Prof Myrup HIS 104 Final 2022

"Angels on a Pin"

"Angels on a Pin" is a philosophical thought experiment that is often discussed in the context of medieval philosophy and theology. The thought experiment asks how many angels can dance on the head of a pin, and it is used to illustrate the absurdity of excessive speculation and the limits of human knowledge. The phrase is often used in a humorous or sarcastic way to refer to frivolous or unimportant debates or arguments. In the context of an early European history class, "Angels on a Pin" may be discussed as an example of the kinds of philosophical and theological debates that were common in the medieval period, and as a way of illustrating the importance of critical thinking and skepticism.

"History Lesson"

"History Lesson" is a term that refers to a lesson on the subject of history. In a history lesson, students learn about the events, people, and ideas of the past, and how they have shaped the world we live in today.

"The Great Revolt"

"The Great Revolt" is a term that refers to the Jewish rebellion against the Roman Empire that took place from 66 to 70 AD. The rebellion was sparked by a variety of factors, including Roman taxation, religious persecution, and political instability. The rebels, who were led by the Jewish general Simon Bar Kokhba, were initially successful in their efforts to drive the Romans out of Judea, but the Romans eventually crushed the rebellion and retook control of the region. The Great Revolt is considered to be one of the most significant events in Jewish history, and it is often seen as the beginning of the Jewish diaspora.

"The Seventh Seal"

"The Seventh Seal" is a 1957 Swedish film written and directed by Ingmar Bergman. It is a historical drama set in the 14th century, during the time of the Black Death. The film follows a knight who has returned from the Crusades and is struggling to find meaning and purpose in a world that is being devastated by the plague. The knight plays a game of chess with Death, and the film explores themes of faith, doubt, and the search for meaning in the face of suffering and death. "The Seventh Seal" is considered to be one of the greatest films of all time, and it is a classic of world cinema. It was awarded the Special Jury Prize at the Cannes Film Festival, and it was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film.

Feitoria

A feitoria (also spelled feitoria or feitoria) was a trading post established by the Portuguese Empire in foreign lands to promote trade and protect Portuguese interests. These posts were typically located in strategic locations along trade routes and were staffed by a feitor (manager), who was responsible for overseeing trade activities and enforcing Portuguese commercial laws. Feitorias were often used to establish formal diplomatic relations with local rulers and to facilitate the exchange of goods and services between Portugal and other countries. They were an important part of the Portuguese Empire's global trade network and played a key role in the expansion of the Portuguese Empire in the 15th and 16th centuries.

Haruspex

A haruspex was a type of ancient Roman diviner who was skilled in interpreting the entrails of sacrificed animals to predict the future. The practice of haruspicy was an important part of Roman religion and culture, and was believed to provide insight into the will of the gods.

Polis

A polis, also known as a city-state, was a type of independent state in ancient Greece. Each polis was centered around a city, and was made up of the city and its surrounding territory. The polis was the primary form of political organization in ancient Greece, and was known for its democratic institutions and cultural achievements.

Ab Urba Condita

Ab Urbe Condita (Latin for "from the founding of the City") is a Latin phrase that refers to the founding of Rome. The phrase is often used to refer to the history of Rome, starting with the city's founding in 753 BC. It is also the title of a history of Rome written by the Roman historian Livy, which covers the period from the city's founding to 9 BC

Arcos de Lapa

An aqueduct in Rio based of of ones made in Ancient Rome

Encomienda

An encomienda was a grant of labor and tribute given by the Spanish crown to a settler in the Americas, in return for the settler's protection and religious instruction of the indigenous peoples living on the land. The encomienda system was introduced by the Spanish in the early 16th century as a way to organize the colonization of the Americas and to promote the conversion of the indigenous peoples to Christianity. Under the encomienda system, a Spanish settler, known as an encomendero, was given control over a group of indigenous people and their land, and the encomendero was responsible for protecting and converting them. In return, the encomendero was entitled to the labor and tribute of the indigenous people, which could be used for personal gain. The encomienda system has been criticized for its oppressive and exploitative nature, and it was eventually abolished in the 18th century.

Andreas Karlstadt

Andreas Karlstadt, also known as Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt, was a German theologian and reformer who was a contemporary of Martin Luther. Karlstadt was a close associate of Luther, and he was instrumental in the early phases of the Protestant Reformation. He was a leading advocate of reform in the Church, and he played a key role in the publication and dissemination of Luther's Ninety-Five Theses. Karlstadt is known for his emphasis on the authority of the Bible, and for his opposition to the worship of saints and the use of images in worship. He is also known for his radical views on the sacraments, and for his support of communitarianism. Karlstadt was a significant figure in the early history of Protestantism, and he is remembered as one of the leading reformers of the 16th century.

Antonio de Montesinos

Antonio de Montesinos was a Spanish Dominican friar who is best known for his sermons against the mistreatment of indigenous peoples in the Americas. He was born in the early 16th century in the Spanish city of Montesinos, and he became a Dominican friar at a young age. In 1511, he was sent to the New World as a missionary, and he spent many years in the Caribbean, preaching to the indigenous people and working to convert them to Christianity. In 1511, he delivered a famous sermon in which he condemned the Spanish colonizers for their mistreatment of the indigenous peoples, including the enslavement and forced labor of the Taino people on the island of Hispaniola. His sermon was one of the first public criticisms of the Spanish colonial system and helped to spark a debate about the morality of colonization. Montesinos continued to speak out against injustice and oppression throughout his life, and he is remembered as an early advocate for indigenous rights in the Americas.

Aristophanes

Aristophanes was an ancient Greek playwright, considered to be one of the greatest writers of comedy in the Western tradition. He wrote many plays, including Lysistrata and The Birds, which are still performed and studied today

Augustine of Hippo

Augustine of Hippo was a theologian, philosopher, and bishop of the early Christian Church. He was born in 354 AD in the Roman province of Africa, and is one of the most important and influential figures in the history of Christianity. Augustine is known for his writings on theology, philosophy, and ethics, which have had a profound impact on Western thought. His most famous work, Confessions, is an autobiographical account of his spiritual journey from a life of sin to a life of faith. Augustine is also known for his role in the development of the doctrine of original sin, and for his defense of the Christian Church against the heresy of Pelagianism.

