PoS - 7th Semester

Steps in the survey research process

- Determine what you want to study (survey objectives) - Determine the population you want to study - Assess recourses available to you - Decide on type of survey method (mail, interview, telephone, questionairee) - Write survey questions - Design layout

critical rationalism (Popper)

- The classical rationalists believed that knowledge is acquired through reason, not through sensory perception. - Theories always come first, then observation, but a scientist should take a critical stance toward his own views - Humans have a dogmatic thinking of expecting regularities everywhere, by adopting a critical stance, they can suppress these instinctual expectations - The theory needs to be tested empirically

multi-method approach

-Uses different methods to address the same research question -Operationalizes the independent and dependent variable(s) in different ways - Situationalists use multi-method approach, either just qualitative or quantitative

Stages of Conducting an applied research

1. Definition > 2. Design/Plan > 3.Implementation > 4. Reporting - Follow up

The Kuhn Cycle

1. Normal Science 2. Model Drift 3. Model Crisis 4. Model Revolution 5. Paradigm Change

The problem solving circle

1. Problem Mess > 2. Problem Definition > 3. Analysis and Diagnosis > 4. Plan of Action > 5. Intervention > 6. Evaluation

Focus group technique

1. The focus group technique allows you to bring a selected number of people together to discuss the issues that your investigation centres on. For example, if a company is about to introduce a new product into a particular market and is not sure about how consumers will respond to the product and marketing strategies, the company may ask you to conduct a focus group study to gain insights into potential consumer perception.

Types of Triangulation

1. Theoretical triangulation: Students are very often encouraged to engage in theoretical triangulation by combining theories that (together) provide a more useful understanding of the phenomenon they choose to investigate. 2. Data triangulation is a data collection strategy that derives data from multiple sources or samples. A business student who collects data from different segments of consumers and channel members is invariably engaged in data triangulation. In this regard, many eclectic models that guide researchers to seek information about different dimensions of a social phenomenon may be said to motivate the adoption of data triangulation. 3. Investigator triangulation refers to the use of more than one investigator (i.e., observer, interviewer) or coder and data analyst in a single study. The collected data is considered more credible when those collecting the data have not had prior discussions with each other about the subject of investigation or collaborated in any other way during the data collection process. 4. Methodological triangulation - has two forms within-method triangulation and between method. When the researcher uses different techniques within the same method it is a within-method triangulation. When different methods are employed in the same research (e.g. quantitative and qualitative methods) it is labled between-method triangulation. Some researchers use the term multiple triangulation to describe research strategies that use two or more of the categories of triangulation listed above.

Gergen's four basic assumptions

1. There is no necessary correlation between the world and our concepts of the world. The Metaphoricity of Language: According to the social constructivists, language is metaphorical because it does not reflect the world but expresses something other than the world "in itself". "I am angry" is a literal phrase. It refers directly to reality; however, "I am boiling with anger" is a metaphor. 2. Our descriptions of reality originate from the social relations we are part of Our understanding and description of the world is not individual but collective Without a collective understanding of the authority of the police force, it is just a troop of people wearing the same clothes. Without a common understanding of libraries, they are just buildings containing an awful lot of paper. Our thoughts, emotions, and so forth differ completely from the physical world; however, according to social constructivism both "thoughts" and "the physical world" are made from the same material: language, so there is no division between the two. There is, in short, nothing "private" about our personality. 3. We shape our future through our understanding of the world. When our identity is unconsciously constructed according to a conventional pattern, it becomes nearly impossible to change anything. 4. Reflecting on our understanding of the world is vital for our future well-being Identity politics is concerned with changing the way that oppressed groups are talked about in society, because their oppression is reproduced in our way of speaking about them. For instance, if prostitutes are always depicted as victims, or if Muslims are always equated with fundamentalism, the social marginalization of these groups is reproduced. The idea is that by changing our language, we can strengthen the life conditions and self-respect of oppressed groups by increasing the surrounding society's respect for them.

