(PP) Chapter 9

involves the attempted maintenance of societal good by the expression of physical behavior grounded in the pursuit of socially valued goals (e.g., a firefighter saving a child from a burning building)

Physical courage

Riegel (1973) built on Piaget's work and considered a form of postformal operational thinking referred to as the?

dialectical operations stage or, more simply, wisdom.

provided a code of conduct for many within the United States.

the "Hemingway code" of living a life characterized by strength, knowledge, and courage

Physical courage has evolved slowly from?

the Greek andreia, the military courage of the brave soldier in ancient Greece.

the soundest of the explicit theories includes?

the balance theory of wisdom (Sternberg, 1998a) and the Berlin wisdom paradigm

Jack Rachman's research on courage stemmed from his realization that courage was?

the mirror image of fear.

Jung, with his interests in family-of-origin issues, proposed that wisdom develops through?

the resolution of psychic conflicts pertaining to individuating from the family unit.

In his stage theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget (1932) describes the qualitatively different kinds of thinking that occur during childhood and adulthood. Children typically move from?

the sensorimotor stage to the preoperational stage to the concrete operations stage during the first 12 years of life.

Aristotle added to Robinson's (1990) list of types of wisdom by describing

theoretikes

Aristotle described this as the theoretical thought and knowledge devoted to truth; he also distinguished it from?

theoretikes; and distinguishing it from phronesis (practical wisdom

Finfgeld (1998) determined that courage involves becoming aware of and accepting the?

threat of a long-term health condition, solving any related problems through the use of insight, and developing enhanced sensitivities to oneself and others

Courageous behaviors follow the identification of a

threat, after which there is a shift away from defining the problem as an insurmountable obstacle (Finfgeld 1995, 1998).

logical argumentation in pursuit of truth or reality

dialectical operations

the wisdom experts believe that?

"[Wisdom] is uniquely human; a form of advanced cognitive and emotional development that is experience driven; a personal quality, albeit a rare one, that can be learned, increases with age, can be measured and is not likely to be enhanced by medication" (Jeste et al., 2010, p. 668)

St. Ambrose believed that?

"fortitude without justice is a level of evil" (cited in Pieper, 1966, p. 125)

According to Baltes, such expertise of factual and procedural knowledge requires people to ?...; and to ?...

"know what" (i.e., have knowledge about topics such as human nature and development, individual differences, social relations and norms, etc.); "know how" (i.e., be able to develop strategies for dealing with problems and giving advice, resolving life conflicts, and planning for and overcoming obstacles that could thwart problem resolution).

researchers define life longings as?

"the recurring strong feelings that life is incomplete or imperfect, coupled with a desire for ideal (utopian), alternative states and experiences of life" (Scheibe, Kunzmann, & Baltes, 2009, p. 176).

Monika Ardelt (2000), a researcher who has studied aging, measured what she referred to as the? (the berkeley guidance project)

"timeless and universal knowledge of wisdom" (p. 71).

In regards to wisdom being communicated in our everyday language, Baltes (1993) analyzed cultural-historical and philosophical writings and found that wisdom?

(1) addresses important/difficult matters of life (2) involves special or superior knowledge, judgment, and advice (3) reflects knowledge with extraordinary scope, depth, and balance applicable to specific life situations (4) is well intended and combines mind and virtue (5) is very difficult to achieve but easily recognized.

Clayton had people rate similarities between pairs of words believed to be associated with wisdom (empathic, experienced, intelligent, introspective, intuitive, knowledgeable, observant). Through a statistical procedure known as multidimensional scaling, she identified three dimensions of the construct of wisdom. What were they?

(1) affective (empathy and compassion) (2) reflective (intuition and introspection) (3) cognitive (experience and intelligence).

three factors were found to be contained within implicit definitions of Asian participants...

(1) altruism, (2) determination, and (3) serenity

Holliday and Chandler (1986) determined that five factors underlie wisdom.

(1) exceptional understanding (2) judgment and communication skills (3) general competence (4) interpersonal skills (5) social unobtrusiveness.

Robinson's (1990) review of early Western classical dialogues revealed three distinct conceptualizations of wisdom: what were they?