Bartolomé de las Casas

Bartolomé de las Casas was a Spanish colonist and friar who became a vocal critic of the treatment of the indigenous peoples of the Americas by European colonizers. He was born in 1484 in Seville, Spain, and he traveled to the New World in 1502. He initially supported the conquest and colonization of the Americas, but he soon became disillusioned by the violence and exploitation that he witnessed. In 1514, he wrote a short account of the atrocities committed by the Spanish against the indigenous peoples, and in 1542, he published a much longer work called "A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies." This book was a powerful indictment of Spanish colonization and a call for greater justice and compassion for the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Las Casas became a leading advocate for indigenous rights, and his writings had a profound impact on the debate about the ethics of colonization. He is considered one of the first human rights activists in history.

Black Orpheus

Black Orpheus is a Brazilian film from 1959 that is based on the Greek myth of Orpheus and Eurydice. The film, which is set in Rio de Janeiro during Carnival, is known for its beautiful cinematography and its use of bossa nova music.

Cassiodorus

Cassiodorus was a Roman statesman, scholar, and monk who lived in the 6th century AD. He was a prominent figure in the court of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great, and he served as a consul and as the quaestor of the Roman Senate. After Theodoric's death, Cassiodorus retired to a monastery, where he wrote a number of important works on theology and history. He is known for his Institutiones, a textbook on the liberal arts, and for his Historia Gothorum, a history of the Goths. Cassiodorus is also famous for his role in the preservation of classical learning during the early Middle Ages.

Catharine of Aragon

Catherine of Aragon was the first wife of King Henry VIII of England. She was the daughter of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain, and she was married to Henry in 1509, when she was 16 years old. Catherine was a devout Catholic, and she was a strong supporter of the Pope and the Church. She is famous for her refusal to grant Henry a divorce, which led to the break with Rome and the creation of the Church of England. Catherine was a controversial figure in her time, and she is remembered for her strength and her loyalty to her beliefs. She is often seen as a tragic figure, and she is a significant figure in the history of the English Reformation.

Ceuta

Ceuta is a Spanish city located on the north coast of Africa, across the Strait of Gibraltar from Spain. It is an autonomous city and an exclave of Spain, surrounded by Moroccan territory. Ceuta has been a Spanish possession since the 15th century, and it has been an important naval base and trading center. It is a multicultural city, with a population that includes Spanish, Moroccan, and other North African and European communities. Ceuta is known for its strategic location, and it has been the site of many conflicts and military operations over the centuries. It is a significant city in the history of Spain and North Africa, and it continues to be an important cultural and economic center in the region.

Charlemagne

Charlemagne, also known as Charles the Great, was the King of the Franks from 768 to 814 AD. He was a strong and ambitious ruler, and he expanded the Frankish kingdom through military conquest and diplomacy. Charlemagne is famous for his military campaigns, which resulted in the conquest of much of Western and Central Europe. He is also known for his efforts to unite the various Frankish tribes and to establish a strong and centralized government. Charlemagne is considered to be the founder of the Holy Roman Empire, and he is remembered as one of the most important rulers of the Middle Ages.

Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer and navigator who is credited with discovering America on an expedition sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain in 1492. He completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, opening the way for the widespread European exploration and conquest of the Americas. Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy, in the late 14th century, and he began his career as a sailor and merchant at a young age. He became interested in exploration and travel, and he believed that he could reach the East Indies by sailing west across the Atlantic. After many years of trying to secure funding for his proposed voyage, Columbus finally convinced the Spanish monarchy to sponsor his expedition, and in 1492 he set sail with three ships: the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Niña. After a perilous journey, Columbus and his crew landed on an island in the Bahamas, which he named San Salvador. He explored other islands in the Caribbean, including Cuba and Hispaniola, and he claimed them for Spain. Columbus returned to Spain in 1493 and continued to explore the Americas for the rest of his life, but his legacy is complicated by the impact of European colonization on the indigenous peoples of the Americas.

Constantine the Great

Constantine the Great was a Roman emperor who ruled from 306 to 337 AD. He is known for being the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, and for his support of the religion. His conversion, and the support he provided to the Christian Church, had a profound impact on the development of Christianity and the course of Western civilization. Constantine is also known for his military campaigns, his administrative reforms, and his construction of the city of Constantinople, which became the new capital of the Roman Empire.

Danse Macabre

Danse Macabre, also known as the Dance of Death, was a popular theme in art and literature in Europe during the late Middle Ages. It was a visual representation of the idea that death is the great equalizer, and that it does not discriminate between rich and poor, young and old. The Danse Macabre typically depicted a procession of skeletons or corpses leading people of all social classes to the grave. It was often used as a reminder of the fragility of human life and the inevitability of death. In the context of early European history, the Danse Macabre may be discussed as an example of the cultural and artistic influences of the time, and as a reflection of the social and political concerns of the period.

Diocletian

Diocletian was a Roman emperor who ruled from 284 to 305 AD. He is known for his military campaigns against foreign invaders and for his efforts to reform and strengthen the Roman Empire. He is also famous for instituting the Tetrarchy, a system of government in which the empire was divided into four regions, each ruled by a different emperor. Diocletian's rule marked the beginning of the late Roman Empire, which is also known as the "Dominate" period.

Eleanor of Aquitaine

Eleanor of Aquitaine was a 12th-century queen of England and France. She was one of the most powerful and influential women of her time, and she played a major role in the politics of Europe. Eleanor was the daughter of the Duke of Aquitaine, and she inherited a vast territory in southwestern France. She was married to Louis VII of France, and then to Henry II of England, and she had a total of ten children, including three kings of England. Eleanor was known for her intelligence, her beauty, and her cultural interests, and she is remembered as one of the most remarkable women of the Middle Ages.

