PS 336 Final

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What are the environmental benefits of GMOs

"Friendly" bioherbicides and bioinsecticides; conservation of soil, water, and energy; bioprocessing for forestry products; better natural water management; more efficient processing

1. Name and briefly explain at least 5 primary uses of the oceans.

1. Fisheries and aquaculture 2. Recreation and tourism 3. Transportation and telecommunication 4. Human settlements on the coast 5. Offshore oil, gas and mining 6. Energy 7. Marine biotechnology 8. Ocean dumping and ship wastes 9. Aesthetics

LRTAP regime evolution: Stockholm Conference

1972- Sweden is the lead state in the late 1960s; Sweden and other Nordic states started a monitoring program (1972-1977)

LRTAP regime evolution: Helsinki Accord

1975- a conference on security and cooperation in Europe; Soviet Union proposed to discuss the environment, energy and transport; Sweden, Finland, Norway took initiative; veto coalition of other industrialized states: UK, US, FRG (Federal Republic of Germany), Belgium, Denmark

LRTAP regime evolution: Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution

1979- pressure from lead states leads UK and FRG to accept vague obligations, "least common denominator compromise" was a weak treaty originally

LRTAP regime evolution: Stockholm Conference on Acidification

1982- Germany announces it will work to reduce forming pollutants, veto coalition started to break

What is the IPCC? When was it created? What is its objective? What are its predictions about the global climate change?

1988: IPCC - created by the UN and WMO Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) rejected uniform "harmonized policies" in favor of flexibility called for "legally binding mid-term targets" Prediction: ?? Reduction is to be from 1990 levels and achieved by 2008-2012 (average)

Explain the main elements of the Framework Convention on Climate Change.

1992: Framework Convention on Climatic Change (FCCC) Goal: to "prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." Applies to GHG generally Developed countries accept primary responsibility for the climate change problem and agree to take first steps to address it Developed countries aim to return GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2000

How many layers are there is the atmosphere?

5 layers

How many layers are there is the atmosphere? Where do humans and most other species live? Explain the basic characteristics of the atmosphere.

5 layers. We live in the troposphere. Characterisitcs: Nitrogen-78%; Oxygen 21%, Argon-1%; Carbon Dioxide

Drawbacks of Chinese "one-child" policy

The drawbacks are that usually it's more males being born in China and the female population is taking a hit. This also leads to infanticides and the temptation to hide the extra children, who cannot receive benefits. Also leads to big social pressure to report or shaming people if they break law which can lead to unsafe abortions.

What was the original veto coalition for the LRTAP regime?

UK, US, FRG, Belgium, Denmark

Why did the LRTAP regime start to break?

UNECE had to consider specific options; major states were veto states

What are GMOs?

a special set of technologies that alter the genetic makeup of organisms such as animals, plants, and bacteria and combining genes from different organisms is known as recombinant DNA technology

Why did Canada become a lead state in advocating new international policy on fishing? Describe UNCED 1991 negotiations.

Canada had beef with nations that are straddling their EEZs and about migratory stocks. They wanted to limit the freedom of distant-water states to exploit straddling fish resources, and they had disputes with EU and especially Spain (overfishing on the Grand Banks outside Canadian EEZ). -Proposal from coastal states: new conservation rules for high-seas fisheries, BUT not for fisheries under national jurisdiction. Special interests of coastal states in highly migratory stocks. Issue is unresolved until Rio Conference (1992). Canada is lead state.

What are the responsibilities of the developed countries under the Convention on Biological Diversity?

Developed Countries must: -provide new and additional financial resources to assist developing countries to comply with the convention -provide priority access to the results and benefits arising from biotechnologies to countries from where genetic materials originated -facilitate transfer of technologies relevant to conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity under fair and favorable terms

What is World Conservation Union and what are its functions?

International organization working in nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, lobbying and education. Tries to influence actions of governments, businesses and other stakeholders by providing info and advice, and through lobbying and partnerships.

Where did acidification become a problem?

London Smog and Chicago

What is the LRTAP regime

Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution Regime

What are the potential causes of global climate change? What are its potential consequences?

Potential causes are: (1) human expansion of the greenhouse effect. (2) A naturally occurring cycle. Potential consequences are: (1) Earth will become warmer, some regions may welcome warmer temperatures, but others may not. (2) Also, warmer conditions will probably lead to more evaporation and precipitation overall, but individual regions will vary, some becoming wetter and others dryer. (3) A stronger greenhouse effect will warm the oceans and partially melt glaciers and other ice, increasing sea level. (4) Meanwhile, some crops and other plants may respond favorably to increased atmospheric CO2, growing more vigorously and using water more efficiently. At the same time, higher temperatures and shifting climate patterns may change the areas where crops grow best and affect the makeup of natural plant communities.

What is Kyoto Protocol? When was it adopted? What are the requirements under the Kyoto? What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Protocol?

Pros Advocates of Kyoto claim that reducing GHG emissions is an essential step in slowing or reversing global warming, and that immediate multinational collaboration is needed if the world is to have any serious hope of preventing devastating climate changes Scientists agree that even a small increase in the average global temperature would lead to significant climate and weather changes, and profoundly affect plant, animal and human life on earth Cons Arguments against the Kyoto Protocol generally fall into three categories: it demands too much; achieves too little; or it is unnecessary George Bush rejecting it claimed that the treaty requirements would harm the U.S. economy, leading to high economic losses. Bush also objected to the exemption for developing nation Some people believe there is no real evidence of global warming due to human activity Kyoto divided world into two camps, developed and nondeveloped. Only developed countries were forced to reduce their emissions (Annex 1) while nondeveloped countries were not required to do anything (Annex 2)

What are the major provisions of the Convention on Highly Migratory and Straddling Stocks (1995)? What are its major drawbacks?

Provisions: -Reaffirms responsibility of nations that fish the stocks to cooperate in preserving them -Fishing nations are responsible for accurate figures on catch -Adopts the precautionary approach -Denies access to nations not members of regional fishery commissions -Significantly strengthens enforcement, especially responsibilities of the flag states -Disputes to be resolved peacefully Drawbacks: 1) Regional fisheries organizations allow members to simply opt out of the decision if they don't like it 2) Overcapacity of global fishing fleet 3) Only applies to 20% of fish stocks

What are the major provisions of the Convention on Highly Migratory and Straddling Stocks (1995)? What are its major drawbacks?

Provisions: -reaffirms responsibility of nations that fish the stocks to cooperate in preserving them -fishing nations responsible for accurate figures on catch -adopts precautionary approach -denies access to nations not members of regional fishery commissions. -significantly strengthens enforcement, especially responsibilities of the flag states -disputes to be resolved by peaceful means. Drawbacks: -regional fisheries organizations allow members to simply opt of the decision if they don't like it -overcapacity of the global fishing fleet -Does not apply to all fish stocks (20%) -restricted to highly migratory and straddling fish, and not other fishes.

Neo-Malthusian's claim about population growth, resources, and conflict

depletion, scarcity, resource competition, and conflict hundreds of millions of people will starve to death; environment is the national-security issue of the 21 century; water wars on horizon; resource wars over key environmental supports for economies around the world millions will die in the wars and economic and political conflicts created by collapse of global civilization

How was the Outer Space treaty developed?

developed based on Antarctic Treaty

Effectiveness in population policies

does the policy obtain its objectives in expected ways

Effects of population policies

does the program lead to unintended but predictable effects (like costs, hazards, risks, and social consequences); does the program lead to unpredictable effects

Access and Intellectual property controversy regarding GMO's

domination of world food production by a few companies; increasing dependence on industrialized nations by developing countries; biopiracy, or foreign exploitation of natural resources

What are the crop benefits of GMOs

enhanced tasted and quality; reduced maturation time; increased nutrients, yields, and stress tolerance; improved resistance to disease, pests, and herbicides; new products and growing techniques

Chinese "one-child" population policy

ensures that families only have one child through pólices such as fines, pressure and coercion under an authoritarian government. Today, contrary to past years, there are more exclusion to this one child policy.

