provide online flyers and literature for visitors to disseminate -Provide addresses and phone numbers of the news media with requests to contact them and get the candidate's message out -Encourage email subscribers to monitor Internet content, such as chat rooms, bulletin boards, about the candidate. -Encourage email subscribers to forward campaign emails or the site's URL address to family, friends, coworkers, etc. -Encourage email subscribers to monitor opponents' offline activities, informing campaign about opponent actions 3.) *Donating* -Set up mechanisms for credit card contributions to the campaign -Sell merchandise such as hats, t-shirts, etc. 4.) *Voter registration and Mobilization* -Send emails to every subscriber detailing polling places/times and urging them to go to the polls - by the end, multiple times a day -Urge interest groups to send emails, supplementing campaign efforts -Urge email list subscribers to forward emails to their friends and neighbors.
What are the six types of political participants? How do they differ?
1.) Inactives - People who rarely vote, do not get involved in organizations, and do not even talk much about politics (~22%). 2.) Voting specialists - People who vote but participate in little else politically. -They tend not to have much schooling or income, and to be substantially older than the average person. 3.) Campaigners - People who not only vote but like to get involved in campaign activities as well. -They are better educated than the average voter, but what distinguishes them most is their interest in the conflicts of politics, their clear party identification, and their willingness to take strong positions. 4.) Communalists - People who tend to reserve their energies for community activities of a nonpartisan kind. 5.) Parochial participants - People who do not vote and stay out of election campaigns and civic associations, but who are willing to contact local officials about specific, often personal, problems. 6.) Complete activists - People who actively promote a political party, philosophy, or issue they cares personally about.
What are the three goals of image making?
1.) Message Composition: composing a simple theme or message for the audience to use in thinking about the message. Complex messages do not sell. Example: Hillary Clinton - She spoke on an 11th grade reading level on average in her speeches (very sophisticated). This goes right over people's heads. Donald Trump's read level was 5th grade - everybody understands. Key phrase: 'cut and run'; 'Islamic fascism' 'weapons of mass destruction' How GW Bush sold the Iraq war - by simple phrases said to the American people. Repeated them constantly - easy and effective. An image is an impression of something that is anchored partly in a symbolic suggestion and partly in the feelings and assumptions that people have in response to that suggestion. 2.) Message Salience: saturating channels with this message so that it will become more salient. This means you need people to know that message and associate it with you. This is going to require to repeat that message as much as possible, on every single context. It needs to saturate the American consciousness. Media can reduce the strength of a message by not covering it, covering opponents competing messages, or exposing the messages as transparent symbols Effectiveness of presidential messages hinge on the status of the president, the popularity of the president, and the importance of the issue. 3.) Message Credibility: surrounding the message with the trappings of credibility so that it will be accepted. People will not buy the message if it doesn't have some sniff of truth. Logic - common sense. This is what Donald Trump plays off of - Hillary Clinton was being investigated the FBI, so if I say crooked Hillary that seems logical. Evidence - facts that substantiate the message. YOU DO NOT NEED FACTS. Authoritative Endorsement - backing by experts. Find somebody that America thinks is an authority figure and say they endorsed you.
Strategic Guidelines for Running a Presidential Campaign
1.) Plan far ahead -Creating an organization, devising a strategy, and raising the amount of money necessary to conduct a national campaign 2.) Develop a deep and wide organization 3.) Concentrate efforts in the early contests 4.) Raise and spend money early 5.) Design and target a distinctive appeal 6.) Monitor public opinion
What factors make for an effective political advertisement?
1.) Repetition *In all forms of advertising that uses jingles or slogans, repetition is intended to keep a word or phrase in the mind of the viewers* 2.) Syntax -Some ads, particularly older ones, favor complex, lengthy, complete sentences. This method requires more thought and attention on the part of the viewer, but often presents a more complete picture of the candidate. -Others utilize fragments or phrases, which are easily accessible to the viewer, but may not fully explain the candidate's position. -You don't need to talk in paragraphs. 3.) Positive and Negative Words *The use of "loaded" language—words with strong positive or negative emotional associations—is a long-standing tradition in political advertising.* In 1990, Newt Gingrich as House whip and chairman of GOPAC, a committee for the training of Republican candidates, he issued "Language: A Key Mechanism of Control." -The guide consisted of two lists, both of which grew out of focus group research. --"Optimistic Positive Governing Words" such as "opportunity," "challenge," "truth" and "commitment" would help Republicans define their own vision. --"Contrasting Words," or negative words, such as "crisis," "threaten," "lie," or "liberal," would help them define the opposition.
What are 527s? How do they avoid regulation by the FEC? Are they legal?