Elizabeth I

Elizabeth I was the queen of England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603. She was the daughter of King Henry VIII and his second wife, Anne Boleyn, and she was the last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Elizabeth is one of the most celebrated rulers in English history, and she is remembered for her strong leadership, her cultural achievements, and her skillful handling of foreign affairs. She was a Protestant, and she sought to establish the Church of England as a national institution. She also faced many challenges, including threats from Catholic Spain and internal rebellion, but she managed to overcome these obstacles and to maintain the stability and prosperity of her realm. Elizabeth was a patron of the arts, and she helped to usher in a golden age of English literature and drama. She was also a powerful and charismatic ruler, and she is remembered as one of the greatest queens in English history.

Elmina

Elmina is a town on the coast of Ghana, in West Africa. It is located in the Central Region of Ghana, and it is the oldest European settlement on the African continent. Elmina was founded by the Portuguese in 1482, and it was an important center of the transatlantic slave trade. It was also a major trading center for gold, ivory, and other commodities. Elmina is famous for its castle, which was built by the Portuguese and later used by the Dutch and the British as a slave fort.

Francis Drake

Francis Drake was an English naval officer and explorer who was active in the 16th century. He was born in 1540 in Devon, England, and he became a sailor at a young age. Drake quickly gained a reputation as a skilled and daring navigator, and he was known for his courage and his ability to overcome adversity. In 1577, he led the first English circumnavigation of the world, which helped to establish England as a major maritime power. Drake also played a key role in the Anglo-Spanish War, and he is best known for his raids on Spanish ships and colonies in the New World. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I for his service to the crown, and he is remembered as a national hero in England.

Francis I (of France)

Francis I was the king of France from 1515 to 1547. He was born in 1494 in the French town of Cognac, and he was the son of Charles d'Orléans, Duke of Angoulême, and Louise of Savoy. Francis became king at the age of 21, following the death of his cousin, King Louis XII. He was a highly ambitious and energetic ruler, and he sought to expand the power and influence of France both domestically and internationally. Francis was a patron of the arts and a supporter of the French Renaissance, and he helped to bring the Italian Renaissance to France. He also engaged in a series of wars with the Habsburg Empire and the Ottoman Empire, and he attempted to establish French control over Italy. Francis was known for his personal charm and his love of fine clothing and art, and he is considered one of the most colorful and flamboyant kings in French history.

Francis Xavier

Francis Xavier was a Spanish Jesuit missionary who lived in the 16th century. He was one of the first members of the Society of Jesus, and he is considered to be one of the greatest missionaries in history. Xavier is famous for his work in the East, where he traveled to India, Japan, and other parts of Asia, and he is credited with converting many people to Catholicism. He is also known for his work among the poor and the marginalized, and for his commitment to social justice. Xavier is a significant figure in the history of the Catholic Church, and he is remembered as a pioneer of global mission work. He was canonized as a saint in 1622, and he is still venerated by Catholics around the world.

Francisco de Cuellar

Francisco de Cuellar was a Spanish soldier and writer who is best known for his account of the failed English invasion of Spain in 1589. Cuellar was born in the Spanish town of Cuéllar in the 16th century, and he joined the Spanish army as a young man. He participated in many military campaigns, including the defense of Spain against the English armada in 1588. In 1589, he published an account of the English invasion, which included a detailed description of the battle and the defeat of the English fleet. Cuellar's account is considered one of the most important primary sources for the study of the Anglo-Spanish War, and it has been widely read and studied by historians. Cuellar is remembered as a brave and dedicated soldier, and as a valuable chronicler of a significant event in Spanish history.

Hagia Sophia

Hagia Sophia is a famous Byzantine cathedral that was built in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey) in the 6th century AD. It is known for its impressive size, its beautiful architecture, and its rich history. Hagia Sophia was originally a Christian cathedral, but it was converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in the 15th century.

Hellenistic

Hellenistic refers to the period in ancient Greek history following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. During this time, the Greek culture spread throughout the Mediterranean world, and the Greek language, art, and philosophy had a profound influence on the cultures of the region.

Henry V

Henry V was the King of England from 1413 to 1422. He was the son of Henry IV, and he came to the throne at a time when the English monarchy was weakened by political unrest and civil war. Henry V is famous for his military campaigns, which included the conquest of Normandy and the victory over the French at the Battle of Agincourt. He is also known for his support of the English language and literature, and for his efforts to reform the English Church. Henry V's reign was a time of stability and prosperity for England, and he is remembered as one of the great English kings.

Henry VIII (of England)

Henry VIII was the King of England from 1509 to 1547. He was the second son of King Henry VII, and he came to the throne at the age of 17. Henry VIII is famous for his role in the English Reformation, which was a movement to reform the Church of England and break away from the authority of the Pope. He is also known for his six wives, and for the political and religious upheaval that occurred during his reign. Henry VIII was a complex and controversial figure, and his reign was a time of great change and conflict in England. He is remembered as a powerful and ruthless monarch, and as one of the most influential kings in English history.

Héloïse

Héloïse was a 12th-century French nun and scholar. She was the niece of the famous philosopher and theologian Peter Abelard, and she was the recipient of his famous letters, which are considered to be some of the most important and influential documents of the Middle Ages. Héloïse was educated by Abelard, and she became a renowned scholar in her own right. She is known for her contributions to theology and philosophy, and for her role in the development of the intellectual culture of the Middle Ages. Héloïse is often remembered for her tragic love affair with Abelard, which was the subject of many stories and poems in the centuries that followed.

Islam

Islam is a monotheistic religion that originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century AD. It is based on the teachings of the prophet Muhammad, who is considered to be the final prophet of God. Islam is the second largest religion in the world, with over 1.8 billion followers. In the context of a European history course, Islam may be discussed in relation to its spread and influence in Europe, particularly in the Middle Ages and the early modern period. For example, Islamic empires such as the Umayyads and the Ottomans controlled large parts of Europe and had significant cultural, economic, and political impact on the continent. The interactions between European and Islamic civilizations, including conflicts and cultural exchange, may also be a topic of discussion in a European history course.