What is the EEZ?

exclusive economic zones- 200 mile zone under national jurisdiction of individual coastal states.

women's role and power and society affect on population dynamics

global North vs. Global South; regime characteristics; educating women and helping them find jobs will reduce birth rates → women will want to establish themselves as individuals, not just mothers

What is the IPCC? When was it created? What is its objective? What are its predictions about the global climate change?

intergovernmental panel on climate change; 1988; climate change- wants to provide clear, scientific views on climate change and potential environmental/socio-economic impacts; predicts that global warming is getting worse

Why does hunger continue to be so widespread? Name and briefly explain at least 5 factors.

poverty (people are too poor to purchase adequate food) low level of agricultural development (cannot grow food as effectively) inequitable distribution of land (some countries have larger, more fertile lands than others) cash cropping for export ( government pricing policies wars and unrest (destroys crops, increases famine as resources are destroyed, people trying not to get shot instead of working about food) environmental factors (droughts, desertification, land degradation) human diseases (mainly HIV/AIDS)

List and briefly explain the major objectives of the Antarctica Treaty? What is its major significance?

• No state can lay claims on Antarctica • Objectives are: -Demilitarize Antarctica -Establish zone free of nuclear tests and the disposal of radioactive waste -Promote international scientific cooperation -Set aside disputes over territorial sovereignty

2. What were the core principles of the international law on fishing before the 1970s?

• Ocean fisheries were open access resources (customary law) • Joint regulatory commissions • Highly contentious contractual environment • Lacking authority or monitoring capacity Mid 1970s • Contractual environment was transformed • The EEZ was accepted gradually by all states • Coastal states received the authority to allocate fish catches within their zones

9. What is Kyoto Protocol? When was it adopted? What are the requirements under the Kyoto? What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Protocol?

• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in December 1997. Developed countries agreed to a mandatory reduction of their GHG emissions. Reduction is to be from 1990 levels and achieved by 2008-2012 (average for those 5 years). • The protocol left the specific rules and operational details for how countries could achieve reductions unresolved.

Markets First Scenario

-a world in which market-driven developments converge on the values and expectations that prevail in industrialized countries -trust is placed in further globalization and liberalization to enhance corporate wealth, create new enterprises and livelihoods, and so help people and communities to afford to insure against or pay to fix social and environmental problems

Security First scenario

-a world of great disparities, where inequality and conflict prevail, brought about by socio-economic and environmental stresses -more powerful and wealthy groups focus on self-protection, creating enclaves akin to the present day gated communities

Why did acidification become a problem?

Because it is harming ocean life and can have a major impact on the economy based on how serious the impact on the oceans are

explain the major objectives of the Antarctic Treaty?

(1959): "Disarmament Treaty" to demilitarize Antarctica: no weapons or nuclear testing, no military activity to establish a zone free of nuclear tests and the disposal of radioactive waste to promote international scientific cooperation: no country can lay claim to Antarctica, so countries work together to test and solve problems there, freedom of scientific investigation to set aside disputes over territorial sovereignty: prevent any one state from having control over it

How does the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety address the issues of GMOs?

(2000) entered into force in 2003 (upon 50th ratification). Addresses potential risks that living modified organisms (LMOs) may pose to the environment (not health issues). Based on the precautionary principle that it's better safe than sorry. Advanced informed consent (AIA) required for first exports of LMOs to a country. Bulk shipments of LMO commodities intended for food or feed to be marked by "may contain LMOs and are not intended to be introduced into the environment

Positive checks of Malthusian Predicament

(higher death rate): War, famine, and pestilence

Negative checks of Malthusian Predicament

(lower birth rate): abortions, infanticide, birth control

What is acidification? Why did become a problem? Where?

-Acidification refers to a reduction in the pH of the ocean over an extended period of time, caused primarily by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere -Disturbing revelations linking acid deposition to the dieback in forests over widespread ares of West Germany and to the almost complete destruction of large stands of trees in the neighboring high-altitude forests of eastern Europe. This info was revealed and discusses at the 1982 Stockholm Conference on Acidification of the Environment -Germany announced it will work to reduce acid forming pollutants

Why isn't there a comprehensive international treaty on deforestation?

-Because of its complexity and the successful efforts of a veto coalition -FAO Committee on Forestry meets every two years

How does UNCLOS 1982 affect the law on fishing?

-Coastal states have exclusive right to manage fisheries in 200 miles EEZs -Conflicts over straddling and migratory stocks -Limiting the freedom of distant water states to exploit straddling fish resources -Disputes with EU and especially Spain (overfishing on the Grand Banks outside the Canadian EEZ)

What are the flexibility mechanisms under the Kyoto?

-Emission trading: purchasing credits from countries that have more than exceeded their limits. Emissions trading allows countries that have emission units to spare (emissions permitted them but not used) to sell this excess capacity to countries that are over their targets. -Joint implementation: investing in emission saving projects in other developed countries -Clean Development Mechanism: investing in emission saving projects in developing countries

Delineate the evolution of UNCLOS (I, II, and III). Major accomplishments.

-UNCLOS I (1958): attended by 84 countries; adoption of four treaties on territorial seas and contiguous zones, continental shelves, high seas, and fishing and the conservation of living resources -UNCLOS II (1960): attended by 88 countries; no additional agreement -UNCLOS III (1973-1982): attended by 149 countries; adopted the Convention on the Law of the Sea

What was the cause and outcome of the Turbot War?

-On March 9th, 1995, the Canadian Coast Guard seized the Spanish fishing trawler Estai off the coast of Newfoundland. The Canadian government claimed the vessel was over-fishing turbot. Quotas of allowable catches were set by the North Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO). -The Canadians claimed that Spanish and Portuguese vessels were catching more than the quotas. Emma Bonino, the EU Fisheries Commissioner, called the seizure "an act of organized piracy." The Spanish demanded that the Canadian government return the ship to its captain and crew along with its catch of Greenland Halibut, or Turbot. They said Estai was fishing in international waters. -Realizing that there was a very real possibility of actual combat breaking out over the dispute the EU put pressure on Spain to agree to a deal and on April 5th an agreement was reached. Under this agreement Spain was forced to leave the disputed zone and Canada's right to eject foreign fishing vessels from the area using military force was accepted. Under the deal Canada's own Greenland turbot quota was reduced, and they refunded the $500,000 fine to the owners of the Estai. -This confrontation was one of the reasons for the Convention on Highly Migratory and Straddling Stocks to come into be.

What were the issues at stake and the outcome of UN Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (1993)?

-The issue: water distant states abused their right to fish BUT overfishing is a common responsibility -Conflict of interest between 70 coastal fishing states and 10 water distant states -Both groups became veto coalitions

List and briefly explain the major objectives of the Outer Space Treaty? What is its substance? How was the treaty developed? (6)

-The second of the so-called "non-armament" treaties -Prevent a new form of colonial competition -No military installations in orbit of Earth -Moon only for peaceful exploration -Modeled on Antarctic Treaty -The creation of a special regime for outer space and celestial bodies was necessitated by the commencement of space activities with the launch of the first artificial satellites of the Earth under an international scientific programme, the International Geophysical Year (IGY) (1957-1958), and the rapid development of rocket technology during that period.

Sustainability First world

-a world in which a new development paradigm emerges in response to the challenge of sustainability, supported by new, more equitable values and institutions -there is much fuller collaboration between governments, citizens and other stakeholder groups in decision-making on issues of close common concern

What are the benefits of Kyoto Protocol

-benefits: engagement between the parties, continuous search for solutions, reporting system, reviews and definition of terms (strengthens regime), trading environment created by personal connections, visibility, generation motivation, and pressure for negotiators -Advocates of Kyoto claim that reducing GHG emissions is an essential step in slowing or reversing global warming, and that immediate multinational collaboration is needed if the world is to have any serious hope of preventing devastating climate changes Scientists agree that even a small increase in the average global temperature would lead to significant climate and weather changes, and profoundly affect plant, animal and human life on earth

How does the UNCLOS 1982 affect the law on fishing?