(1) that found in persons seeking a contemplative life (the Greek term sophia); (2) that of a practical nature, as displayed by great statesmen (phronesis); 3) scientific understanding (episteme).

In a later study, Sternberg (1985) asked 40 college students to sort cards (each describing one of 40 wise behaviors) into as many piles as they thought necessary to explain their contents. Again, a multidimensional scaling procedure was used, and the following six qualities of wisdom were identified. What were they?

1) reasoning ability (2) sagacity (profound knowledge and understanding) (3) learning from ideas and environment (4) judgment (5) expeditious use of information (6) perspicacity (acuteness of discernment and perception)

these two constructs are closely associated with the expression of personal views and values in the face of dissension and rejection.

Authenticity and integrity (rosa parks; doctors tell the truth about a diagnoses)

Courage sometimes is viewed as the virtue that makes?

all virtuous behaviors possible.

(1) magnificence, the planning and execution of great and expansive projects by putting forth ample and splendid effort of mind; (2) confidence, that through which, on great and honorable projects, the mind self-confidently collects itself with sure hope; (3) patience, the voluntary and lengthy endurance of arduous and difficult things, whether the case be honorable or useful, and (4) perseverance, ongoing persistence in a well-considered plan. (p. 305) this psychologists believed that courage was seen as these statements.

Cicero

In Sternberg's wisdom model the wise person goes through a process that may resemble high levels of moral decision making. What is the process?

First, the person is challenged by a real-life dilemma that activates the reasoning abilities that were first developed in adolescence and then refined in adulthood. Then, the person's life history and personal values bear on their use of available tacit knowledge in balancing interests and generating wise responses. The person striving to be wise then examines possible responses to determine the extent to which solutions require adaptation to the environmental and cultural context, the shaping of the environment to fit the solutions, or the selection of a new environment where the solutions might work. Finally, if balance is achieved, then the common good is addressed with the proposed solution.

this term describes folk theories of a construct that describe its basic elements of wisdom and was first were described by Clayton and then further explicated by German psychologist Paul Baltes's (1993) analysis of cultural-historical occurrences.

Implicit theories

the measurement scale developed in 2003: the three-dimensional wisdom scale or 3D-WS, was developed by?

Monica Ardelt

Her analysis of the characteristics that facilitate the development of wisdom revealed that a person's childhood does not have an impact on this development, whereas the quality of one's social environment in early adulthood does. She (1997) also found that wise people achieved greater life satisfaction than unwise people.

Monika Ardelt

involves the preservation of justice and service for the common good.

Moral courage

the behavioral expression of authenticity in the face of the discomfort of dissension, disapproval, or rejection (e.g., a politician invested in a "greater good" places an unpopular vote in a meeting).

Moral courage

Both Sternberg's (1998) balance theory and Baltes's (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Baltes & Staudinger, 1993, 2000) Berlin wisdom paradigm are similar in that they emphasize the organization and application of pragmatic knowledge. Furthermore, both views of wisdom propose that wise people can discern views of others, develop a rich understanding of the world, craft meaningful solutions to difficult problems, and direct their actions toward achieving a common good. Which psychologist said this during their study of people nominated as wise.

Orwoll: this Eriksonian integrity was accompanied by elevated concerns for the collective good.

Putman (1997) described it as strength in facing one's destructive habits.

Psychological courage (form of vital courage)

places the value differences across people and societies in perspective.

Relativism of values and life priorities

Wisdom often is referenced in?

ancient maxims (e.g., Yang, 2001) and in philosophical reviews

Some people even reason that wisdom can make courage unnecessary. This view is described in the words of? We need courage only in those instances when in fact they [wisdom and faith] do not suffice—either because we simply lack them or because they are irrelevant to or ineffective against our distress. Knowledge, wisdom, and opinion can provide fear with its objects or deprive it of them. They do not impart courage but rather offer an opportunity to exercise it or do without it. (p. 57)

Staudinger and Baltes (1994)

the perseverance through a disease or disability even when the outcome is ambiguous (e.g., a child with a heart transplant maintaining their intensive treatment regimen even though the prognosis is uncertain).