A case study

A case study strategy has the capacity to generate insights from intensive and in-depth research into the study of a phenomenon in its real-life context, leading to rich, empirical descriptions and the development of theory (Yin 2018). They can be designed to identify what is happening and why, and to understand the effects of the situation and implications for action; often using both qualitative and quantitative data from a range of sources.

grand theory

A grand theory is defined as an all-inclusive unified theory that seeks to explain social behaviour, social organization, and social change in human experience. For example, grand theory in economics defines the laws of scarcity and needs as well as the relationship between demand, supply, and pricing. Feminism, Marxism, and democracy are also grand theories in political science with cross disciplinary implications for other social science disciplines.

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is your best, educated guess of what the answer is to a given problem. • It is not a shot in the dark - instead, it should be informed by background information, preliminary data analyses, and input from firm experts. The hypothesis should be considered a living document that is constantly revised and continuously improved as it is tested and new information and/or insights come to light. • It is not permanent and it is not the final answer. • It is definitely not thinking that you know the answer at the beginning of a client engagement - that attitude is what gives consultants a bad name and creates perceptions that they are arrogant know-it-alls. The hypothesis is used to inform what data needs to be collected, analyses will be performed, and insights must be gained in order to arrive at a final answer.

Logic Trees and Issue Trees

A logic tree is a hierarchical listing of all the components of a problem Issue Trees are used to solve problems by breaking them down into their component parts. That makes them particularly useful for addressing large, complicated problems.

Kuhn's Paradigm

A paradigm consists of exemplars and a disciplinary matrix, and is the frame of understanding that characterizes a particular scientific discipline (e.g., physics, chemistry, economics). According to Kuhn, a scientific paradigm constitutes a frame of understanding, which provides sense and direction in the work of scientists.

Logical Positivism

A philosophy that sees meaning in only those beliefs that can be empirically proven, and that therefore rejects most of the concerns of traditional philosophy, from the existence of God to the meaning of happiness, as nonsense. The reinvention of positivism as a logically stringent theory, the central element of which is the definition of an empiricist criterion of linguistic meaningfulness: only sentences that can be traced back to simple empirical observations (which can be either true or false) are meaningful.

Purist

A purist is one who focuses primarily on the correctness of a solution. They typically seek a systematic, comprehensive, and verifiable design. A pragmatist, however, favors practical, expedient solutions. They are okay with a solution so long as it works.

Syllogism

A syllogism is a type of logical reasoning where the conclusion is gotten from two linked premises. Here's an example: An apple is a fruit. All fruit is good. Therefore apples are good.

Metatheories

A theory of theories that describes what aspect of the social world we can and should theorize about, how theorizing should proceed, what should count as knowledge about the social world, and how theory should be used to guide social action. Three types are ontology, epistemology, and axiology. they serve the following purposes: 1. clarifying the general assumptions underlying a subject matter; 2. specifying the important problems faced in undertaking investigations; 3. and specifying what are acceptable methods.

Objective Spirit

According to Dilthey, the object of the human and social sciences is the lived experience of human beings, which can be found objectified in the social sphere in the shape of, for instance, texts, buildings, or music.

Rationalism (Rene Descartes)

All knowledge is acquired only through reason and not through the senses. Human beings must therefore be born with certain ideas; for example, with a disposition for logical thought. Rationalists believe, therefore, that deduction is the only way of procuring true knowledge. For classical rationalists deduction means—for example in mathematics—drawing conclusions from simple, general principles regarded as self-evident truths, to arrive at more complex claims. Logical arguments are also based on deduction.

Empiricism

All knowledge is acquired through sensory experience; human beings have no innate ideas; and the observations of the sciences precede and are independent from theories.. All the knowledge we "write down on the paper" throughout our lives derives from our sensory experience of reality. It is, of course, this experience that the sciences systematize through observations and experiments. According to many of the empiricists, this is done by way of the inductive method, which means that the scientist constructs a general theory from an array of separate observations.

An archival research strategy

An archival research strategy uses manuscripts, documents, administrative records, objects, sound and audio-visual materials held in archives, special collections and other repositories as the main sources of data.