-coastal states have exclusive right to manage fisheries in 200 mile EEZs -Conflicts over straddling and migratory stocks -Canada is the lead actor -Limiting the freedom of distant-water states to exploit straddling fish resources -disputes with EU and especially Spain (overfishing on the Grand Banks outside Canadian EEZ). -protection of the marine environment, scientific research, and settlement of disputes -landlocked states are given a right of access to and from the sea, without taxation of traffic through transit states

Name and briefly explain at least 5 primary uses of the oceans.

-fisheries and aquaculture: -recreation and tourism: -transportation and telecommunication: -human settlements on the coast: -offshore oil, gas, and mining: -energy: -marine biotechnology: -non-consumptive uses: beauty, tourism, etc -ocean dumping and ship wastes -disposal of waste from land

Why species and biodiversity are international issues?

-increasing rate of extinctions -migration of species across international borders -shared ecosystems that transcend international boundaries -some species reside in international boundaries -some species reside in international commons -species as a common interest or concern (genetic heritage of humanity) -rise of the biotechnology industry and international trade in genetic materials -impact of global climate change on rate of extinctions.

What are the consequences of deforestation?

-loss of biodiversity, increases GHG emissions, disrupts water cycle, increases soil erosion, decreases natural beauty, global climate changes,

Name and briefly explain at least 6 core problems facing global fisheries today.

-overcapitalization of industry: massive high capacity fleets -massive subsidies by governments -increased competition among fishing nations -indiscriminate practices: 1 lbs of shrimp caught causes 10 lbs of other fish to die -uncertain or incomplete reporting -impact of fishing on marine ecosystems -inadequate cooperation -damage to coastal and marine habitats

Drawbacks of the Kyoto?

-political division between developed and developing countries, complexity (need to negotiate global and diverse issues), risk of installing liabilities and problems that are too big and deeply rooted in global governance in institutions, very large/diverse number of participants, complex procedures and themes, lack of majority voting system, lack of prioritization of issues that hinders achievement of goals and decision making, characteristics inherent in climate change issue (scope and severity of its impacts) -Arguments against the Kyoto Protocol generally fall into three categories: it demands too much; achieves too little; or it is unnecessary. George Bush rejecting it claimed that the treaty requirements would harm the U.S. economy, leading to high economic losses. Bush also objected to the exemption for developing nation. Some people believe there is no real evidence of global warming due to human activity Kyoto divided world into two camps, developed and undeveloped. Only developed countries were forced to reduce their emissions (Annex 1) while undeveloped countries were not required to do anything (Annex 2)

Policy First World

-strong actions are undertaken by governments in an attempt to reach specific social and environmental goals -environmental and social costs and gains are factored into policy measures, regulatory frameworks and planning processes, which are reinforced by fiscal levers or incentives such as carbon taxes and tax breaks

4. How do Earth Systems interact with Human Systems in the Global Climate change issue? (discuss socio-economic development, climate process drivers, impacts and vulnerability, and the responses, such adaptation and mitigation). Take a position in developing your answer.

...

What were the core principles of the international law on fishing before the 1970s?

1) Ocean fisheries were open-access resources (customary law) 2) Joint regulatory commissions 3) Highly contentious contractual environment 4) Lacking authority or monitoring capacity

Name and explain at least 6 core problems facing global fisheries today.

1) Overcapitalization of the industry 2) Massive government subsidies 3) Increased competition among fishing nations 4) Indiscriminate practices 5) Uncertain or incomplete reporting 6) Impact of fishing on marine ecosystems 7) Inadequate cooperation 8) Damage to coastal and marine habitats

6. What are the benefits of GMOs (mention crops, animals, environment, society, etc).

1. Crops -Enhanced taste and quality -Reduced maturation time -Increased nutrients, yields, and stress tolerance -Improved resistance to disease, pests, and herbicides -New products and growing techniques 2. Animals -Increased resistance, productivity, hardiness, and feed efficiency -Better yields of meat, eggs, and milk -Improved animal health and diagnostic methods 3. Environment -Friendly bioherbicides and bioinsecticides -Conservation of soil, water, and energy -Bioprocessing for forestry products -Better natural waste management -More efficient processing 4. Society -Increased food security for growing population

3. Why does hunger continue to be so widespread? Name and briefly explain at least 5 factors.

1. Poverty (people are to poor to purchase adequate food) 2. Low level of agricultural development 3. Inequitable distribution of land 4. Cash cropping for export 5. Government pricing policies 6. Wars and unrest 7. Environmental factors (droughts, land degradation) 8. Human diseases (HIV/AIDs)

7. What are the drawbacks of GMOs? (mention crops, animals, environment, society, etc).

1. Safety -Potential human health impacts, including allergens, transfer of antibiotic resistance makers, unknown effects. -Potential environmental impacts including: unintended transfer of transgenes through cross-pollination, unknown effects on other organisms, and loss of flora and fauna biodiversity 2. Access and intellectual property -Domination of world food production by a few companies -Increasing dependence on industrialized nations by developing countries -Biopiracy, foreign exploitation of natural resources 3. Ethics -Violation of natural organisms intrinsic values -Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species -Objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vice versa -Stress for animals 4. Labeling -Not mandatory in some countries (U.S.) -Mixing GM crops with non-GM products confounds labeling attempts 5. Society -New advances may be skewed to interests of rich countries.

What are the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)?

All Parties must: -Adopt plans for conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity -establish programs for identification and monitoring of biological diversity -establish national protected areas -develop facilities for ex-situ conservation of biodiversity -Facilitate access to genetic resources by other states

List and briefly explain the major objectives of the Antarctic Treaty? What is its major significance?

Antarctic Treaty (1959): "Disarmament Treaty" to demilitarize Antarctica: no weapons or nuclear testing, no military activity to establish a zone free of nuclear tests and the disposal of radioactive waste to promote international scientific cooperation: no country can lay claim to Antarctica, so countries work together to test and solve problems there, freedom of scientific investigation to set aside disputes over territorial sovereignty: prevent any one state from having control over it Significance: First international treaty that was adopted that states that a land is dedicated to peace and science. Used as a framework for other international, non-armament treaties such as the Other Space Treaty on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Treaty was a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved.

How do Earth Systems interact with Human Systems in the Global Climate change issue? (discuss socio-economic development, climate process drivers, impacts and vulnerability, and the responses, such adaptation and mitigation). Take a position in developing your answer.

As populations continue to increase with no relent, demands/impacts on resources and the environment increase. The Global North, who are the most developed, were able to use fossil fuels and use natural resources without limit when they were developing. Now, the Global South is able to use the industrial resources, but some in the GN is calling for cleaner power and more regulations on natural resource which is hindering the development of GS. However, there are some in the GN, such as the US, who are withholding using cleaner power and taking care of the climate. Without proactive and preventative measures by the entire population, a heavier load is placed on resources and the environment. In regard to global climate change, it is not yet agreed universally if global climate change is naturally-occurring or is directly caused by human interaction. GHG emissions are the largest known issue behind global climate change. Responses: Reducing the amount of future climate change is called mitigation of climate change.The IPCC defines mitigation as activities that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Other policy responses include adaptation to climate change. Adaptation to climate change may be planned, either in reaction to or anticipation of climate change, or spontaneous, i.e., without government intervention. Basically talk about the lagard activity to create a global agreement to take climate action. Some have been using cleaner energy, environmental organizations form but do not have any enforcement power, and growing acceptance of human impacts on the earth that relates to climate change.

Explain the role of CITES, When was it adopted? Why? How are species protected under the CITES?

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species): adopted in 1973 with 173 parties. 5000 species of animals and 28,000 species of plants are protected. Is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals. Aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild. -Appendix I: includes threatened with extinction. Trade is permitted only in exceptional circumstances -Appendix II: trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival -Appendix III: contains species that are protected in at least one country.

2. What are the potential causes of global climate change? What are its potential consequences?

Causes of CC are human based: emissions of GHGs, and non-human based solar activity, volcanoes.

What are the major challenges for the international community in trying to develop a new climate change regime?

Complexity of the climate change causes and consequences. Complexity of the global environmental governance framework. Difference in cultures between nations. Issues of how to monitoring and measure compliance and results. Enforcement.