Johannes Kepler

Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician and astronomer who lived in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. He is best known for his laws of planetary motion, which were published in 1609 and form the basis of modern astronomy. Kepler was a key figure in the Scientific Revolution, and he was a pioneer in the fields of optics and astronomy. He is also famous for his work as an astrologer and for his interest in mysticism. Kepler is remembered as a brilliant scientist and mathematician, and as an important figure in the history of science.

John Gerard

John Gerard was an English Jesuit priest who lived in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. He is known for his work as a missionary in England, where he was active during a time of great persecution of Catholics. Gerard is famous for his successful escape from the Tower of London, where he was imprisoned for his religious beliefs, and for his efforts to support the Catholic community in England. He is also known for his writings, which include a memoir of his time as a missionary and a description of the plants and animals of the New World. Gerard is remembered as a brave and dedicated missionary, and as an important figure in the history of the Catholic Church in England.

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda was a Spanish philosopher and humanist who is best known for his debates with Bartolomé de las Casas about the treatment of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Sepúlveda was born in 1494 in the Spanish city of Almendralejo, and he studied philosophy and classical literature at the University of Salamanca. He became a leading advocate of the concept of "just war," and he believed that the conquest and colonization of the Americas was justified on the grounds that it was a necessary and virtuous act. In 1550, he engaged in a series of public debates with Las Casas, who argued that the conquest was immoral and that the indigenous peoples should be treated with respect and compassion. Sepúlveda's arguments were influenced by the classical philosophy of Aristotle and by contemporary ideas about the natural superiority of European culture. His views were widely debated at the time, but they have been largely rejected by modern scholars.

Marcus Brutus

Marcus Brutus was a Roman statesman and one of the leaders of the conspiracy that led to the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. He was a close friend of Caesar, but he believed that Caesar's increasing power and ambitions threatened the Roman Republic, and he joined the conspiracy to kill him. After Caesar's assassination, Brutus and his fellow conspirators were initially hailed as heroes, but they eventually lost the support of the people and were forced to flee Rome. Brutus later joined the Republican army in the civil war against Caesar's supporters, but he was defeated and committed suicide. His name has become synonymous with betrayal and treachery.

Mark Antony

Mark Antony was a Roman politician and general who was an important supporter of Julius Caesar. After Caesar's assassination, Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's loyal supporters and became one of the leaders of the new government. He was a skilled orator and military commander, and he played a key role in the civil war against Caesar's enemies, the Republicans. However, Antony's relationship with Caesar's heir, Octavian, eventually broke down, and the two men became rivals. Antony's defeat in the battle of Actium in 31 BC marked the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire. He later committed suicide after being defeated by Octavian's forces in the Battle of Alexandria in 30 BC.

Martin Luther

Martin Luther was a German monk, theologian, and reformer who lived in the 16th century. He is considered to be the father of the Protestant Reformation, and he is famous for his Ninety-Five Theses, which were a series of propositions that he posted on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg in 1517. These propositions challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, and they sparked a movement that led to the creation of Protestantism. Luther is known for his translation of the Bible into German, and for his writings on theology, which were influential in the development of Protestant theology. He is remembered as one of the greatest figures of the Reformation, and as a key figure in the history of Christianity.

Mary I ("Bloody Mary")

Mary I was the queen of England and Ireland from 1553 to 1558. She was the daughter of King Henry VIII and his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, and she was the first queen regnant of England. Mary is best known for her intense persecution of Protestants during her reign, which earned her the nickname "Bloody Mary." She was a devout Catholic, and she sought to restore the authority of the Catholic Church in England, which had been weakened by her father's break with Rome and the establishment of the Church of England. Mary pursued a policy of religious repression, and she had hundreds of Protestant dissenters burned at the stake. She also tried, but failed, to reverse the English Reformation and to restore England to the Catholic fold. Mary's policies were deeply unpopular, and her reign was marked by political turmoil and economic decline. She died childless in 1558, and she was succeeded by her half-sister, Elizabeth I.

Paul

Paul the Apostle, also known as Saint Paul, was a Christian missionary and one of the most influential figures in the history of Christianity. He was born in the Roman province of Cilicia, and he was a Jew who studied under the Pharisee Gamaliel. After his conversion to Christianity, Paul became one of the most important early Christian missionaries, spreading the message of Jesus throughout the Roman Empire. He wrote many of the letters that are now included in the New Testament of the Bible, and his teachings have had a profound influence on Christian theology. Paul was martyred in Rome in the 1st century AD.

Pax Romana

Pax Romana, also known as the Roman Peace, was a period of relative peace and stability in the Roman Empire that lasted from 27 BC to 180 AD. This period was marked by a lack of major wars, the expansion of Roman territory, and the growth of Roman trade and commerce. The Pax Romana was the result of the Roman government's successful efforts to maintain order and control within the empire, and it allowed for the flourishing of Roman culture, art, and science. The Pax Romana came to an end in the 2nd century AD, as the empire faced internal and external challenges that weakened its power and stability.

Perpetua

Perpetua was a young Christian martyr who lived in the early 3rd century AD. She is remembered for her courage and faith during the persecutions of the Roman Empire, and for the written account of her life and death that has survived to the present day. Perpetua was born into a wealthy and influential family in Carthage, and was arrested and imprisoned for her faith when she was in her early twenties. While in prison, she wrote a diary that describes her experiences and her thoughts on her impending martyrdom. She was martyred in 203 AD, along with several other Christian prisoners. Her diary is one of the earliest surviving examples of Christian literature written by a woman.

Peter Lombard

Peter Lombard was a theologian and bishop who lived in the 12th century. He was born in Lombardy, Italy, and he studied at the University of Paris. Peter Lombard is best known for his book, Sentences, which was a collection of theological opinions and arguments from the early Church fathers. The Sentences became one of the most influential works of theology in the Middle Ages, and it was widely used as a textbook in the universities of Europe. Peter Lombard was also a bishop of Paris, and he is remembered for his contributions to theology and for his role in the development of the University of Paris.