Basic vs. Applied Research

Basic Research Purpose • Expand knowledge of processes of business and management • Results in universal principles relating to the process and its relationship to outcomes • Findings of significance and value to society Context • Undertaken by people based in universities • Choice of topic and objectives determined by the researcher • Flexible time scales Applied Research Purpose • Improve understanding of particular business or management problem • Results in solution to problem • New knowledge limited to problem • Findings of practical relevance and value to manager(s) in organization(s) Context • Undertaken by people based in a variety of settings including organizations and universities • Objectives negotiated with the originator • Tight time scales

types of mixed methods

Concurrent, Sequential exploratory, Sequential Explanatory, Sequential multiphase

Possible outcomes of data collection

Corroboration: The 'same results' are derived from both qualitative and quantitative methods. Elaboration: The qualitative data analysis exemplifies how the quantitative findings apply in particular cases. Complementarity: The qualitative and quantitative results differ but together they generate insights. Contradiction: Where qualitative data and quantitative findings conflict.

biased data

Data that have been distorted because of the way they were collected. You may be able to reduce the bias when you deliberately record your observations frequently and reflect on what you observe. You must not rely too much on your memory. Record your observations at the end of the day or week. If you serve as an intern with an organisation, participant observation becomes one of the useful data collection techniques you must consider. Furthermore, as a researcher, you cannot be everywhere at all times. What you observe is therefore a snapshot and partial evidence of what actually happens. You must therefore be careful in making generalizations on the basis of your observations.

Deontology (Kant)

Deontology states that an act that is not good morally can lead to something good, such as shooting the intruder (killing is wrong) to protect your family (protecting them is right).

Weaknesses of Comte's positivism

Distinguishing between science and metaphysics causes him problems, as his own description of science is, to a great extent, metaphysical. This applies, for instance, to his theory about history, as absolute historical laws of development cannot be observed in nature. Because of this and similar flaws, a large number of scientists and philosophers attempted to rethink positivism and establish a stronger, more stringent version, which goes under the name logical positivism.

Empirical observation

Empirical observation refers to the method of acquiring knowledge directly through observation and experience, rather than through reasoning, speculation, or deduction alone. This method is grounded in the empirical approach, a fundamental aspect of the scientific method, which emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas.

The Problem of Induction:

Even if all our observations of the world have so far yielded the same result, we can never be certain that our next observation will not produce a different result. Observations cannot be used to prove a theory, and only logic and maths are able to prove propositions, precisely because these sciences are not based on observations! From a purely logical point of view, previous observations can never reveal what future studies will show. Although biologists have never observed chimpanzees outside of Africa, this does not guarantee that one might not be found in India one day. Induction can therefore not provide us with certain knowledge. In philosophy of science, this is what is called the problem of induction, and it has been debated since the eighteenth century.

Deduction

For the classical rationalists, deduction is the scientific methodological view that true knowledge is reached through logical conclusions drawn from indisputable, general principles. Deduction thus constitutes a way of obtaining knowledge, which does not necessarily require observations of reality. An example can be found in mathematics, where theorems are proven on the basis of axioms. Deduction reasons from general to more specific (Top-down approach). For example, you start with theory and then you gain an outcome. All balls in the box are black. These balls are from the box. These balls are black.

What is a Theory?

In social science, theories may be defined as series of systematic inter-related statements or generalisations that explain and/or anticipate developments in a specific context or phenomenon. Such theories are described in such a way that scientific tests should be able to provide empirical support for, or empirically contradict ("falsify") it.

Three approaches to theory development

Induction, Deduction, Abduction - Building on these three approaches to theory development, if your research starts with theory, often developed from your reading of the academic literature, and you design a research strategy to test the theory, you are using a deductive approach. - Conversely, if your research starts by collecting data to explore a phenomenon and you generate or build theory (often in the form of a conceptual framework), then you are using an inductive approach. - Where you are collecting data to explore a phenomenon, identify themes and explain patterns, to generate a new or modify an existing theory that you subsequently test through additional data collection, you are using an abductive approach.

concept of language games

Language Games: Wittgenstein's term for different linguistic contexts of usage that provide words and sentences with meaning. Flirting with a fellow student is one type of language game; presenting political arguments is another; and making small talk at a party is yet a third one. These different games are what provide language with meaning, not the words in themselves (they may recur in each of the three contexts).