What were the issues at stake and the outcome of UN Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (1993)?

Conflict of interest between 70 coastal fishing states and 10 distant-water fishing states. -Issue: distant-water states abuse their right to fish BUT overfishing is a common responsibility. Both groups of states are different veto coalitions. -US proposes precautionary approach with reference points (target levels of fishing effort) and measures for rebuilding the stocks -Canada resists precautionary approach within national jurisdiction -Canada wanted to have the right of coastal states to board and inspect fishing vessels in international waters, which is crazy

What are the benefits of GMOs (mention crops, animals, environment, society, etc).

Crops: enhanced tasted and quality; reduced maturation time; increased nutrients, yields, and stress tolerance; improved resistance to disease, pests, and herbicides; new products and growing techniques Animals: increased resistance, productivity, hardiness, and feed efficiency; better yields of meat, eggs, and milk; improved animal health and diagnostic methods Environment: "Friendly" bioherbicides and bioinsecticides; conservation of soil, water, and energy; bioprocessing for forestry products; better natural water management; more efficient processing Society: increased food security for growing populations

What is deforestation and why is it an international issue?

Deforestation: conversion of forested areas to non-forested land. Pasture, urban use, and logging purposes can result in arid land and wastelands. -47% of earth's surface was covered in forest, now forest cover has completely vanished in 25 countries and only 10$ remains in 29 others -10 million hectares of forests continue to disappear each year -tropical forests are the richest ecosystems in terms of biodiversity (80% identified living species) -some 35% of mangroves have been destroyed in the last twenty years.

What are GMOs? What is biotechnology?

GMOs are genetically modified organisms: a special set of technologies that alter the genetic makeup of organisms such as animals, plants, and bacteria and combining genes from different organisms is known as recombinant DNA technology Biotechnology refers to using organisms or their components, such as enzymes, to make products that include wine, cheese, beer, and yogurt

What countries are the major importers?

EU, Russia

How can we evaluate population policies?

Effectiveness Effects Means Responsibility for "doing nothing"

How can we evaluate population policies? Who should bear the responsibility of "doing nothing?"

Effectiveness: does the policy obtain its objectives in expected ways Effects: does the program lead to unintended but predictable effects (like costs, hazards, risks, and social consequences); does the program lead to unpredictable effects Means: some effective means of birth control are not acceptable in our society (forced sterilization, etc) Responsibility for "doing nothing": if the policy is not implemented, who takes responsibility for that

What are the factors that make families have more children?

Financial Cultural Age Religion

What are the factors that make families have more children? Can we control population growth? Should we control population growth? Give examples.

Financial: more kids mean free labor; Cultural: Global South has higher infant mortality rates so more children to increase chance of surviving kids; Age: lower the age of married women increases children; Religion: religions, such as Catholicism, favours bigger families We can control: sterilization, tax incentives, fines,distribution of food, education, better access to medicine, policies limiting number of children We should: running out of food, not enough resources such as water, more humans adds to other environmental problems such as climate change. Ex: China, India

What is the Antarctic Treaty's major significance?

First international treaty that was adopted that states that a land is dedicated to peace and science. Used as a framework for other international, non-armament treaties such as the Other Space Treaty on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Treaty was a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved.

Cultural impact on having children

Global South has higher infant mortality rates so more children to increase chance of surviving kids

Are we facing global warming, global cooling, or extreme weather variability, or all of the above?

Global warming and extreme weather variability:: temperatures are rising on average globally; variability of climatic conditions is increasing there may be unexpected consequences of climate change; In the Southeast of the U.S. forests are likely to experience major species shifts or break up into a mosaic of grasslands, wetlands, and forests; projections suggest that the SE US will be warmer (2-4 degrees C) and between 20% wetter to 10% drier than the present by the end of the 21st century. "Models also project more frequent El Nino-like conditions with natural extreme rainfall event frequency."

Explain the main elements of the Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Goal is to "prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system." It applies to GNG generally; developed countries accept primary responsibility for the climate change problem and agree to take first steps to address it; developed countries aim to return GHG emissions to 1990 levels by 2000.

Name and briefly explain at least three points in scientific uncertainty about global climate change.

How much: global climate change will happen; how rapidly: it will happen; how climate variability will affect the rest of the climatic system and separate ecosystems. Scientific community sees many problems and cannot pick which is the worst; if sea level rise or warming are the main issues; puts stress culturally and politically; reports have degree of probability of problems/effects.

Explain the controversy about the global climate change. What do skeptics say? How do they explain their stance?

Humans are not the cause. Controversies about global climate change are: disagree that global warming is a serious problem; disagree that warming trends can be in large part due to humans; disagree that humans have significantly contributed to hurricanes; disagree that US government is not doing enough about global warming; disagree that international agreements such as preposterous Kyoto Protocol provide a useful framework for addressing global climate change. If global climate change is happening, than the main nations that have caused it, the GN, need to take care of it and help the GS develop cleaner. Skeptics claim that scientific reports have a degree of probability on problems/effects. Use the claim that earth is going to natural warming cycle and use the ice cores as evidence.

Impacts and Vulnerability: As populations continue to increase with no relent, demands/impacts on resources and the environment increase. Without proactive and preventative measures by the entire population, a heavier load is placed on resources and the environment. In regard to global climate change, it is not yet determined if global climate change is naturally-occurring or is directly caused by human interaction, but without a determining factor, we must make a decision to take action. GHG emissions are the largest known issue behind global climate change. Such responses for action follow: Responses: Reducing the amount of future climate change is called mitigation of climate change.The IPCC defines mitigation as activities that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Other policy responses include adaptation to climate change. Adaptation to climate change may be planned, either in reaction to or anticipation of climate change, or spontaneous, i.e., without government intervention

What is the significance of Vienna (Framework) Convention on Protecting the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol? Why do some call the ozone regime "perhaps the most successful international treaty?"

In 1985, 20 nations, including most CFC producers signed the Vienna Convention. This established a framework for negotiating international regulations to protect the ozone layer. Widespread ratification and implementation. 1987 Montreal Protocol on substances that deplete the ozone layer (191 countries have become party to the protocol) It was called most successful because it was ratified by 191 states in the United Nations.

Why do some countries, including the U.S., refuse to ratify the Kyoto?

It would damage the nation's economy. US claimed that Kyoto failed to include emission reduction mandates for developing countries. Reducing GHG's are easier and cheaper for other nations.

What is Kyoto Protocol? When was it adopted? What are the requirements under the Kyoto?

Kyoto Protocol- developed countries agreed to a mandatory reduction of their GHG emissions averaging 5.2%; adopted in December 1997. An international treaty. -requirements: reduction is to be from 1990 levels and achieved by 2008-2012

Outline the evolution of the LRTAP regime? Which states were the lead states? What was the original veto coalition? Why did it start to break? How was the regime strengthened?

LRTAP: Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution Regime Evolution: Stockholm Conference (1972)- Sweden is the lead state in the late 1960s; Sweden and other Nordic states started a monitoring program (1972-1977) Helsinki Accord (1975): a conference on security and cooperation in Europe; Soviet Union proposed to discuss the environment, energy and transport; Sweden, Finland, Norway took initiative; veto coalition of other industrialized states: UK, US, FRG (Federal Republic of Germany), Belgium, Denmark Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (1979)- pressure from lead states leads UK and FRG to accept vague obligations, "least common denominator compromise" was a weak treaty originally Stockholm Conference on Acidification (1982)- Germany announces it will work to reduce forming pollutants, veto coalition started to break, Regime strengthened through regular review and action depending on scientific evidence and understanding of health effects Lead States: Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, Norway ??? Original Veto: UK, US, FRG, Belgium, Denmark Break: UNECE had to consider specific options; major states were veto states

What countries are the major producers and exporters of GMO's?

Major producers and exporters are: US 53%, Argentina 17%, Brazil 11%, Canada 6%

1. Explain the Malthusian Predicament? What is the neo-Malthusian's standpoint? What are their claims about population growth, resources, and conflict?

