Pompeii Exam 1

Julian Laws

"Family values" legislation issued by Augustus in late 1st Century BC. Offered incentives for marriage and childbirth (especially the production of male offspring). Penalized celibacy, made adultery both a public and private crime punishable by death in some cases. Limited marriage across social class boundaries and made "concubine" a legal condition.

Pliny the Elder

Known for compiling an encyclopedia of the ancient world. Uncle to Pliny the Younger. Died from poisonous gases after sailing towards Vesuvius during eruption and being stranded on the shore by Stabiae.

Pax deorum

Literally translated into English, this means peace of the gods. This was the goal of Roman religion, they hoped to maintain a peaceful relationship with the gods so they would have a fortunate life.

Bacchus

Roman name for the Greek God of wine/sex/wildness Dionysus. The cult of Dionysus was a prominent mystery cult into which women were initiated with the purpose of freeing themselves from social constraint. The large wall frieze at the Villa of Mysteries is thought to depict scenes of initiation into this cult.

Augury

Science of interpreting the "will of the Gods." Augurs were priests whose job it was to discern the will of the Gods through natural and supernatural signs

Lucretia

Showed the characteristics of the ideal Roman women through chastity and nobility, The rape of Lucretia by the Etruscan kings son sparks the end of the era of the the monarchy and forms the Roman republic.

Socius

Socii, the group of Italian Allies that waged war against the Roman Empire in order to gain citizenship

Spintriae

Special brothel coin/token that depicts sexual acts. Often bronze or brass. Scholars have argued that these coins were used in brothels to pay prostitutes. Others speculate that it prevented people from stealing money from prostitutes, or that it made it clear what specific acts people wanted. The exact reason for these special coins is still debated.

Vitruvius

Wrote the piece "On Architecture." Emphasised the necessity for Roman architects to be well versed in the liberal arts, as one needed to be able to account for the interactions between intellectual disciplines when designing a building. This well-roundedness was essential to producing a complete work of architecture.

Dura-Europos

also known as "Pompeii of the Desert," a city on the eastern fringe of the Roman Empire closest to Persia. It was preserved by the dry desert conditions. It has been discovered that many different religions groups lived there peacefully. It was thriving in 252 AD where Christians were actively being persecuted in Rome.

Wine

another big industry in Pompeii. lots of vineyards in the countryside allowed large production of wine. Evidence that Pompeii exported/traded its wine to Rome etc.

Rape

conventional english translation of the latin word raptio meaning abduction. It's relevance in ancient Roman history comes with the story of the Rape of the Sabine women. Rome's founder, Romulus, and his followers successfully abducted the sabine women in order to begin families

Garum

fish sauces. was a main product of Pompeii. Excavations have revealed garum's presence throughout the European world, demonstrating Pompeii's involvement/contact with trade.

Johann Joachim Winckelmann

he was a German art historian and archaeologist. He was known as the father of modern classical art history. He visited the Pompeii site in 1758 and 1762.

Adultery/Stuprum

is defined as men having extra-marital sex with a freeborn woman in good standing, or a married women with any man. Married men's relations with slaves, prostitutes, etc. did not count as adultery. The Julian Laws, put in place by Augustus, made adultery a crime. However these laws were not strongly enforced.

Forum

the center of Roman public life: the site of triumphal processions and elections; the venue for public speeches, criminal trials, and gladiatorial matches; and the nucleus of commercial affairs. Pompeian forum included the temple of Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, as well a the sacred building of the cult of the emperors

2nd Punic War

war in which Hannibal invaded Italy, displacing many Italian residents and perhaps contributing to a massive population influx at Pompeii.

Plinian eruption

A type of eruption named after Pliny the Younger's description of Vesuvius erupting in 79 CE. It features a large explosion of gases pushing upwards and carrying ash and rock with it. The ash and rock eventually fall to earth and their weight can destroy buildings.

Pyroclastic Surge

A type of eruption where hot gas and rock are ejected and behave like a fluid. The surge usually moves downhill and can reach speeds of 130 m/s. Herculaneum was buried by a pyroclastic surge which is why the papyrus scrolls were preserved.

Fresco

A type of painting where the paint is applied to wet plaster or lime so that it becomes part of the dried plaster. Homes in Pompeii were decorated with Frescos of varying complexity but often featuring similar themes.

Virgil

Ancient Roman poet from the Augustan period known for his epic The Aeneid which recounts the history of Rome from its beginning til present day. Follows Aeneas through trials and tribulations that eventually land on the shores of Italy where Rome if founded

Funeral club

Ancient Romans who could not afford their own burial site would join funeral clubs to jointly pay for a group tomb, and for mourners at their funeral. This ensured that they would be properly taken care of when they died but they had to also mourn the death of club members.

Aqueduct

Aqu/e/duct = "leader of water." Before aqueducts, Rome (and other cities) relied on local sources (wells, springs, etc.) for water. First aqueduct at Rome built in 312BC. Fed by spring and supplied cattle market. Delivered 75,500 cubic meters of water a day. By end of 3rd C. AD, Rome itself had 11 aqueducts.

Villa de Papyri

Buried in the pyroclastic surges that destroyed Herculaneum. Housed hundreds of papyrus scrolls which were charred by the heat of the pyroclastic surges but which can be read by special imaging techniques. The scrolls are important to our knowledge of ancient literature.