Four levels of understanding of discussion in a methodology chapter

Level 1: The Philosophical and Theoretical Level Ontology - describe the nature of what the researcher seeks to know 'knowable or reality'. Ontology also relates to how researchers see the relationship between human beings and their environment (i.e., a researcher's view of human nature). Level 2: Epistemological Level Epistemology is a term that describes the nature of knowledge and the means of knowing (i.e., "how we know what we know" or what we conceive as a truth). Level 3: Methodological Approach Methodology describes the reasons underlying the choice and use of specific methods in the research process (i.e., how you may go about gaining the knowledge you desire). Level 4: Methods and Techniques This level requires you to describe the specific data collection methods and techniques you adopt in your study. You must also inform your readers about the problems you faced in the data collection process and how you solved these problems.

Quantitative data collection

Measurable, using only factual content. Quantitative methods are generally less flexible than qualitative methods. There are standardised procedures and techniques for collecting, organising, and analysing the data.

Four Levels of Theory

Metatheories Grand theories Midrange theories Microtheories

Mixed methods

Mixed methods research designs integrate the use of quantitative and qualitative data collection procedures and analysis techniques in the same research project, being often associated with pragmatism and critical realism. Researchers using mixed methods have a pluralist view of research methodology. They believe that flexibility in selection and use of methods (both quantitative and qualitative) is legitimate and that researchers should be tolerant of each other's preferred methods even when they differ from their own. These views can be contrasted with the unitarist view; there is, or should be, one legitimate method that should be followed.

cross-sectional studies

Most research projects undertaken for academic courses are necessarily time-constrained. Cross-sectional studies can use quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods research designs and a correspondingly wide variety of strategies. They may be using a survey strategy and a quantitative design to describe the incidence of a phenomenon such as the IT skills possessed by managers in one organisation at a given point in time.

Narrative Inquiry

Narrative Inquiry means collecting the experiences of participants as whole accounts, or reconstructing their experiences into narratives.

Objectivism vs Subjectivism

Objectivism: - Real - External, one true reality - Adopting assumptions from facts - Numbers, measurable - Observable phenomena - Value-free Subjectivism: - Socially constructed - Multiple realities - Chaos - Opinions - Adopt assumption of the arts and humanities - Written, spoken and visual account - Value - bond

Theory-Independence

Observations must not be governed by theories, but must be completely unbiased. Furthermore, it is crucial that the researcher does not let observations be distorted by prejudice or by expectations regarding the results of the observations. They must be theory independent to ensure that nature "speaks for itself".

Quality criteria for problem-solving projects

Performance-focused means that the actual performance improvement is the primary objective of the project and that analysis and design are 'just' means to that end. Design-oriented means that the activities during the project are controlled through a sound project plan, as opposed to improvisation. Design-oriented also means, of course, that much effort is put into the design of the solution (the object design) and into the accompanying change process, as opposed to solving the problem through improvisation. Theory-based means that one uses valid, state-of-the-art knowledge for the analysis and design activities and that one is aware of the quality of the knowledge to be used (see Chapter 12). Re-inventing the wheel is not professional, and neither is designing solutions for transport problems without wheels if wheels would do the job best. Finally, a theory-based approach to business problem-solving also means that one is critical in the use of literature. The cornerstone of the justification is an explanation of why the student thinks the designed solution will solve the problem. Furthermore, the student has to prepare a cost-benefit analysis, as the solution may solve the problem but may also be too expensive to implement. Client-centred, finally, means that one deals respectfully with the client system as a whole. The client system consists of the principal, the problem owner, users of the proposed system (or people working in the redesigned business system) and other stakeholders.

Falsificationsim

Popper's theory of what separates science from pseudo-science; a hypothesis is scientific if and only if it has the potential to be refuted by some possible observation

Behaviourism

Positivism's programme for the human and social sciences where the study of human beings becomes the study of their behaviour, not their thoughts and feelings.

Primary Data Collection

Primary data collection is the process of gathering data through surveys, interviews, or experiments. A typical example of primary data is household surveys.

Qualitative interviews

Qualitative interviewing seeks to gain an insight into the lived experiences of the person you are interviewing. It provides you with the opportunity to listen to what respondents themselves say about issues that you investigate in their own words. One of the most popular techniques in qualitative interviewing is the critical incident technique (CIT). This is a useful technique in gaining insights into people's experiences and the impact of such experiences on their perceptions and behaviours.