Malthusian • A situation in which a society returns to a subsistence level of existence as a result of overtaxing its available agricultural resources. • Malthus pointed out that human populations tend to grow exponentially while the capabilities of agricultural resources tend to grow linearly. • Malthus pointed out that at a certain point, according to these patterns, the demands of a human population would outstrip agricultural ability. This would trigger radical social changes, including population decline and a state of misery. • Positive population checks (higher death rate)- war, famine, and pestilence • Negative population checks (lower birth rate)- abortions, infanticide, birth control Neo-Malthusian • Same basic concerns as Malthus. • Neo-Malthusians are more concerned with environmental degradation and catastrophic famine than poverty. • Population pressure and high resource consumption will lead to resource depletion, resource scarcity, resource competition, and conflict. • Advocate for contraceptive techniques in population control.

What are the flexibility mechanisms under the Kyoto?

May be offset by "flexibility mechanisms" emission trading (purchasing credits from countries that have more than exceeded their limits) joint implementation (investing in emission saving projects in other developed countries) clean development mechanism (investing in emission saving projects in developing countries)

Explain the basic characteristics of the atmosphere.

Nitrogen-78%; Oxygen 21%, Argon-1%; Carbon Dioxide-.03%

How does overfishing affect food security/job security in the world?

No fishing region in the world that does not suffer from fisheries mismanagement. 69% of oceans commercially targeted marine fish either fully or heavily exploited (overexploited 16%; depleted 6%). Catches are falling, from 86 million tons in 1989 to 82.5 million tons in 1992) even though expanding fleets are fishing harder. World Bank and FAO report in Oct 2008 that economic losses add up to $50 billion per year, so over last three decades the losses total over $2 trillion. Constantly overexploited fish stocks mean fish populations will drastically fall, and in the future nations cannot fish as much, making their economy and food resources fall heavily.

List and briefly explain the major objectives of the Outer Space Treaty? What is its substance? How was the treaty developed?

Objectives: to prevent new forms of colonial competition Substance: says countries can explore space, but not use it for testing; Article IV says no nuclear/military testing in any part of space developed based on Antarctic Treaty

Explain the controversy surrounding the production, use, and distribution of GMOs around the world?

What are the societal benefits of GMOs

increased food security for growing populations

Explain the controversy surrounding the production, use, and distribution of GMOs around the world? What countries are the major producers and exporters? What countries are the major importers of GMOs? What is the position of the developing countries toward GMOs? Can GMOs cure the problem of malnourishment?

Only developed countries have the means to produce and distribute GMOs; so the manufactures there have the authority to price and distribute GMOs. That is why GMOs are used more by developed countries rather than developing. GN had a boom in production yields, so food there is more readily available. This distribution is also a contributing factor to the Global Food Paradox. Safety: potential human health impacts, including allergens, transfer of antibiotic resistance markers, unknown effects; potential environmental impacts, including: unintended transfer of transgenes through cross-pollination, unknown effects on other organisms (e.g., soil microbes), and loss of flora and fauna biodiversity Access and Intellectual property: domination of world food production by a few companies; increasing dependence on industrialized nations by developing countries; biopiracy, or foreign exploitation of natural resources Ethics: violation of natural organisms' intrinsic values; tampering with nature by mixing genes among species; objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vice versa; stress for animal Labeling: not mandatory in some countries (e.g., US); mixing GM crops with non-GM products confounds labeling attempts Society: new advances may be skewed to interests of rich countries Major producers and exporters are: US 47%, Argentina, Brazil Major importers: EU, Russia Developing countries do see the benefit of GMOs, as their ability to grow in otherwise hostile lands, higher yields, resistance to various forces such as disease and drought, can help feed their hungry and lead to economical gains. However, since companies from developed nations have the GMOs and their licenses, they can charge whatever they want and developed restrictions that inhibit the GS's ability to use them, such as not being able to use seeds from the GMO crops they have already grown. GMO companies have also forced GS countries to grow specific crops as fast as they can with little monetary reward. GMOs have the ability to help solve the problem of malnourishment currently plaguing some countries. With the ability to have higher yields at a more dependable rate, countries in dire need of food need resolutions like GMOs to feed their hungry.

What are the animal benefits of GMOs

increased resistance, productivity, hardiness, and feed efficiency; better yields of meat, eggs, and milk; improved animal health and diagnostic methods

How was the LRTAP regime strengthened?

Regime strengthened through regular review and action depending on scientific evidence and understanding of health effects

What are the approaches to control population growth? What are the problems with these approaches?

Religion: affects the issues of conraception, abortion and sexul morality Respect for national sovereignty: difference in policies culture: difference in values freedom: difference in choices for family planning; nobody should be able to tell them what to do with their family nationalism: boosting some groups *example- immigration policies in France vs. Germany. Population grew significantly in France. Problems: high birth rate can coincide with high income growth and it is hard to assist developing countries to increase their incomes. Limiting the growth of population by violating human rights vs. implementing the policy of income growth. Difficulties are in some cases high birth rate can coincide with high income growth, and it is hard to assist developing countries to increase their incomes

Results of Convention on Biological Diversity?

Results: -protected area coverage has doubled over the past 20 years and terrestrial protected areas now cover over 12% of the earth's land surface -water quality in rivers in Europe, North America, and Latin America and the Caribbean has improved since 1980s

Why did Canada become a lead state in advocating new international policy on fishing? Describe UNCED 1991 negotiations.

Spain (overfishing on the Grand Banks outside the Canadian EEZ). UNCED 1991 negotiations: -proposal from coastal states: new conservation rules for high-seas fisheries BUT not for fisheries under national jurisdiction -Issue remains unresolved until Rio 1992

Outline the evolution of the LRTAP regime?

Stockholm Conference (1972) Helsinki Accord (1975) Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (1979) Stockholm Conference on Acidification (1982)

Which states were the lead states for the LRTAP regime?

Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, Norway

Briefly explain Chinese "one-child" population policy? What are its advantages and drawbacks?

The "one-child" policy ensures that families in China only have one child through pólices such as fines, pressure and coercion under an authoritarian government. Today, contrary to past years, there are more exclusion to this one child policy. The advantages are that it makes sure that the population in China does not exceed its limits. The drawbacks are that usually it's more males being born in China and the female population is taking a hit. This also leads to infanticides and the temptation to hide the extra children, who cannot receive benefits. Also leads to big social pressure to report or shaming people if they break law which can lead to unsafe abortions.

socio-economic conditions of population dynamics

increasing income leads to decrease in the number of children by providing opportunities to do other things in life; education; kids can be retirement plan and free labor

How does the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety address the issues of GMOs? Should the international community negotiate and adopt a special treaty to regulate the production, transport and use of GMOs?

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000) entered into force in 2003 (upon 50th ratification). Addresses potential risks that living modified organisms (LMOs) may pose to the environment (not health issues). Based on the precautionary principle that it's better safe than sorry. Advanced informed consent (AIA) required for first exports of LMOs to a country. Bulk shipments of LMO commodities intended for food or feed to be marked by "may contain LMOs and are not intended to be introduced into the environment. An international community should ratify adopt a treaty to regulate GMOs, especially since everything else is labeled, and certain universal steps need to be adopted to make sure all GMOs are tested properly and thoroughly to make certain that they will not have any adverse effects. The FDA requires decades of testing of drugs before the drug can even be TESTED on humans.

Explain the role of the USA and its proposal in global fisheries negotiations.

The USA was initially opposed to a legally binding convention, but then switched from a veto state to a lead state in proposing a "precautionary approach" with target levels of fishing and measures for rebuilding the stocks.

Advantages of Chinese "one-child" policy

The advantages are that it makes sure that the population in China does not exceed its limits.

Explain the Malthusian Predicament? What is the neo-Malthusian's standpoint? What are their claims about population growth, resources, and conflict?