Petrarch

Petrarch was an Italian scholar, poet, and humanist who lived in the 14th century. He is considered to be one of the founders of the Renaissance, and he is famous for his contributions to literature, philosophy, and history. Petrarch is known for his sonnets, which are considered to be some of the greatest examples of Italian poetry. He is also famous for his Latin works, which include translations of classical texts and original works on classical themes. Petrarch's humanistic philosophy, which emphasized the study of classical literature and the pursuit of wisdom, had a profound impact on the intellectual culture of the Renaissance.

Philip II (of Spain)

Philip II was the king of Spain from 1556 to 1598. He was the son of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, and he inherited a vast empire that included Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands, parts of Italy, and territories in the New World. Philip was a devout Catholic, and he was determined to defend the faith and uphold the power of the Spanish monarchy. He fought many wars during his reign, including the long-running conflict with England known as the Anglo-Spanish War. Philip was also a patron of the arts, and he supported the work of artists such as El Greco and Titian. He is often remembered as a powerful and ambitious monarch, but also as a narrow-minded and authoritarian ruler.

Philip IV (of France)

Philip IV, also known as Philip the Fair, was the King of France from 1285 to 1314. He was the son of Philip III, and he came to the throne at a time when the French monarchy was at the height of its power. Philip IV is famous for his efforts to centralize the power of the French state, and for his conflicts with the Pope and the nobility. He is also known for his support of the arts and the universities, and for his persecution of the Jews and the Templars. Philip IV's reign was a time of great political and cultural achievement for France, and he is remembered as one of the great kings of France.

Platonic Solids

Platonic solids are three-dimensional geometric shapes that are made up of identical faces, which are usually regular polygons. There are five Platonic solids, which are known as the tetrahedron, the cube, the octahedron, the dodecahedron, and the icosahedron. These solids were first described by the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, and they are named after him. Platonic solids have fascinated mathematicians and philosophers for centuries, and they have been studied for their geometric and symmetrical properties. They are also of interest in the study of crystal structures, and they have been used in art and design. Platonic solids are an important concept in geometry and mathematics, and they continue to be studied and explored today.

Pliny the Younger

Pliny the Younger was a Roman author, lawyer, and magistrate who lived in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. He is known for his letters, which provide valuable insights into the culture and society of ancient Rome. Pliny the Younger was a friend and correspondent of the historian Tacitus, and his letters are an important source of information on the early Roman Empire. He is also known for his role in the events surrounding the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, which he witnessed and described in a famous letter to the historian Tacitus.

Pompeii

Pompeii was an ancient Roman city located near modern-day Naples, Italy. It was a thriving and wealthy city in the 1st century AD, but it was famously destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The ash and pumice from the eruption buried the city, preserving many of its buildings and artifacts. Pompeii was rediscovered in the 18th century, and the excavations of the city have provided valuable insights into Roman life and culture.

Pope Alexander VI

Pope Alexander VI, also known as Rodrigo Borgia, was the pope from 1492 to 1503. He was a member of the Borgia family, which was a powerful and influential family in Renaissance Italy. Pope Alexander VI is known for his political and diplomatic skills, and for his attempts to increase the power and influence of the papacy. He is also known for his corruption and his personal scandals, which included accusations of nepotism, simony, and sexual misconduct. Pope Alexander VI's reign was a time of great controversy and conflict within the Church, and he is remembered as one of the most infamous and controversial popes in history.

Pope Paul III

Pope Paul III, also known as Alessandro Farnese, was pope from 1534 to 1549. He was a member of the powerful Farnese family, and he was a key figure in the Catholic Church during the Protestant Reformation. Pope Paul III is famous for calling the Council of Trent, which was a major council of the Catholic Church that was held between 1545 and 1563. The council was an important moment in the Counter-Reformation, and it marked a turning point in the Church's response to the challenges posed by Protestantism. Pope Paul III is also known for his support of the arts, and for his patronage of Michelangelo and other artists. He is remembered as a pope who was committed to the renewal of the Church, and as a key figure in the history of the Catholic Church.

Pope Urban II

Pope Urban II was the Pope from 1088 to 1099. He is most famous for his role in the First Crusade, which was a military expedition to the Holy Land that was launched in 1095. Pope Urban II called for the crusade at the Council of Clermont, and he preached the need to defend the Christian faith and to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim rule. The crusade was successful, and it resulted in the capture of Jerusalem and the establishment of the Crusader states. Pope Urban II's role in the crusade was a significant event in medieval history, and it had a lasting impact on the relations between Christianity and Islam.

Salic Law

Salic Law was a code of laws that was used in the Kingdom of the Franks during the early Middle Ages. It was named after the Salian Franks, a tribe that was one of the main components of the Frankish kingdom. Salic Law was based on the customs and traditions of the Salian Franks, and it was written in the Old Frankish language. It was an important part of the legal system of the Frankish kingdom, and it influenced the development of law in Europe. Salic Law is most famous for its provisions on inheritance, which stated that only men could inherit property. This provision was used to exclude women from the line of succession to the throne of the Frankish kingdom, and it became a source of conflict in later centuries.

Simony

Simony is the act of buying or selling spiritual goods or services, such as positions in the Church, holy relics, or indulgences. It is considered to be a grave sin in the Catholic Church, and it is condemned in the Bible. Simony was a common practice in the Middle Ages, and it was often associated with corruption and abuse of power within the Church. Many popes and bishops were accused of simony, and it was one of the reasons for the widespread discontent with the Church during this period. The practice of simony was condemned by the Second Lateran Council in 1139, and it continued to be punished by the Church until the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century.

Sir Thomas More

Sir Thomas More was an English lawyer, statesman, and writer who lived in the 16th century. He is best known for his book Utopia, which was published in 1516 and is a fictional account of an ideal society. More is also famous for his political career, and for his refusal to support King Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn. He was executed in 1535, and he was canonized as a saint by the Catholic Church in 1935. More is remembered for his humanism, his intellectual curiosity, and his commitment to religious and political principles. He is considered to be one of the greatest English humanists, and he is a key figure in the history of European thought.