A 527 group is a type of American tax-exempt organization named after a section of the United States tax code *Because 527 organizations do not make expenditures to directly advocate the election or defeat of any candidate for federal elective office, they avoid regulation by the Federal Election Commission.* -527s are run by interest groups & used to raise money to spend on issue advocacy and voter mobilization outside of the restrictions on PACs. -The line between issue advocacy and candidate advocacy is the source of heated debate and litigation. -On September 18, 2009 the D.C Federal Appeals Court ruled that 527s have a right to raise/spend freely to influence elections as long as they don't coordinate their activities with a candidate/party.
Buckley v. Valeo
A case in which the Supreme Court of the United States upheld federal limits on campaign contributions and ruled that spending money to influence elections is a form of constitutionally protected free speech. The court also stated candidates can give unlimited amounts of money to their own campaigns.
Federal Election Commission
A commission created by the 1974 amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act to administer election reform laws. Its duties include overseeing disclosure of campaign finance information and public funding of presidential elections, and enforcing contribution limits. -Created by 1974 FECA Amendment, a bipartisan federal agency of six members that oversees the financing of national election campaigns
Realignment
A process in which a group of voters switches party allegiance, producing a long-term change in the political landscape.
equal time provision
An FCC regulation requiring broadcast media to *provide equal airtime* on any non-news programming to *all candidates running for an office.*
Soft Money
Campaign contributions unregulated by federal or state law, usually given to parties and party committees to help fund general party activities.
What changes were made to the Federal Election Campaign Act in 1974?
Campaign finance abuses in the 1972 election spurred Congress to draft additional provisions that overhauled the 1971 law and established a more comprehensive regulatory regime. They place stricter and stronger regulations on every aspect of FECA. The 1974 FECA Amendments strengthened disclosure requirements, placed stricter limits on political contributions, replaced the media spending limits with overall spending limits for federal campaigns, and limited party spending on behalf of candidates. *The most important thing is they cave and say were going to set up an agency in the federal government that will receive, monitor, and sanction people who violate the law. These amendments also created a new federal agency responsible for administering and enforcing federal campaign finance laws, the Federal Election Commission (FEC).*
What legislation undermined the power of corporations and unions? How did these institutions get around these rules?
Corporations: *The Tillman Act*: -In 1907, after being criticized for contributions he received from business interests in his 1904 campaign, President Theodore Roosevelt urged Congress to ban corporate contributions in federal elections and provide for funding from the U.S. Treasury for political parties. -He begins trust-busting, an attempt to derail these monopolies. --Why don't we have the US Treasury give a pot of money that is an equal amount of money for each side. -Congress passed the Tillman Act, which banned corporate contributions and gifts to federal candidates. *The Tillman Act did not apply to corporate officers, shareholders, or others associated with the organization.* Until 1971, virtually unlimited funds from business related sources could be legally channeled into the electoral arena through individual contributions. Unions: *Taft-Hartley Act of 1947* The Act also banned corporate/union expenditures on behalf of federal candidates (e.g., paying for campaign services or buying ads instead of giving funds to a candidate) as a way of keeping unions/businesses from circumventing direct contribution limitations. -In response to the ban on union contributions and expenditures, labor unions began to organize auxiliary committees to support federal candidates, funded by members' contributions apart from their dues. -These committees didn't use union treasury funds but operated on voluntary donations pooled from individual union members to fund voter turnout efforts and to make contributions to national parties/candidates. -Figured out a way to beat the system by organizing committees to support federal candidates - alright we're not going to use the union dues - alright all of you union guys please put money into this bucket for the candidate we want!
Express Advocacy Ads
Express advocacy ads promote the election or defeat of a candidate.
What is the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act? Why was it passed? What did it do?
FECA lifted the Tillman Act prohibition and make lawful direct business and labor investment in political activities, authorizing the establishment of Political Action Committees.**** -It establishes political action committees and changes the way we think about money in the country. --We know money will be donated, we tried to prevent them and they still beat us. So now, screw it, it exists and we recognize that and we'll set up political action committees. -Its an auxilary arm designed for the sole purpose of engaging that labor union/company. -We embrace that you do it - you can give money but we want ever one of you to set up your arm where the lobbying takes place, where the contributions will happen - we want their to be a hub of your political/financial activity that is open to the government. -We demand that you set these up for yourselves. Individuals can contribute to campaign organizations and companies/labor unions can do so as well. --Were going to set up disclosure agreements of how much you donated, etc. -It tried to set certain campaign limits on advertising, tried to prevent people from abusing television as a way to interact with voters. -It limited the amount of money a candidate could give to his or her own campaign and placed limits on the amount a candidate could spend on television advertising. -It revised the regulations for disclosing contributions and expenditures by requiring candidates, PACs, and all party committees active in federal elections to file reports on a quarterly basis. --We want this stuff to be widely transparent. --If you're involved in politics and your donating/receiving money, turn in your reports. -The many shortcomings of disclosure under the FCPA became readily apparent. There's a law and nobody was listening to it. -In 1968, under the old law, federal candidates reported $8.5 million in spending. -In 1972, under FECA, spending reported by federal candidates soared to $88.9 million.