Vital courage

According to Sternberg, wisdom involves forming a judgment when there are competing interests that lack a clear resolution. What is an example of this?

a wise approach to resolving a conflict over a proposed ban of cigarette smoking on a college campus would consider the interests of all people (smokers, nonsmokers, students, faculty, visitors, etc.), review the options for serving the interests of those people, and act to best serve the common good. As such, balancing personal interests and actions and sharing a wise judgment may entail exceptional problem-solving ability.

Explicit theories applied to wisdom are intertwined with decades-old theories of personality (Erikson, 1959) and cognitive development (Piaget, 1932), or they emphasize the?

application of pragmatic knowledge in pursuit of exceptional human functioning (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Baltes & Staudinger, 1993, 2000; Sternberg, 1998a).

O'Byrne et al. (2000) identified the three types of courage as physical, moral, and health/change which is now referred to?

as vital courage

representing oneself to others and the self in a sincere fashion

authenticity

Sternberg theorized that the tacit knowledge underlying practical intelligence (i.e., "knowing how" rather than "knowing what") is used in?

balancing self and other interests within the environmental context to achieve a common good.

explicit theories of wisdom focus more on?

behavioral manifestations of the construct.

defined by Greitemeyer, Osswald, Fischer, and Frey (2007) as "brave behavior accompanied by anger and indignation that intends to enforce societal and ethical norms without considering one's own social costs"

civil courage: thought to combine facets of physical courage and moral courage

A study by Glück and colleagues showed that children focus on ? in their implicit definitions of the construct

cognitive (e.g., fluid intelligence) and reflective (e.g., perspective-taking) aspects of wisdom

In Eastern cultures personal qualities such as ? may be part of a description of a wise person, while ? may be more emphasized in Western cultures (Yang, 2008).

compassion, open-mindedness, humbleness, and others, while intelligence, problem solving, and planning.

The serenity prayer has become the?

credo for many ordinary people who are struggling with life challenges.

Sternberg (2012) specifically argues that ? must be consulted with regard to both conceptualization of wisdom and in terms of its measurement as a result of this.

cultural context

this group may take the affective side into account in equal balance with the cognitive side of wisdom, whereas this group might stress cognition over affective dimensions (Takahashi, 2000; Takahashi & Overton, 2005).

easterners vs westerners

thriving/having a sense of vitality in a challenging situation

enthusiasm/zest

the debate of the two philosophical versus pragmatic applications of virtue along with the divine or human nature of the quality (Rice, 1958) both raise the issues of the question of whether wisdom is a form of ?

excellence in living as displayed by ordinary people or is more aptly seen as a fuzzy philosophical quality possessed only by sages.

theories detailing the observable manifestations of a construct

explicit theories

Knowledge gained from these recent studies of implicit theories has informed the development of?

explicit theories of wisdom

According to the Baltes group, the two basic criteria?

factual and procedural knowledge, indicate that wise performance necessitates expertise.

According to Gluck, children have an understanding of this wisdom from as early as?

first grade and it develops more significantly as age progresses

The Baltes group (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Staudinger & Baltes, 1994) has identified ? that characterize wisdom (excellence) and wisdom-related (near-excellence) performance.

five criteria

Some philosophers and theologians consider wisdom (prudence) and courage (fortitude) to be two of the?

four cardinal virtues (along with justice and temperance).

Both wisdom and courage can inform human choices and?

fuel pursuits that lead to enhanced personal functioning and communal good.

the book addressing wisdom written by G. Stanley Hall was considered the bailiwick of religion and moral philosophers until about 1975. After this period scholars produced a better commonsense psychological understanding of wisdom. What were they?

implicit and explicit theories

he concrete operations stage involves

in which the child's experience begins to be understood through logical thought

the sensorimotor stage involves

in which the child's world is experienced through sensing and doing

the preoperational stage involves

in which the child's world is framed in symbolic thought

undertaking tasks and challenges and finishing them

industry/perseverance

according to the wisdom experts, what two constructs are believed to overlap?

intelligence and spirituality

crystallized intelligence is time bound which means that?

knowledge acquired today may be obsolete in 20 years

wisdom is timeless which means?

knowledge that endures in utility across decades and even centuries

Theorists such as Baltes (1993), Labouvie-Vief (1990), and Sternberg (1998) suggest that wisdom builds on?