Normal Science (Kuhn)

Research carried out within the framework of a commonly acknowledged paradigm.

The Research Onion

Research onion as a way of depicting the issues underlying your choice of data collection method or methods and peeled away the outer two layers - research philosophy and approach to theory development. Your research design is the overall plan for your research project. The tactics, through which you will bring your plan to fruition, are precisely how you will collect and analyse the data (the centre of the research onion).

Secondary data collection

Secondary data refers to data that is collected by someone other than the primary user.

Situationists vs. Pragmatist

Situationilist: Focus on research methods Maintain that both approaches have value. Feel that each method has usefulness in a specific situation or phase of the research process. Pragmatist: Argue for the integration of methods in a single study. Often hold that a false difference exists between these two types of data. The trick is to tap the relative strengths and to make the most efficient use of both in attempting to understand the phenomena. Pragmatics can combine both, positivist and interpretivism positions within the scope of a single research according to the nature of the research question. One can say that there are simply nuanced differences between the situationist and the pragmatist researcher, but while the pragmatist may be more inclined to use a combination of perspectives in a given project, the situationist is more likely to select one perspective (without rejecting a combined approach). The purist, on the other hand, rejects combinations under all circumstances.

BPS Project

The BPS project follows the logic of the problem-solving cycle, here in the version of the regulative cycle.

Regulative cycle

The BPS project follows the logic of the problem-solving cycle, here in the version of the regulative cycle. gives the basic process of this regulative cycle. Stages: 1. problem mess 2. problem definition 3. analysis and diagnosis 4. plan of action 5. intervention 6. evaluation The problem definition step drives the whole BPS project. It is based on an agreement between the principal of the project and the student (plus the university supervisors) The problem should be large enough that its solution contributes significantly to performance and small enough to be solved within the prevailing constraints in time and effort. Finally, the problem definition is not always static. On the basis of further analysis and design the problem may prove to be more difficult to solve than anticipated, so it may be advisable to scope it down. Alternatively, if the project shows that there is more potential for improvement than anticipated, so one might want to enlarge the scope of the problem. The analysis and diagnosis step is the analytical part of the project. For this step most of the traditional methods of business research - be they quantitative or qualitative - can be used. During the plan of action step one designs the solution for the problem and the associated change plan. For this one can use valid knowledge from descriptive research. The most powerful support, however, can be given by field-tested and grounded technological rules or solution concepts, developed by business research on the basis of the principles of design science research. During the intervention step roles and work processes are changed on the basis of the solution design and change plan. Usually the student has left the company by then. As discussed above, the next step is the process of learning to work within the new system and to realize the intended performance improvement - a process needing time, effort and management attention. Therefore it is good to plan a formal evaluation at a point in time, when one expects most of the learning to have been achieved, to see what still has to be done to realize the full potential of the new system.

Identity Politics

The attempt to improve the conditions of oppressed social groups by problematizing the way in which oppression is reproduced in our way of speaking about these groups.

Virtue Ethics

The ethical theory that views ethics as being a question of a person's character traits (virtues); i.e., the actions and dispositions of a person viewed over a longer period of time, in principle throughout an entire life. Today the concept of virtue has a slightly outdated ring to it, but undeservedly so. In Aristotle's view, virtues are simply the traits a person must possess in order to live a good life, which, per definition, is a life in society. In other words, these virtues are the features required to live a good life in the company of other people.

A paradigm contains two elements:

The first is a disciplinary matrix everything that unites scientists and researchers as a social group; for example, the textbooks they have all read, the education they have all completed, and the common journals in which their work is published. Disciplinary Matrix: The rules, conventions, and common principles that unite the members of a specific scientific community. Exemplars: These are fundamental examples of the validity of the paradigm. By encountering exemplars in textbooks and teaching, students are taught to view the world in the same way as established research within the paradigm. Consider medical science. To the untrained eye, two x-rays look completely identical; however, the doctor will immediately notice the tiny spot on one of the x-rays, indicating a malignant dysplasia.