1868 Naval Appropriations Act
Generally considered the first federal law regulating the financing of campaigns. It took aim against the assessment of government employees, banning solicitations of political contributors from naval yard employees. It had little effect as parties continued to raise contributions from other political appointees and federal employees.
McConnel v. FEC (2003)
In McConnell v. Federal Election Commission, the Supreme Court upheld by a 5-4 vote the key provisions of the law, including the soft money ban. These courts take years to resolve but our resulted from opposition to the McCain-Fein goal. Its OK to put limits on soft money. (upheld Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act 2002)
Position issues v. valence issues
Position issues divide us; we look for someone with whom we agree (ex: abortion). Valence issues are uncontroversial; we look for the best qualified candidate to solve it (ex: reducing the crime rate).
Prior to television advertising, how did candidates spread their message? Which candidates ran the first TV ads?
Previously, traditional methods were used to reach the public -Making speeches -Traveling around the country -Advertising in print and on radio *The first presidential campaign commercials appeared in the 1952 contest between Dwight D Eisenhower and Adlai Stevenson.*
Why is money so important in election campaigns?
Running for President is EXPENSIVE. -Paying campaign manager -fundraising letters need sending -TV commercials -telephone bank running The winner almost always outspends the loser.
Why does social media matter in campaigns?
Social media matters because it is unfiltered communication with mass audiences. Accumulating lots of followers on social media is another resource that candidates are competing for during the invisible primary.
McCutcheon v. FEC
Supreme Court struck down aggregate campaign contribution limits. You cannot cap how many different candidates an individual can give to. Now a bunch of rich people can donate to a bunch of different people. Court ruled that influence and access not a corruption concern.
Issue Constraint
The consistency of views that a person or group holds about different issues, e.g., the degree to which a person has consistently liberal or conservative views.
normal vote
The percentage of voters that can be expected with reasonable certainty to cast a ballot for each of the two major political parties.
What is the spoils system? What legislation undermined the spoils system? In what ways?
The rationale for the spoils system (to the winner goes the spoils - i win the presidency so i get to hire people; you wanna vote for me? You could get a job out of it, a contract out of it): -Gov't remains responsive to the people -Assured loyalty to the president -Increased party support In 1883, Congress took a broader step to end the spoils system and change the way campaigns were financed. -This is a hugely important act. This was the *Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883*. This rattles our political system. -The Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883 created a class of federal employment available only through competitive exams. -This causes the political parties to say we have to figure out a way to fill that hole in our revenue. --It said you have to be qualified for us to hire you for a job. These jobs could not be given away through the spoils system. --Instead were going to get money from businesses. The law led to an overall reduction in party reliance on government employees for political contributions, which then shifted the fundraising burden to business interests with major stakes in federal policy-making.
Unmediated Communication
Two way contact that does not pass through a channel or medium
Dealignment
Weakening of partisan preferences that points to a rejection of both major parties and a rise in the number of independents.
push poll
a polling technique in which the questions are designed to shape the respondent's opinion - telemarketers present damaging statement of opponents, pose as trying to get info about how information affects preferences
Valence Issues
an issue about which the public is united and rival candidates or political parties adopt similar positions in hopes that each will be thought to best represent those widely shared beliefs
prospective voting
basing voting decisions on well-informed opinions and consideration of the future consequences of a given vote
Condensational Symbols
broad meaning/strong emotion Have more abstract definition, open to different interpretations Ex: liberty
Mark Hanna
business mogul, financial power behind McKinley's nomination and his subsequent campaign for president; chairman of RNC. He s systemized fundraising from business community by assessing banks at .25% of capital.
What is the Commission on Presidential Debates? What does it do? What criteria does it use to select debate candidates?
job of sponsoring debates was taken over by the Commission on Presidential Debates in 1987. *The Commission on Presidential Debates (CPD) was established to ensure that debates, as a permanent part of every general election, provide the best possible information to viewers and listeners.* -Its primary purpose is to sponsor and produce debates for the United States presidential and vice presidential candidates and to undertake research and educational activities relating to the debates. -The organization, which is a nonprofit, nonpartisan corporation, sponsored all the presidential debates in from 1988 on.
pocketbook voting
political concept that sees voters casting their election ballots based on how they perceive their personal economic circumstances.
Message Salience
saturating communication channels with a message so it receives attention and is perceived as important. Effectiveness relies on popularity of candidate
retrospective voting
voting for a candidate because you like his or her past actions in office
Sociotrophic Voting
voting that regards the condition of the national economy more so than one's own personal finances