Abbey of Monte Cassino

The Abbey of Monte Cassino is a monastery that was founded in the 6th century AD in the Italian town of Cassino, near Rome. It is an important site in the history of European Christianity, as it was founded by St. Benedict of Nursia, the father of Western monasticism. The monastery was destroyed by the Lombards in the 8th century, but it was rebuilt and became a major center of religious and cultural life in the medieval period. In the context of an early European history class, the Abbey of Monte Cassino may be discussed as an example of the role of monasticism in the development of European culture, and as a key site in the history of Christianity in Europe. It may also be discussed in relation to its strategic location and its role in the military history of the region. The Abbey of Monte Cassino played a significant role in World War II. The monastery was located on a hilltop overlooking the town of Cassino, which was a key strategic point in the Italian campaign. In 1944, the German army occupied the monastery and used it as a fortification, turning it into a heavily defended stronghold. The Allies attempted to capture the monastery several times, but their efforts were met with heavy resistance and resulted in heavy losses. After several months of fighting, the Allies finally succeeded in capturing the monastery in May 1944, but it was largely destroyed in the process. The ruins of the monastery were later restored and the abbey was re-established.

Act of Supremacy

The Act of Supremacy was a law passed by the English Parliament in 1534. It declared King Henry VIII to be the "supreme head on earth of the Church of England," and it established the Church of England as a separate and independent national church. The Act of Supremacy was a key moment in the English Reformation, and it marked the final break with Rome and the Pope. It was also a major assertion of royal authority, and it helped to establish the principle of the divine right of kings. The Act of Supremacy was controversial in its time, and it led to the execution of many people who opposed the King's religious policies. It is still a significant law in the history of the Church of England, and it is a key part of the constitutional settlement of England.

Avignon Papacy

The Avignon Papacy was a period in the history of the Catholic Church when the seat of the Pope was located in the city of Avignon, in southern France. It began in 1309, when Pope Clement V moved the papal court from Rome to Avignon, and it ended in 1377, when Pope Gregory XI returned the papacy to Rome. The Avignon Papacy was a time of great controversy and conflict within the Church, and it is often seen as a period of decline and corruption. Many of the popes of this period were French, and they were seen as being more interested in the interests of the French monarchy than in the interests of the Church. The Avignon Papacy is a significant event in the history of the Church, and it is still a subject of study and debate among historians.

Battle of Agincourt

The Battle of Agincourt was a famous military victory of the English over the French during the Hundred Years' War. It took place on October 25, 1415, near the town of Agincourt in northern France. The English army, led by King Henry V, was greatly outnumbered by the French, but it was able to secure a decisive victory through the use of longbowmen and tactics that exploited the terrain. The Battle of Agincourt is remembered as a great victory for the English, and it is celebrated in English history and literature.

Battle of Hastings

The Battle of Hastings was a military conflict that took place on October 14, 1066, in the South East of England. It was fought between the English army, led by King Harold II, and the Norman army of William, Duke of Normandy. The Normans were victorious, and they went on to conquer England and establish the Norman dynasty. The Battle of Hastings is one of the most famous battles in English history, and it is remembered for its significance in the Norman Conquest of England. It is also famous for its depiction in the Bayeux Tapestry, a medieval embroidery that portrays the events of the battle.

Black Death

The Black Death was a deadly pandemic of bubonic plague that swept through Europe, Asia, and Africa in the 14th century. It is estimated that the Black Death killed between 75 million and 200 million people, which was between 30% and 60% of the world's population at the time. The disease was transmitted by fleas that lived on rats, and it was spread by trade and travel. The Black Death had a profound impact on European society, as it killed millions of people and disrupted trade and commerce. It also led to social and economic changes, as well as to cultural and artistic movements. The Black Death is considered to be one of the most devastating pandemics in human history.

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire was the eastern part of the Roman Empire that survived after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. The Byzantine Empire was centered in Constantinople, and it was ruled by the Byzantine emperors. It was known for its rich culture, its impressive architecture, and its religious and cultural achievements. The Byzantine Empire was a major power in the eastern Mediterranean, and it played a key role in the spread of Christianity. It came to an end in the 15th century, when it was conquered by the Ottoman Turks.

Corpus Juris Civilis

The Corpus Juris Civilis (Latin for "Body of Civil Law") is a collection of laws and legal texts that was compiled by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I in the 6th century AD. It is a comprehensive and systematic collection of Roman law that includes the Codex Justinianus (a collection of imperial laws), the Digest (a collection of legal opinions and interpretations), the Institutes (a textbook on law), and the Novels (a collection of new laws issued by Justinian). The Corpus Juris Civilis was an important influence on the development of law in Europe, and it is still studied and cited by legal scholars today.

Counter-Reformation

The Counter-Reformation was a movement in the Catholic Church that began in the 16th century, in response to the Protestant Reformation. It was a time of great reform and renewal within the Church, and it was characterized by a renewed emphasis on the authority of the Pope, the importance of the sacraments, and the need for religious unity. The Counter-Reformation was a response to the challenges posed by Protestantism, and it was a concerted effort to restore the Catholic Church to its former position of power and influence. It was a time of great religious upheaval, and it led to many wars and conflicts, as well as to the emergence of new religious orders and movements. The Counter-Reformation is a significant event in the history of the Church, and it is still studied and debated by historians and theologians.

Dominicans

The Dominicans, also known as the Order of Preachers, is a Catholic religious order that was founded in the 13th century by St. Dominic. The Dominicans are known for their commitment to preaching and teaching, and they are famous for their contributions to theology, philosophy, and education. The Dominicans were active in the intellectual life of Europe during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and they were involved in the development of many important ideas and movements. They are also known for their work in missions and charity, and for their involvement in the Inquisition and the persecution of heretics. The Dominicans continue to be an active religious order today, and they are known for their work in education, preaching, and social justice.

Edict of Nantes

The Edict of Nantes was a decree issued by King Henry IV of France in 1598 that granted limited religious freedom to the Huguenots, or French Protestants. The Edict of Nantes was a response to the religious wars and persecution that had plagued France for many years, and it was intended to promote religious tolerance and peace. The edict recognized the Huguenots as a legitimate religious group and granted them the right to worship freely in certain designated areas. It also granted them certain political and legal rights, including the right to hold public office and to serve in the military. The Edict of Nantes was an important step towards religious tolerance in France, but it was not without its limitations and it did not bring an end to religious conflict in the country. It was eventually revoked by King Louis XIV in 1685, leading to a new wave of persecution and emigration of Huguenots.