Prejudices

The ideas we have of, for example, a book, which are a result of cultural and historical tradition. In our reading we test our prejudices and are therefore able to acquire true understanding; however, prejudice is a precondition for this process. The handing down of prejudices is what makes understanding possible. For instance, many people have an idea (a prejudice) of what Hamlet is about, even though they have never read or seen the play. In itself prejudice is therefore not a bad thing, but it is, of course, crucial to be aware of personal prejudices when working with a text, and to correct them when they turn out to be wrong.

Purpose of problem solving

The main goal of business problem solving projects is to: "[...] improve the performance of a business system, department or a company on one or more criteria"

Induction

The methodological view that scientific theories are solely the sum of a number of separate observations; knowledge begins with observation; and it must be possible to trace any theory back to sensory data. Induction reasons from specific observations to broader generalisations (Bottom up approach). For example: These balls are from the box. These ball are black. All balls in the box are black.

research project

The objective of a research project is to develop knowledge. The purpose of research is to solve a knowledge problem in the immaterial world of knowledge.

Realism

The opposite of antirealism, this is the view that the world exists independently of our perception of it and that the sciences are meant to uncover the world in itself, and not just collect our sensory experiences. This is a crucial point because when one theory proves wrong, we never start from scratch. We learn from the flaws of the first theory and put forward a new one, which takes into account what nature previously disproved. For this reason, science is a meaningful pursuit, not because it arrives at the definitive truth but because we continue to learn more about the world.

Falsificationism

The opposite of verificationism, this is the view that the sciences do not seek to prove but rather to disprove their theories; i.e., the sciences consist of critically testing hypotheses. He cannot prove the theory but he can test it to make sure it is valid. This is done by subjecting the theory to any tests that may expose its incorrectness. If the theory survives these tests, it can be considered reliable. It is important to note that a theory does not cease to be scientific once falsified (just like an unscientific theory does not become scientific because it is true). It ceases to be valid. Like Astrology, for example.

The problem of verification

The problem of verification - the problem is that proof of a theory can always be found if proof is what you are looking for.

Action Research strategy

The purpose of an Action Research strategy is to promote organisational learning to produce practical outcomes through identifying issues, planning action, taking action and evaluating action. The process of Action Research is both emergent and iterative. An Action Research strategy commences within a specific context and with a research question but because it works through several stages or iterations the focus of the question may change as the research develops.

Hermeneutics

The question is no longer What is science? because science can be many different things depending on its subject matter. The fundamental question of hermeneutics is What is understanding? because, in this view, the human and social sciences aim at achieving understanding. The human and social sciences are not about explaining, but about understanding. Hermeneutics is relevant for understanding all types of human activity and all forms of cultural products: architecture, literature, archaeology, economics, marketing, et cetera. People were already working with hermeneutics in the Middle Ages, as it was the task of the theologians to understand the Bible in the correct way.

Challenges of Qualitative Interview?

The question of the validity of your investigations. How can you be sure that you have not misunderstood what you have observed, or have provided a misinterpretation of what you have been told by your respondents? Can you be absolutely sure that those you interview are honest in their narrations? Qualitative studies are usually evaluated on the basis of: 1) trustworthiness and 2) authenticity. Trustworthiness is assessed in terms of the following dimensions: Credibility: This examines the extent to which you have followed the accepted procedures in conducting qualitative investigations. Usually, you must send your interview transcripts to your respondents for them to confirm that you have correctly understood what they have told you. This is referred to as respondent validation. Transferability: This requires you to provide a detailed account of the context within which your study has been conducted. Dependability: This requires that you keep detailed records of all phases of the research process: problem formulation, selection of research participants, fieldwork notes interview transcripts, etcetera. These materials will provide evidence that you have done the study in the prescribed manner. Confirmability: This requirement adds further weight to the three previous criteria of trustworthiness. It requires you to demonstrate that you have acted in good faith all along in the research process.

Antirealism

The sciences are the systematization of sensory perceptions, not theories of a reality "underlying" sensory perceptions. Positivism and antirealism are thereby intrinsically linked. Like the empiricists, the positivists claim that the senses are the only source of true knowledge and, needless to say, our senses do not give us access to the way things are in themselves, independent of our senses.

Cumulative Science

The sciences develop through the constant accumulation of knowledge, and knowledge derives from observations and experiments.