The malthusian predicament is that population grows exponentially while food production grows linearly. Positive checks (higher death rate): War, famine, and pestilence; negative checks (lower birth rate): abortions, infanticide, birth control. Neo-Malthusians's standpoint is that population pressure and high resource consumption will lead to resource depletion, scarcity, resource competition, and conflict hundreds of millions of people will starve to death; environment is the national-security issue of the 21 century; water wars on horizon; resource wars over key environmental supports for economies around the world millions will die in the wars and economic and political conflicts created by collapse of global civilization

Discuss the global food paradox

The world produces more food per head than ever before in human history BUT about 1 billion people did not eat enough to lead fully productive (working) lives. This is caused by a number of factors, such as the Global North indulging more, more efficient methods of growing food by the GN, GS has a higher birth rate yet they still cannot grow food as effectively as they have grown to meet the demands of their population boom. Poverty, poorer families tend to have more kids who they can't feed, wastefulness by rich countries, and distribution are causes.

Discuss the global food paradox.

Explain the controversy about the global climate change. What do skeptics say? How do they explain their stance?

They disagree that: global warming (gm) is a serious problem warming trends "can be, in large part, attributed to human activity." human activity has significantly contributed to hurricanes the US gov't is not doing enough about global warming international agreements such as the preposterous Kyoto Protocol provide a useful framework for addressing global climate change Important Questions How and what are the consequences? How quickly/when will these consequences occur? How will other non-climatic systems (ecosystem, biosphere) respond to climatic change?

What is the position of the developing countries toward GMOs?

They do see the benefit of GMOs, as their ability to grow in otherwise hostile lands, higher yields, resistance to various forces such as disease and drought, can help feed their hungry and lead to economical gains. However, since companies from developed nations have the GMOs and their licenses, they can charge whatever they want and developed restrictions that inhibit the GS's ability to use them, such as not being able to use seeds from the GMO crops they have already grown. GMO companies have also forced GS countries to grow specific crops as fast as they can with little monetary reward.

Can GMOs cure the problem of malnourishment?

They have the ability to help solve the problem of malnourishment currently plaguing some countries. With the ability to have higher yields at a more dependable rate, countries in dire need of food need resolutions like GMOs to feed their hungry.

Should the international community negotiate and adopt a special treaty to regulate the production, transport and use of GMOs?

They should ratify adopt a treaty to regulate GMOs, especially since everything else is labeled, and certain universal steps need to be adopted to make sure all GMOs are tested properly and thoroughly to make certain that they will not have any adverse effects. The FDA requires decades of testing of drugs before the drug can even be TESTED on humans.

What are the two types of scientific errors with regard to global climate change?

Type 1- conclude that here is a significant human imprint on the global climate when there is none, and type 2- to fail to detect human imprint when one actually exists

What are the two types of scientific errors with regard to global climate change?

Type 1: to conclude that there is a significant human imprint on the global climate when there is none. Type 2: to fail to detect a significant human imprint on the global climate when one actually exists

Explain the US role and proposals in global fisheries negotiations.

US had a key position: initially opposed binding convention, then proposes precautionary approach with reference points and measures for rebuilding the stocks. -The US shift from veto state to lead state proved a major factor in overcoming the resistance of the two veto coalitions and gave greater impetus to the adoption of innovative conservation measures. (UN Conf on Straddling Fish Stocks, etc). -The U.S. is a coastal state and distant-water fishing state and was ready to join the distant water states because if its historical ties with the EU and Japan on Law of the Sea issues. The U.S. had clashed with Canada and other coastal states during the negotiations on the Law of the Sea. The U.S. was lobbied by NGOs and came out for a binding agreement then became a lead state.

Can we control population growth?

We can control: sterilization, tax incentives, fines,distribution of food, education, better access to medicine, policies limiting number of children

Should we control population growth?

We should: running out of food, not enough resources such as water, more humans adds to other environmental problems such as climate change. Ex: China, India

What are the potential causes of global climate change?

causes- CO2 is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas due primarily to fossil fuel use and land use change; GHG emissions; naturally occurring cycle; deforestation

What are potential consequences of global climate change?

consequences: forests are likely to experience major species shifts; more frequent extreme weather conditions such as El Nino-like conditions; warmer conditions means more evaporation and precipitation overall but some places will become drier; stronger greenhouse effect means higher sea levels which will engulf entire nations like Bangladesh and put entire cities underwater like Miami causing destruction to infrastructure, loss of life, relocation of entire masses, loss of culture, etc.; some crops and other plants may respond favorably to increased atmospheric CO2, growing more vigorously and using water more efficiently. At the same time, higher temperatures and shifting climate patterns may change the areas where crops grow best and affect the makeup of natural plant communities.

problems to controlling population growth

high birth rate can coincide with high income growth and it is hard to assist developing countries to increase their incomes. Limiting the growth of population by violating human rights vs. implementing the policy of income growth. Difficulties are in some cases high birth rate can coincide with high income growth, and it is hard to assist developing countries to increase their incomes

Responsibility for "doing nothing"

if the policy is not implemented, who takes responsibility for that

birth and death rate affect on population dynamics

less infant mortality and more life expectancy due to better medicine and conditions

Name and briefly explain major provisions of the UNCLOS III (1982).

limits navigation and transit regimes, EEZs, continental shelf jurisdiction, deep seabed mining, protection of the marine environment/scientific research, settlement of disputes, landlocked states given right of access to and from sea without taxation of traffic through transit states

Age impact on having children

lower the age of married women increases children

factors that explain population dynamics

socio-economic conditions culture values attached to children womens role and power and society birth and death rate

Financial impact on having children

more kids mean free labor

Explain the "freedom of seas" concept.

national rights were limited to 3 nautical miles (as far as a cannon could shoot); all waters beyond national boundaries are considered international waters and free to all nations, but belonging to none

Society controversy regarding GMO's

new advances may be skewed to interests of rich countries

Labeling controversy regarding GMO's

not mandatory in some countries (e.g., US); mixing GM crops with non-GM products confounds labeling attempts

Name and briefly explain at least three points in scientific uncertainty about global climate change.

o How much- how much will we see, how much global climate change will happen o How fast- when are we going to see these consequences? o How other non-climate systems will respond to climate change

What were the core principles of the international law on fishing before the 1970s?

ocean fisheries were open-access resources (customary law), joint regulatory commissions, highly contentious contractual environment, lacking authority or monitoring capacity

What is acidification?

pH level of a body of water decreases causing acidity to rise; when sulfur dioxide goes into the atmosphere.

What is acidification? Why did become a problem? Where?

pH level of a body of water decreases causing acidity to rise; when sulfur dioxide goes into the atmosphere. It is a problem because of eutrophication of water bodies. Ex. London Smog and Chicago

What are the major challenges for the international community in trying to develop a new climate change regime?

political division between developed and developing countries complexity: the need to negotiate multiple global and diverse issues risk of instilling liabilities and problems that are too big and deeply rooted in global governance in institutions very large and diverse number of participants

Explain the Malthusian Predicament

population grows exponentially while food production grows linearly. Positive checks (higher death rate) negative checks (lower birth rate)

What is the neo-Malthusian's standpoint?

population pressure and high resource consumption will lead to resource depletion, scarcity, resource competition, and conflict

Saftey controversy regarding GMO's

potential human health impacts, including allergens, transfer of antibiotic resistance markers, unknown effects; potential environmental impacts, including: unintended transfer of transgenes through cross-pollination, unknown effects on other organisms (e.g., soil microbes), and loss of flora and fauna biodiversity

factors as to why hunger is so widespread

poverty low level of agricultural development inequitable distribution of land cash cropping for export government pricing policies wars and unrest environmental factors human diseases

4. How does the UNCLOS 1982 affect the law on fishing?

• Coastal states have exclusive right to manage fisheries in 200 miles EEZs • Conflicts over straddling and migratory stocks

What are the reasons that the US did not ratify UNCLOS? Can the ratification of the UNCLOS benefit the US? What are the arguments against its ratification?

reasons- unfavorable to economy and security, provisions were not free-market friendly and were designed to favor economic systems of communist states, provisions might result in ISA (International Seabed Authority), which is responsible for mining, becoming an expensive bureaucracy due to combination of large revenues. Part XI was the specific part of treaty. -Part XI: provides for a regime relating to minerals on the seabed outside any state's territorial waters or EEZ. Establishes International Seabed Authority (ISA) to authorize seabed exploration and mining and collect and distribute the seabed mining royalty.