Goridan Knot

The Gordian Knot was a legend from ancient Greece about a complex and seemingly impossible knot. The legend says that whoever could untie the knot would become the ruler of Asia. The term is now often used to refer to any complex or seemingly impossible problem

Hapsburgs

The Habsburgs were a European royal family that ruled over a vast empire for many centuries. The family originated in Switzerland, and they gained power and influence through a series of strategic marriages and acquisitions. They came to rule over territories in Central Europe, including Austria, Hungary, and parts of Italy and Spain. The Habsburgs were known for their strong centralization of power and their efforts to expand and consolidate their territories. They were also known for their support of the Catholic Church, and for their involvement in the religious conflicts and wars of the 16th and 17th centuries. The Habsburgs were one of the most influential and powerful royal families in European history, and their legacy continues to shape the political and cultural landscape of Europe.

Holy Roman Empire

The Holy Roman Empire was a political and cultural entity in Europe that existed from the 10th to the 19th century. It was a loose federation of states and territories that were united under the rule of the Holy Roman Emperor. The Holy Roman Empire was centered in Central Europe, and it included much of modern-day Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. It was a successor to the Western Roman Empire, and it was influenced by the traditions and institutions of the Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire was often at war with its neighbors, and its history was marked by political instability and religious conflicts. It was dissolved in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.

Huegenots

The Huguenots were French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin. The Huguenots emerged as a distinct group in the 16th century, during a time of religious conflict and persecution in France. Many Huguenots were members of the middle and upper classes, and they were influential in commerce, industry, and the arts. However, they faced intense discrimination and persecution from the Catholic majority in France, and many Huguenots were forced to flee the country. The most famous Huguenot emigration was the series of mass exoduses known as the "Huguenot Diaspora," which began in the 1680s and continued for several decades. Many Huguenots settled in Protestant countries such as England, the Netherlands, and the newly-founded United States, where they contributed to the growth and development of these societies.

Ides of March

The Ides of March is a date in the Roman calendar that corresponds to March 15th. It was originally a holiday that marked the full moon, but in the later Roman Republic, it became associated with important political events. In 44 BC, the Roman statesman and general Julius Caesar was assassinated on the Ides of March, and the date has since become associated with betrayal and misfortune.

Magna Carta

The Magna Carta, also known as the Great Charter, was a document that was signed by King John of England in 1215. It was an agreement between the king and a group of rebel barons, who were demanding greater political rights and limitations on the power of the monarchy. The Magna Carta is considered to be one of the most important documents in the history of English and American democracy. It is famous for its provisions on the rights of individuals and the limits on the power of the state, and for its influence on the development of constitutional government. The Magna Carta was the first document to establish the principle that the king was subject to the law, and it is considered to be a cornerstone of the rule of law.

Merovingians

The Merovingians were a Frankish dynasty that ruled over much of Western Europe in the 5th to 8th centuries AD. They were named after their founder, Merovech, who was said to be the son of the sea god Neptune. The Merovingians are known for their strong centralized government, their expansionist policies, and their support of Christianity. They are also famous for their association with the legendary figure of King Arthur, who is said to have fought against the invading Saxons during the reign of the Merovingian king, Childeric. The Merovingian dynasty came to an end in the 8th century, when it was replaced by the Carolingian dynasty.

Oppian Law

The Oppian Law was a law passed by the Roman Senate in 195 BC that placed strict limits on the ownership and use of luxury goods. The law was named after the tribune Gaius Oppius, who proposed it in response to the Roman defeat in the Second Punic War. The law prohibited the possession of more than a certain amount of gold, silver, or other precious items, and it also placed restrictions on the use of carriages and the number of slaves that a person could own. The law was unpopular with the wealthy classes, and it was eventually repealed by the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius in the 2nd century AD.

Peace of Westphalia

The Peace of Westphalia was a series of treaties signed in 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War in Europe and marked the beginning of the modern system of international relations. The Thirty Years' War was a destructive and costly conflict that involved most of the major European powers, and it was fought primarily over religious and political differences. The Peace of Westphalia was negotiated in the German cities of Münster and Osnabrück, and it involved the participation of more than 200 diplomats and representatives of the various European powers. The treaties established the principle of national sovereignty and the equality of states, and they recognized the right of individuals to practice their own religion. The Peace of Westphalia also laid the foundations for the modern system of international law and diplomacy, and it is considered a landmark event in European history.

The Prince

The Prince is a political treatise written by the Italian political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli. It was published in 1532, and it is one of the most famous and influential works of political philosophy in history. The Prince is a guide to rulers on how to maintain and increase their power, and it is famous for its advocacy of "realpolitik" and its rejection of traditional moral and ethical principles. The book is a study of the art of statecraft, and it is notable for its cynical and ruthless view of politics. The Prince is a classic work of political thought, and it is still widely read and studied today.

Puritans

The Puritans were a group of English Protestants who sought to purify the Church of England from what they saw as the remaining traces of Roman Catholicism. They were Calvinists, and they believed in predestination, the strict observance of the Sabbath, and the importance of individual Bible reading. The Puritans were a significant force in English religion and politics in the 16th and 17th centuries, and they played a major role in the English Civil War and the establishment of the Commonwealth. They are also known for their role in the colonization of North America, where they founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other settlements. The Puritans are remembered for their religious devotion and their commitment to education, and for their strict moral code and their opposition to religious and cultural diversity.

Reconquista

The Reconquista was a series of military campaigns that were fought by Christian states in Spain and Portugal to reconquer the Iberian Peninsula from Muslim rule. It began in the 11th century and ended in the 15th century, with the fall of the Muslim kingdom of Granada. The Reconquista was a long and complex process, and it involved many different Christian kingdoms and Muslim states. It was motivated by religious and political factors, and it had a profound impact on the history and culture of Spain and Portugal. The Reconquista is an important period in the history of Europe, and it is still a subject of study and debate among historians.