Qualitative Methods

The term qualitative method is generally used to represent a wide variety of data collection methods. These include ethnography, participant observation, in-depth interviewing, and conversational inter-viewing.

Three used techniques in qualitative data collection?

The three commonly used techniques in qualitative data collection are: Focus groups Observations Qualitative interviews

Microtheories

Theoretical perspectives aimed at understanding social life at the intimate level of individuals and their interactions.They focus on individuals or small groups located in specific contexts. They can, however, constitute essential inputs in the generation of new perspectives and theory development.

Unitarist

There is, or should be, one legitimate method that should be followed.

Pluralist

They believe that flexibility in selection and use of methods (both quantitative and qualitative) is legitimate and that researchers should be tolerant of each other's preferred methods even when they differ from their own.

hermeneutic circle

This is the view that all understanding is contextual; i.e., we understand the whole on the basis of its constituent parts, but at the same time we understand the parts because they are elements of this whole. When reading a book, for example, we may be reading individual words and sentences, but we understand these because we know of the greater context which they are part of. Depending on whether they appear in fiction or academic literature these same words and sentences can have very different meanings. Understanding is therefore circular. We understand the entirety of a text because of its words and we understand the words because of the text in its entirety.

Re-experiencing

To put oneself in the place of the author, viewing the world through his eyes. According to Dilthey, this characterizes true understanding. Understanding is first complete when we are able to put ourselves in the author's place and view the world as he does. The goal of hermeneutic interpretation is this re-experience, which fuses the frames of understanding of the interpreter and author. This is true understanding German philosopher, Hans-Georg Gadamer He rejects the view that hermeneutics is a method and, at the same time, criticizes Dilthey's view of understanding as re-experience.

Triangulation

Triangulation involves using more than one source of data and method of collection to confirm the validity, credibility or authenticity of research data, analysis and interpretation. This necessitates using a multi-method quantitative study, multi-method qualitative study or a mixed methods study

Life form

We are constantly moving from one language game to another. One might say, therefore, that we live through these games. Wittgenstein expresses this by means of his concept of life form: the games we partake in determine how we live. We shape our way of living through the language games we partake in, resulting in different forms of life.

The categorical imperative

We must always act in such a way that the consequences would be acceptable if all others were to act in the same way. That is to say, we must act as if we were legislators or role models for the entire world! The Categorical Imperative: Kant's moral law. The point of this law is that we must always act in such a way that we can accept the consequences that would occur if all others were to act in the same way. EXAMPLE: I could really use ten million dollars and I know this amount can be found in the bank. My first impulse is therefore to rob the bank; however, according to Kant, I ought to stop to ask myself whether it would be a good idea that everyone did the same thing that I was considering doing. In this case, the consequences would be immeasurable.

The Practical Imperative

We must always treat other people with respect and not merely as objects, or as a tool to satisfy our own needs. Kant calls this rule the practical imperative, and together with the categorical imperative it constitutes his moral law; however, what does it mean in practice? The Practical Imperative: Understanding the categorical imperative means never using other human beings purely as a means to achieving your own goals, but always respecting them as an end in themselves; i.e., treating them as persons with the same rights and dignity as yourself.

Abduction

Where you are collecting data to explore a phenomenon, identify themes and explain patterns, to generate a new or modify an existing theory that you subsequently test through additional data collection, you are using an abductive approach- Critical realism Postmodernism Pragmatism Abduction reasons from effects to causes. All balls in the box are black. These balls are black. These balls are from the box.

Kant's Ethics of disposition

Whereas the utilitarians focus on the good or bad consequences of an action, Kant therefore considers the intentions underlying the action. This is why his moral philosophy is known as ethics of disposition. In his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant seeks to study which ethics can be derived from reason. This also requires him to find out what characterizes good will. Ethics of Disposition: The ethical theory that holds that the moral qualities of an action are determined by the motives of the moral agent.

Metaphysics

Worldviews that are not based on empirical observation. Examples include: ethics and morality, ideas on human nature, political ideology, and classical philosophy.

midrange theory

a theory that attempts to predict how certain social institutions tend to function. It consists of limited sets of assumptions from which specific hypotheses are logically derived and confirmed by empirical investigation

grounded theory

an inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories

Five different types of theories related to social constructivism

constructivism, radical constructivism, social constructionism, social constructivism, and sociological constructionism.