What are the approaches to control population growth?

religion respect for national sovereignty culture freedom nationalism

culture affect on population dynamics

religion, philosophy (the way of life) play a great role

Religion impact on having children

religions, such as Catholicism, favours bigger families

substance of the Outer Space Treaty

says countries can explore space, but not use it for testing; Article IV says no nuclear/military testing in any part of space

What explains population dynamics in the world? Name and briefly explain at least 4 factors

socio-economic conditions: (most important) increasing income leads to decrease in the number of children by providing opportunities to do other things in life; education; kids can be retirement plan and free labor Culture: religion, philosophy (the way of life) play a great role Values attached to children: some people enjoy having more children women's role and power in society: global North vs. Global South; regime characteristics; educating women and helping them find jobs will reduce birth rates → women will want to establish themselves as individuals, not just mothers birth and death rate: less infant mortality and more life expectancy due to better medicine and conditions

Means of population policies

some effective means of birth control are not acceptable in our society (forced sterilization, etc)

values attached to children affect on population dynamics

some people enjoy having more children

Are we facing global warming, global cooling, or extreme weather variability, or all of the above?

temperatures are rising on average globally variability of climatic conditions is increasing there may be unexpected consequences of climate change In the Southeast of the U.S. forests are likely to experience major species shifts or break up into a mosaic of grasslands, wetlands, and forests "projections suggest that the SE US will be warmer (2-4 degrees C) and between 20% wetter to 10% drier than the present by the end of the 21st century. "Models also project more frequent El Nino-like conditions with natural extreme rainfall event frequency."

objectives of the Outer Space Treaty

to prevent new forms of colonial competition

What layer of the atmosphere do humans and most other species live?

troposphere

What is biotechnology?

using organisms or their components, such as enzymes, to make products that include wine, cheese, beer, and yogurt

Ethics controversy regarding GMO's

violation of natural organisms' intrinsic values; tampering with nature by mixing genes among species; objections to consuming animal genes in plants and vice versa; stress for animal

3. How does overfishing affect food security/job security in the world?

• 69% of the oceans commercially targeted marine fish stocks are either fully or heavily exploited • Economic losses add up to $50 billion per year • Taken over the last 3 decades, these losses total over $2 trillion

9. What are the major provisions of the Convention on Highly Migratory and Straddling Stocks (1995)? What are its major drawbacks? (7)

• Came into force in 2001 • Reaffirms responsibility of nations that fish the stocks to cooperate in preserving them • Fishing nations responsible fro accurate figures on catch • Adopts precautionary approach • Denies access to nations not members of regional fishery commissions • Strengthens enforcement, especially responsibilities on flag states (where boats are registered) • Disputes to be resolved by peaceful means Drawbacks: • Restricted to highly migratory and straddling fish, doesn't protect other fish • Only 20% of highly migratory stocks of commercially available fish is protected under the law

5. Why did Canada become a lead state in advocating new international policy on fishing? Describe UNCED 1991 negotiations.

• Canada was motivated to push for formal agreement limiting the freedom of distant water fishing fleets to exploit those stocks because of a dispute with the EU, especially Spain, about the Spanish fleet's overfishing of the stocks on the Grand Banks outside of Canada's EEZ. UNCED negotiation (1991) • Proposal form coastal states: new conservation rules for high-seas fisheries, but not for fisheries under national jurisdiction • Special interest of coastal states in highly migratory stocks • The issue is unresolved until the Rio Conf when the U.S. brokered a compromise between Canada and Europe. (1992) • Canada lead state

6. What were the issues at stake and the outcome of UN Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (1993)?

• Conflict of interest between 70 coastal fishing states and 10 distant-water fishing states • The issue: distant-water states abuse their right • But overfishing is a common responsibility • Both groups of states are different veto coalitions. • The U.S. proposed "precautionary approach" with "reference points" (target levels of fishing effort) and measures for rebuilding stocks • Rights of states: right of a coast state to board and inspect fishing vessels in international waters • Canada resists precautionary approach within national jurisdiction

5. Explain the controversy surrounding the production, use, and distribution of GMOs around the world? What countries are the major producers and exporters? What countries are the major importers of GMOs? What is the position of the developing countries toward GMOs? Can GMOs cure the problem of malnourishment?

• Countries that grew 97% of the global transgenic crop were (producers and exporters): U.S., Argentina, Brazil, Canada, India, China, Paraguay, and South Africa. • GMOs can cure malnourishment/hunger by: increasing yields, resistant to pests and diseases, can increase nutrition, can increase weight of farm animal • GMOs can solve a lot of problems with agricultural production and nutrition in developing countries.

6. Explain the controversy about the global climate change. What do skeptics say? How do they explain their stance? (5)

• Disagree that global warming is a serious problem • Disagree that warming trends can be, in large part, attributed to human activity • Disagree that human activity has significantly contributed to hurricanes • Disagree that the US government is not doing enough about climate change • Disagree that international agreements provide a useful framework for addressing global change

What are the flexibility mechanisms under the Kyoto?

• Emission trading (purchasing credits from countries that have more than exceeded their limits) • Joint implementation (investing in emission saving projects in other developed countries) • Clean development mechanism (investing in emission saving projects in developing countries)

4. What are GMOs? What is biotechnology?

• GMOs are a special set of technologies that alter the genetic makeup of organisms such as animals, plants, or bacteria. • Biotechnology is a more general term that refers to using organisms or their other components, such as enzymes, to make products that include wine, cheese, beer, and yogurt.

11. Why do some countries, including the U.S., refuse to ratify the Kyoto?

• GW Bush said it failed to include emissions reduction commitments for developing countries and would damage the U.S. economy. • Now the U.S. won't ratify it because everyone needs to be apart of the process for it to work • Achieving reductions in GHG emissions is easier and/or cheaper for some countries than others.

What are the health effects of UV-B light?

• Genetic Damage • Cancer link • Eye damage • Damage to marine life

7. Name and briefly explain at least three points in scientific uncertainty about global climate change.

• How much, how fast, and how other non-climatic (ecosystems) will respond to climate change.

5. What is the IPCC? When was it created? What is its objective? What are its predictions about the global climate change?

• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change wants to provide clear, scientific views on climate change and potential environmental/socio-economic impacts. Created in 1988 by WMO and UNEP • Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas • Global increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primary to fossil fuel use and land use change

2. Explain the "freedom of seas" concept.

• National rights were limited to 3 nautical miles. • All waters beyond national boundaries were considered international waters that are free to all nations, but belonging to none of them

8. What was the cause and outcome of the Turbot War?

• On March 9th, 1995, the Canadian Coast Guard seized the Spanish fishing trawler Estai off the coast of Newfoundland. The Canadian government claimed the vessel was over-fishing turbot. Quotas of allowable catches were set by the North Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO). • The Canadians claimed that Spanish and Portuguese vessels were catching more than the quotas. Emma Bonino, the EU Fisheries Commissioner, called the seizure "an act of organized piracy." The Spanish demanded that the Canadian government return the ship to its captain and crew along with its catch of Greenland Halibut, or Turbot. They said Estai was fishing in international waters. • Realizing that there was a very real possibility of actual combat breaking out over the dispute the EU put pressure on Spain to agree to a deal and on April 5th an agreement was reached. Under this agreement Spain was forced to leave the disputed zone and Canada's right to eject foreign fishing vessels from the area using military force was accepted. Under the deal Canada's own Greenland turbot quota was reduced, and they refunded the $500,000 fine to the owners of the Estai.

1. Name and briefly explain at least 6 core problems facing global fisheries today.

• Over capitalization of the industry; massive high capacity fleets • Massive subsidies by government to fishing • Increased competition among fishing companies nations • Indiscriminate practices • Uncertain or incomplete reporting • Impact of fishing on marine ecosystems • Inadequate cooperation • Damage to coastal and marine habits.

What is Ozone? What is the difference between ground-level ozone and the tropospheric ozone? What is the amount of UV-B light received by a location strongly dependent on?