Requerimiento

The Requerimiento (also known as the Requirement) was a document that was read to the indigenous peoples of the Americas by Spanish conquistadors in the early 16th century. The Requerimiento was a formal declaration of the Spanish crown's claim to the land and its inhabitants, and it was intended to justify the conquest and colonization of the Americas. The document stated that the indigenous peoples were required to submit to the authority of the Spanish king and to accept the Christian religion, or else face the consequences of military action. The Requerimiento was read to the indigenous people before the Spanish launched an attack, and it was used as a legal justification for the conquest. The document has been criticized for its lack of respect for the rights and autonomy of the indigenous peoples, and it is often seen as an example of the cultural and legal imperialism of the Spanish empire.

Society of Jesus

The Society of Jesus, also known as the Jesuits, is a Catholic religious order that was founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola in 1540. The Jesuits are known for their commitment to education and missionary work, and for their emphasis on intellectual rigor and spiritual discipline. They were active in many parts of the world, including Europe, Asia, and the Americas, and they were involved in a wide range of activities, including preaching, education, and the arts. The Jesuits were a significant force in the Counter-Reformation, and they were instrumental in the Catholic Church's efforts to combat Protestantism and to spread the faith. The Society of Jesus is still active today, and it is one of the largest and most influential religious orders in the Catholic Church.

St. Crispin's Day Speech

The St. Crispin's Day Speech is a famous speech that is delivered by the character King Henry V in Act IV, Scene 3 of William Shakespeare's play Henry V. The speech is given to the English army on the eve of the Battle of Agincourt, and it is meant to inspire and motivate the soldiers. In the speech, King Henry V tells the soldiers that they are fighting for their country and for their freedom, and he urges them to be brave and to trust in their cause. The speech is famous for its rhetorical power and its stirring call to action, and it has become one of the most celebrated moments in Shakespeare's play.

Sumerians

The Sumerians were a civilization that lived in ancient Mesopotamia, in the region known as Sumer. They are considered to be the first civilization in world history, and are known for their innovations in writing, literature, architecture, and governance.

University of Salamanca

The University of Salamanca is a public university located in Salamanca, Spain. It was founded in 1218, making it one of the oldest universities in the world. The University of Salamanca has a long history of academic excellence, and it has been a center of learning and scholarship for more than 800 years. It has produced many notable graduates, including the explorer Christopher Columbus, the philosopher and theologian Duns Scotus, and the writer Miguel de Cervantes.

Western Schism

The Western Schism, also known as the Papal Schism, was a split within the Catholic Church that lasted from 1378 to 1417. It began when two rival popes were elected, one in Rome and one in Avignon, and it ended when a council of bishops and cardinals met at the Council of Constance and elected Pope Martin V as the sole pope. The Western Schism was a time of great confusion and conflict within the Church, and it led to a crisis of authority and credibility. Many people lost faith in the Church, and some turned to other religious movements, such as Wycliffe's Lollards and the Hussites. The Western Schism is a significant event in the history of the Church, and it is still studied and debated by historians and theologians.

Zodiac Circle

The zodiac circle is a celestial circle that is divided into twelve equal parts, or "signs," which are named after constellations. The zodiac is used in astrology, where it is believed to represent the influence of the planets on human affairs. Each sign of the zodiac is associated with a particular set of characteristics and qualities, and astrologers use the position of the planets within the zodiac to make predictions and analyze the personalities of individuals. The zodiac circle is a key concept in astrology, and it is still widely used by astrologers today.

Thomas Müntzer

Thomas Müntzer was a German theologian and reformer who was active during the Protestant Reformation. Müntzer was a contemporary of Martin Luther, and he was a leading figure in the Radical Reformation, a movement that sought to bring about more radical changes in the Church. Müntzer is known for his support of the peasants during the German Peasants' War, and for his role in the uprising in the city of Mühlhausen. He is also known for his writings on theology, which were influenced by Anabaptist ideas. Müntzer was a controversial figure in his time, and he is remembered as a radical and a revolutionary. He was executed in 1525, after being captured by the forces of the German prince, Philip I of Hesse.

Tycho Brahe

Tycho Brahe was a Danish astronomer who lived in the 16th century. He is known for his accurate and detailed observations of the stars and planets, and for his contributions to the field of astronomy. Brahe was a pioneer in the use of precise instruments to make astronomical measurements, and he was one of the first scientists to reject the idea of an Earth-centered universe. He is also famous for his disagreements with the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, and for his role in the development of the heliocentric model of the solar system. Brahe is remembered as a leading figure in the Scientific Revolution, and as an important figure in the history of astronomy.

Walter M. Miller, Jr.

Walter M. Miller, Jr. was an American science fiction writer and author of the novel A Canticle for Leibowitz. He was born in New Smyrna Beach, Florida, in 1923, and he served in the Army Air Corps during World War II. After the war, he attended the University of Tennessee and studied engineering. In the 1950s, he began writing science fiction, and his first novel, A Canticle for Leibowitz, was published in 1959. The novel is set in a post-apocalyptic world and explores themes of faith, science, and the meaning of history. Miller won the Hugo Award for Best Novel for A Canticle for Leibowitz, and it remains one of the most important and influential works of science fiction. Miller died in 1996 by suicide. He struggled with depression and other mental issues.

Weregild

Weregild was a concept in medieval Germanic law that referred to the value of a person's life, or the compensation that was paid to the family of a person who had been killed. The word "weregild" comes from the Old English words "wer" (meaning "man") and "gild" (meaning "payment"). In medieval society, the weregild was an important part of the legal system, as it provided a way to compensate the family of a victim and to prevent feuds and vendettas. The amount of the weregild varied depending on the person's social status, and it could be paid in the form of money or goods. The concept of weregild is similar to the modern concept of compensation for wrongful death.

Xerxes I

Xerxes I was the king of the Persian Empire, which was one of the largest empires in the ancient world. He ruled from 486 BC to 465 BC, and is known for his campaigns against the Greek city-states and his construction of the massive palace at Persepolis.