PERFORMANCE-FOCUSED in BPS

means that the actual performance improvement is the primary objective of the project and that analysis and design are 'just' means to that end. The BPS project is not a purely intellectual exercise but a real- world activity.

Two types of observer

nonparticipant and participant. If you are a nonparticipant observer, it means that you visit the people you observe but do not take part in their daily activities. This makes you a "stranger" to the environment and therefore you "intrude" on the situation that you observe. Participant observation studies, on the other hand, require you to become an active participant in the environment in which the study is conducted. You will do exactly what those you observe do and record your observations in the process. You will usually engage in in formal conversations with other participants as part of the data collection process.

Popper's asymmetry thesis

only one observation is needed to disprove a scientific theory, but due to the problem of induction, even endless amounts of observation could never prove a theory. Another consequence is that the sciences' very purpose is to test theories to disprove (falsify) them. Observations DO serve a purpose: to disprove theories

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period. The main strength of longitudinal research is its capacity to study change and development.

Epistemology

study of knowledge. How can we know what we know? • What is considered acceptable knowledge? • What constitutes good quality data? • What kinds of contributions to knowledge can be made?

Axiology

study of value - What is the role of values in research? - Should we try to be morally neutral when we do research, or should we let our values shape research? How should we deal with the values of research participants?

Positivism (Auguste Comte)

the belief that knowledge should be derived from scientific observation. A school of thought that is based upon classical empiricism. Scientific knowledge is acquired through the systematic gathering of empirical data and only theories derived from such data can be considered scientific.

Ontology

the branch of metaphysics dealing with the nature of being. - What is the nature of reality? - What is the world like?

Ethnography

the method by which researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have. Ethnographers study people in groups, who interact with one another and share the same space, whether this is at street level, within a work group, in an organisation or within a society.

Verificationism

the only things we can rightly claim to KNOW as true are things we can verify with 100% accuracy using logic or sensory experience. Sciences must seek to prove their theories through observations. Scientific (i.e., true) theories are verifiable theories. When sufficient material has been collected, the scientist can sum up the observations and establish a theory. This theory will subsequently be substantiated by additional observations. According to some positivists, deduction can be employed during this stage of the study to pinpoint exactly what the researcher is to look for. The purpose of these supplementary observations is to prove theories, as scientific theories are characterized by their being verifiable. In other words, the goal of the sciences, as well as its criterion of truth, is verification It is crucial to understand that, according to the positivists, knowledge derived from scientific observation is objectively true.

Utilitarianism/Consequentialism

the outcomes of our actions determine whether our decisions are ethical; happiness should be maximized. The ethical theory holds that the action that is morally right is the one that results in the greatest possible utility (or greatest possible happiness) for the greatest number of people. Don't adopt utilitarianism because it says it doesn't matter if you have to kill some employees to get the information you need as long as you improve the process in the company. Consequentialism: The view that the moral quality of an action is determined solely on the basis of its outcome. This view is primarily represented by utilitarianism. In other words, the goal of utilitarianism is not the happiness of the individual, but the total amount of happiness in the entire population.

Problem of Demarcation

the philosophical problem of determining what types of hypotheses should be considered scientific and what types should be considered pseudoscientific or non-scientific. For the positivists, the sciences were the only source of knowledge, whereas metaphysics and religion were considered meaningless. Popper completely disagrees with this. Unscientific theories can quite easily be true, just as scientific theories can prove false. Unscientific theories can even be greatly meaningful; for example, most people consider the moral prohibition against killing to make perfectly good sense. e.g., as over time astrology developed into astronomy.

Ethics

the principles of right and wrong that guide an individual in making decisions

Theology

the study of religion and God

Observations in qualitative data

you may be able to observe what people are doing and through these observations make inferences about their attitudes, based on behaviours that they exhibit. But since you may be wrong in your inferences and evaluations, it is a common practice to engage in dialogue with those you observe (i.e. conduct qualitative interviews with those under observation) in order to check the accuracy of your inferences.