knowledge, cognitive skills, and personality characteristics and that it requires an understanding of culture and the surrounding environment

requires that wise people consider the contexts of life (e.g., love, work, and play), cultural values, and the passage of time when reviewing problems and their associated solutions.

life-span contextualism

The three metacriteria that are specific to wisdom are?

life-span contextualism, relativism of values, and recognition and management of uncertainty; these metacriteria involve flexible thinking and dialectical processing.

provides the decision-making flexibility that is necessary for processing difficult information and coming up with appropriate solutions. These characteristics of wisdom also may be evaluated with additional probing questions.

managing uncertainty

For Erikson, wisdom reflects a ?

maturity in which concerns for the collective good transcend personal interests.

give an example of civil courage

may decide to intervene in a situation where someone is under physical attack as a result of prejudice.

Life longings are different from the concept of wisdom in that they are qualified as ?

more idiographic experiential knowledge, as opposed to the more general focus of wisdom.

Courage can help overcome?

obstacles that make the practice of other virtues more difficult.

Such reflective, or dialectical, thinking facilitates an integration of ?

opposing points of view (Kitchener & Brenner, 1990), dual use of logical and subjective processing of information (Labouvie-Vief, 1990), and an integration of motivation and life experiences (Pascual-Leone, 1990).

Life-span theorists (e.g., Erikson, 1959) view wisdom as?

part of optimal development.

One striking argument that Putman advanced about psychological courage is that there is a?

paucity of training for psychological courage as compared to physical and moral courage.

During the formal operations stage (piaget)

people develop the ability to reason by systematically testing hypotheses.

During the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries in the Western world, two issues dominated the scholarly discussion of wisdom. Philosophers, theologists, and cultural anthropologists debated the?

philosophical versus pragmatic applications of virtue along with the divine or human nature of the quality (Rice, 1958)

the practical aspect of knowledge (Kreber, 2015).

phronesis

these four cardinal virtues are considered to be the "cognitive and motivational dispositions that in themselves designate not only adaptive fitness for individuals' achievements, but also the idea of convergence of individual goal achievements with becoming and being a good person from a communal and social-ethical point of view" (Baltes, Glück, & Kunzmann, 2002, p. 328).

prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance

dialectical operations associated with wisdom involve?

reflective thinking that attends to a balance of information and to truth that evolves in a cultural and historical context.

Erikson emphasized that wisdom is gained through?

resolving daily crises, specifically those involving integrity and despair

In cases where traumatic brain injuries have been centralized in the frontotemporal lobe, deficits are found in the ability to be ?

socially appropriate, process emotions effectively, and control impulsivity; all of these are, as Jeste and Harris (2010) state, "the antithesis of wisdom

Clayton's (1975) dissertation study was one of the first?

systematic examinations of the wisdom construct.

Baltes and colleagues have continued to refine their definitions of wisdom in recent years and have added the concept of ? to their life-span view of positive traits that are experienced alongside such constructs as wisdom

term Sehnsucht ("life longings") t

taking physical, intellectual, and emotional stances in the face of danger

valor

In their Values in Action classification system, Peterson and Seligman (2004) conceptualized courage as a core human virtue comprising such strengths as?

valor, authenticity, enthusiasm/zest, and industry/perseverance

not needed unless we encounter disease or disability, and often professionals teach us how to battle the infirmity.

vital courage

In the Berlin wisdom paradigm, Baltes and his colleagues (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Baltes & Staudinger, 1993, 2000) define wisdom as the?

ways and means of planning, managing, and understanding a good life.

related to having a coherent sense of self and a solid and consistent ego, which may be linked to other beneficial qualities both inter- and intrapersonally (Webster, 2010) wise individuals appear to have less investment in hedonistic pursuits (e.g., seeking pleasure) and more interest in reflection and personal growth wise also tend to reserve social judgment in favor of making attempts to understand the whole situation and its context before making conclusions; what are these the benefits of?

wisdom

these both exemplify human excellence; they involve a challenge, they require sound decision making, they are culturally bound, and they typically contribute to the common good.

wisdom and strength

According to recent studies, is there an overlap between implicit and explicit theories? if so, how much?

yes and there is much more