Sulla

Famous general Lucius Cornelius Sulla known for being a murderous dictator in the city of Rome. Between 82 and 81 BCE he placed a blood price on 500 of his wealthy opponents. In his siege of Pompeii (89 BCE) during the Social Wars he amassed great destruction on the edges of the town including taking out the House of the Vestal Virgins

Plaster cast

Giuseppe Fiorelli came up with the scientific method, when uncovering the city of Pompeii, to pump plaster into the cavities of the bodies to preserve them. He recreated the forms of plants and bodies etc that we can see today in museums.

Guiseppe Fiorelli

Head excavator/archaeologist working at Pompeii in the 1800's. He pioneered many archaeological techniques there including systematic excavation of layers within a site, and pouring plaster into the body cavities in the rock to produce casts of the bodies.

Oscans

Italic people of Campania, Italy (region surrounding Pompeii) who spoke the Oscan language. They were residents in the area before Pompeian romanisation and the migration of veteran Romans caused a cultural clash within the city's walls. The "colonists" and the original "Pompeians" were treated as separate but rival groups in the town

Isis

Most prominent of the mystery cults at Pompeii; temple rebuilt after quake of '62. The story tells of Isis resurrecting her brother Osiris and then having a child with him. This model serves as a symbol for the creation of life out of death and ultimately offers its worshippers a chance at life after death; which of course was appealing to those in the cult who may have had a less than ideal life.

Homosexuality/homoeroticism

Much different than today's concept of homosexuality, as the perception of sexual encounters between the same gender in the Roman era adhered to the penetration model. Although encounters of the same sex were common, this concept may not have existed then as it does today. Instead a more nuanced code accompanied these encounters (See penetration model).

Pliny the Younger-

Nephew of Pliny the Elder. Wrote only remaining account of the Vesuvius eruption of 79 CE. Went on to have a long political career and provide us with many written accounts of ancient life.

Stabian Baths

Oldest baths in Pompeii. Baths were important social and political meeting places. All classes allowed. Men and Women segregated. Lots of different types of baths for example "frigidarium."

Frontinus

One of the most distinguished Roman Senators of the late 1st century AD, known for his technical treatises especially Aqueducts of Rome

Freedman/libertus

People who were freed by their owners. Often there was a stigma associated with freedman. In the Roman and Pompeii social structure, freedmen were one of the lowest classes, right above slaves. Still clients of their owners. They could vote but could not run for public office, but their sons could. Cicero was the son of a freedman and was elected consul.

Prostitution

Prostitution was a great part of Pompeii and Roman culture. In Pompeii there were estimated to have been 25 brothels. Most of the Prostitutes would have been lower class women and slaves.

Penetration model

Term coined by Marilyn Skinner. Adult male citizens are superior to females, younger men, prostitutes, slaves, and those that prefer the passive role. This is confirmed by using all of these groups of people for their own pleasure. They are the penetrators while the others are the penetrated; active vs. passive. "For elite men, the basic message was that sexual penetration correlated with pleasure and power."

Social War

The autonomous tribes and city states of the southern peninsula aligned to rebel against Rome. Their motive was to attain full Roman citizenship, along with the power, protection, and right to vote that went along with it.

Bay of Naples

The bay which was home to towns such as Naples, Misenum, Herculaneum, Stabiae, Surrentum, and Pompeii. Mount Vesuvius sits roughly in the middle of it's "C" shape and Pliny the Elder sail across the bay during its eruption.

Gens-

The clan or broader family. Often included members added by second or third marriages as well as slaves.

Matrona-

The female head of a family. Did not have nearly as much power as the Paterfamilias and if the Paterfamilias died that power was passed to the next male heir which could be her son.

Domus-

The latin name for a house. The domus would be passed down through the generations to the eldest son when the Paterfamilias died. In Pompeii many houses were in one family for over a hundred years.

Paterfamilias

The male head of a family who made all decisions for the family. The Paterfamilias could discipline his own children or even kill them in some circumstances, although it would be rare to see a father/grandfather actually kill their children.

Penetration model

The penetration model aligns the penetrator with masculinity (power/dominance) and the penetrated with femininity (submissive). This complicates how we interpret sexual relations in Pompeii. Men could engage in sexual activity with other men and still have it be viewed as kosher as long as you were the man penetrating. Being penetrated prevented a man (or woman but they did not often engage in penetrating) from retaining his power/dominance and therefore his masculinity.

Haruspicy

The practice of interpreting the entrails of sacrificial animals. Haruspices would look to these entrails in an effort to decipher signs/messages from the Gods that shed light on upcoming events. The findings of haruspices would be heard and considered with great weight.

Herculaneum

The town west of Pompeii which was buried by pyroclastic surges up to 25m deep. It is home to the Villa de Papyri and escaped looting because it was so hard to find/excavate.

Necropolis

Translates to "City of the Dead," it is essentially a cemetery. In Pompeii the roads leading into the city were lined with tombs of the wealthy and some group tombs. Tombs here would often feature a bench or patio so family could sit and be with the dead.

Do ut des and Pax Deorum

Translates to "I give so that you will give." This Roman approach to religion exhibits the goal of material exchange through prayer/sacrifice. Served as a means to the Pax Deorum - (peace of the Gods) in which both the worshipped and worshippers were satisfied with each group's respective offerings.

Mt. Vesuvius-

Volcano lying on the Bay of Naples which famously erupted in 79 CE, destroying the surrounding countryside and preserving Pompeii and Herculaneum. The eruption of 79 CE featured an initial Plinian type eruption but also had pyroclastic surges.

Mystery cult

Worship of a deity that's not explicitly sanctioned or controlled by the state. System of worship involves mysteries (certain rites, beliefs, teachings) that are known only to those who are initiated into the cult. Attractive due to prospect of afterlife/relationship with deity (this contrasts to the previously held notion of an egalitarian afterlife).