• Ozone is a gas made of 3 oxygen atoms that occurs naturally in the stratosphere. It protects life on Earth from the suns UV radiation. • In the troposphere ozone is created by chemical reactions. At ground level, high concentrations of ozone are toxic to people and plants. Amount of UV-B light dependent on: • Latitude and elevation of the location (high latitudes- the sun is always low in the sky) • Cloud cover (reduction in UV-B exposure depends on cloud thickness) • Proximity to industrial area (photo chemical smog)

12. What are the major challenges for the international community in trying to develop a new climate change regime? (4)

• Political division between developed and developing countries • Complexity: the need to negotiate multiple global and diverse issues • Risk of instilling liabilities and problems that are too big and deeply rooted in global governance in institutions • Very large and diverse number of participants

3. Are we facing global warming, global cooling, or extreme weather variability, or all of the above?

• Temps are rising on average globally • Variability of climatic conditions is increasing and there may be unexpected consequences of climate change

Outline the evolution of the LRTAP regime? Which states were the lead states? What was the original veto coalition? Why did it start to break? How was the regime strengthened?

• The 1972 Stockholm Conference: Sweden is the head state in the late 1960s, Sweden and other Nurdic states started a monitoring program (1972-1977). Signaled the start for active international cooperation to combat acidification. • The regional regime controlling cross-border acid rain and air pollution in Europe began with the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. This framework convention did not commit the signatories to specific emissions reductions. There were pressures from lead states (UK and West Germany) to accept vague obligations). -35 signatories -"least common denominator compromise" (reduce emissions as much as economically feasible) -No country accepted an explicit commitment -Still, recognition that the problem exists. -Created an institutional framework -Some states committed themselves to unilateral reductions of 30% • The regime was later strengthened considerably by the addition of eight protocols that financed the monitoring and evaluation of long-range pollutants in Europe (1984); the reduction of sulfur emissions, the control of nitrogen oxides, the control of emissions of volatile organic compounds, heavy metals, and POPs; and the abatement of acidification and ground-level ozone. The heavy metals and POPs agreements represented significant expansions of the core mandate established by the original convention.

4. What is the EEZ?

• The 200-mile exclusive economic zones under national jurisdiction of individual coastal states.

8. How does the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety address the issues of GMOs? (6) Should the international community negotiate and adopt a special treaty to regulate the production, transport and use of GMOs?

• The Cartagena Protocol addresses potential risks that living modified orgs (LMOs) may pose to the environment (not health issues). • Parties may restrict the import of some living GMOs as part of a carefully specified risk-management procedure. • Its based on the "precautionary principle." • Advanced informed consent (AIC) required for first exports of LMOs to a country • Bulk shipments of LMO commodities intended for food or feed to be marked "may contain LMOs and are not intended to be introduced into the environment." • Living GMOs that will be intentionally released into the environment are subject to an advance informed agreement procedure, and those destined for use as food, feed, or processing must be accompanied by identifying documents

5. Name and briefly explain major provisions of the UNCLOS III (1982). (6)

• The Convention on the Law of the Sea introduced a number of provisions: -Limits, navigation, and transit regimes -Exclusive Economic Zones -Continental shelf jurisdiction -Deep seabed mining -Protection of the marine environment, scientific research, and settlement of disputes -Landlocked states are given a right of access to and from the sea without taxation of traffic through taxes.

Briefly explain Rowland/Molina hypothesis. When, who and how discovered the first ozone "hole?"

• The Rowland and Molina theory says that CFCs are so inert that there is nothing to capture or destroy them in the troposphere. Therefore, CFCs have very long lifetimes in the atmosphere. The most common CFCs, CFC-11 and CFC-12, both very long lived, remain in the atmosphere about 50 and 120 years. After 5 years of cruising the troposphere, the CFCs are transported into the stratosphere. There, the ultraviolent rays break them into "free" chlorine atoms and other molecules. This chlorine atom then breaks down ozone material. The theory claims this is a catalytic reaction, thus one single hyperactive chlorine atom may destroy hundred of thousands of zone molecules. • In 1985, British Antarctic Survey Scientists published results of a survey showing an ozone "hole" far larger than anyone had anticipated The first evidence of ozone depletion was detected by ground-based instruments operated by the British Antarctic Survey at Halley Bay on the Antarctic coast in 1982. The results seemed so improbable that researchers collected data for three more years before finally publishing the first paper documenting the emergence of an ozone hole over Antarctica

6. What are the reasons that the US did not ratify UNCLOS? Can the ratification of the UNCLOS benefit the US? What are the arguments against its ratification?

• The U.S. publicly and suddenly refused to sign the UNCLOS partially for reasons relating to how it addressed access to resources of the deep seabed. • Ronald Regan's administration expressed concern about the redistributive aspects of provisions in the treaty for regulating deep seabed mining and the fears that the U.S. would not be guaranteed influence in these decisions. • When George H.W. Bush was president, the U.S. worked to negotiate an annex that addressed these concerns, after which the U.S. singed the treaty in 1994 and President Clinton submitted it to Congress for ratification. • Recent developments have brought new pressure on the U.S. to ratify the agreement. The treaty allows for states to claim mineral rights to areas of the continental shelf contiguous with their territory far beyond what had previously been accepted under international law, with the treaty's governing process responsible for adjudicating such claims. Only states that have ratified the treaty can participate in this process. • The law of the sea created a deep seabed mining regime in which the benefits of such mining would explicitly be redistributed to developing countries.

7. Explain the US role and proposals in global fisheries negotiations.

• The US shift from veto state to lead state proved a major factor in overcoming the resistance of the two veto coalitions and gave greater impetus to the adoption of innovative conservation measures. (UN Conf on Straddling Fish Stocks, etc). • The U.S. is a coastal state and distant-water fishing state and was ready to join the distant water states because if its historical ties with the EU and Japan on Law of the Sea issues. The U.S. had clashed with Canada and other coastal states during the negotiations on the Law of the Sea. The U.S. was lobbied by NGOs and came out for a binding agreement then became a lead state.

How many layers are there in the atmosphere? Where do humans and most other species live? Explain the basic characteristics of the atmosphere.

• The atmosphere is divided into five layers. The troposphere is the first layer above the surface and contains half the Earth's atmosphere. Weather occurs in this layer. • Then there is the stratosphere, which is stable and contains the ozone layer, the mesosphere (meteors and rock fragments burn), the thermosphere (layer with auroras and space shuttles), and the exosphere (upper limit of atmosphere, merges into space). • Humans and most other species live in the troposphere. • Atmosphere is a mixture of gases: 78% Nitrogen, 20% Oxygen, .93% Argon, .03% Carbon Dioxide • Other gases include: Neon, Helium, Ozone, Hydrogen, Krypton, and Methane.

8. Explain the main elements of the Framework Convention on Climate Change. (3)

• To prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system • Applies to greenhouse gases generally • Developed countries accept primary responsibility for the climate change problem and agree to take first steps to address it

What are the two types of scientific errors with regard to global climate change?

• Type I: to conclude that there is a significant human imprint on the global climate when there is non • Type II: to fail to detect a significant human imprint on the global climate when one actually exists

3. Delineate the evolution of UNCLOS (I, II, and III). Major accomplishments.

• UNCLOS (U.N. Convention on the Law of the Sea) -Defines rights and obligations/responsibilities of nations -Establishes guidelines for business and the management of marine natural resources -Came into force in 1994- passed in 1982 • UNCLOS I (1958) -Attended by 84 countries -Adoption of four treaties on: territorial seas and contiguous zones, continental shelves, high seas, fishing and the conservation of living resources • UNCLOS II (1960) -Attended by 88 countries -No additional agreements • UNCLOS III (Came into force in 1994- passed in 1982) -Attended by 149 countries at the beginning -Adopted the Convention on the Law of the Sea

2. Discuss the global food paradox.

• We are producing enough/more than enough food to feed the world but that is not happening. More people around the world go hungry than ever before in human history but even more people are now classified as obese.

PS 336 Final

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