PS251 Exam 4 Shim

Consensus in Personality Judgments: Are observations in trait approaches accurate/valid?

-*Zero Acquaintance*- the state we are in when we observe someone with whom we have never interacted -use collateral sources to accurately assess personalities (self-ratings, peer-ratings, spouse-ratings) -trait approaches are successful in predicting future behaviors

The Big 5

-5 personality traits that capture common personality elements present in all cultures 1. Extroversion (aka surgency) 2. Agreeableness 3. Conscientiousness (aka lack of impulsivity) 4. Neuroticism (aka emotional stability) 5. Openness (aka openness to experience, culture or intellect)

Ivan Pavlov

-Classical conditioning--the primary type of learning that involved the association of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli -UCS and response -CS and response

Humanism

-Ellis, Maslow, Rogers

Theory of Temperament

-Eysenck took a biological approach and looked at discrepancies in basic temperament and connected that to the central nervous system. He found that: A. Extroverts have low level of brain arousal and need outside stimulation. B. Introverts have high level brain arousal and shy away from over-stimulation situations. C. Neurotics don't have a well modulated nervous system and can't self-sooth -there's MIXED research on the validity of this theory

Skinner: Reinforcement Schedules

-Fixed Ratio (based on responses) -Variable Ratio (based on responses) --this results i the HIGHEST level of responses in an organism bc you keep doing the response until you get the reward -Fixed Interval (based on time) -Variable Interval (based on time)

Henry Murray

-Murray spoke about TYPES, which is more of a spectrum, instead of traits, which are black or white -*Motive-based study of personality*- he studied motives that help induce particular behavior patterns -*Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)* - tested different motivations. Show the patient pictures and tell them to come up with a story for the pics. Do this over time and you will see themes and from there you can assess their motivations.

Karen Horney

-Neo-Freudian--rejected Freud's sexist views that females were inferior -Basic Anxiety -Personality Styles--bc of basic anxiety, children develop 3 ways of interacting with the world: 1. Towards 2. Against 3. Withdraw -Different aspects of the self: 1. Real Self 2. Despised Self 3. Idealized Self -Comprehensive Neurotic Solution--ppl with an idealized self have either/all: 1. Need for perfection 2. Neurotic ambition 3. Vindictive triumph

The Big 5: Neuroticism

-aka emotional stability -high: NOT emotionally stable, nervous, tense, moody, worrying, high strung -low: stable, calm, contended

The Big 5: Conscientiousness

-aka lack of impulsivity -high: cautious, dependable, persevering, organized, responsible -low: impulsive, careless, disorderly, undependable

The Big 5: Openness

-aka openness to experience, culture or intellect -high: imaginative, witty, original, sarcastic -low: shallow, plain, simple

The Big 5: Extroversion

-aka surgency -high: energetic, talkative, sociable -low: shy, retiring, submissive, quiet

Horney: Personality Styles/ 3 Ways of Dealing with the World

-bc of basic anxiety, children develop 3 ways of interacting with the world. -normal children will do all 3, neurotic children can only do 1. 1. Moving towards the world 2. Moving against the world 3. Withdrawing from the world --normal: move towards ppl who help them and against ppl who will hurt them and away from ppl who are bad for them --neurotic: only use 1. e.g only move towards ppl, including ppl who will hurt them

B.F. Skinner

-behaviorist -operant conditioning -positive/negative reinforcement, punishment, extinction -shaping: the process of making the desired response increase through reinforcement -schedules of reinforcement

Edward Thorndike

-behaviorist -did experiment with cats jumping -law of effects -trial and error learning -instrumental conditioning -- learning with REINFORCEMENT -ABCs (Antecedents, Behaviors, Consequences)

Behaviorism

-behaviorists look into the world and not internally within people bc personality is a "black box" and why should we look inside if we can't see it -Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, Skinner

Thorndike: Law of Effects

-behaviors followed by satisfying consequence tend to be repeated while behaviors that produce unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated -this is an e.g. of trial and error learning and what is now called operant/instrumental learning bc it involves using reinforcement

John Watson

-believed Pavlov's work was VERY important and explained all complex human behavior -used Pavlov's findings to study phobias -second order conditioning -- the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli can be further expanded (generalization and discrimination) -experiment with Little Albert

Chodorow: Different Socialization Pathways

-boys and girls are socialized differently -boys have injuries earlier than girls -at around age 2, boys are pushed away from moms (girls go through this at around age 9) -diff socialization leads to differences in men and women --women value relatedness. Men value power --women have more flexible ego boundaries, are more secure, less individuated

Nancy Chodorow

-boys and girls have different socialization pathways -- boys get pushed away from mother earlier and have injuries earlier than boys -4 aspects of masculinity

Ellis: Rational Emotive Therapy

-created by Albert Ellis -forerunner to CBT

Cross Cultural Research on the Big 5

-cross-cultural research confirms that the big 5 personality types exist in many different cultures, proving that the big 5 are not the result of stereotypes

Trait Aspects of Personality

-definition: this approach uses a limited set of adjectives to describe and scale people -it attempts to capture stable notions of personalty through systematic scientific means -important terms: Jung, Cattel, 16PF, Allport, Big 5, Implicit Personality Theory, Eysenck, 3 Dimensions, Murray

Eysenck's 3 Dimensions: Neuroticism

-emotional stability and apprehensiveness

Watson: Development of Phobias and Little Albert

-experiment with Albert: Albert was given a rat and wanted to play with it, but a loud noise went off when he went to touch it. Over time, he became scared of the rat even when it wasn't paired with the loud noise -UC: loud noise -CS: Rat -he concluded that phobias can be explained by simple conditioning principles

Hans Eysenck

-found the big 5 were repetitive, so reduced them to 3 -Eysenck's 3 dimensions: 1. Extroversion--outgoingness and assertiveness 2. Neuroticism--emotional stability and apprehensiveness 3. new trait: *Psychoticism*--tendency toward psychopathology. Impulsivity and cruelty -this approach does NOT directly account for openness -Theory of Temperament (biological approach)--looked at discrepancies in basic temperament and connect that to brain. A. Found that extroverts have low level of brain arousal and need outside stimulation. B. Introverts have high level brain arousal and shy away from over-stimulation situations. C. Neurotics don't have a well modulated nervous system.

Skinner: Operant conditioning

-he focused on voluntary behavior and the reinforcement that shapes it

Carol Gilligan

-heavily influence by Chodorow and her findings supported Chodorow's -- found that boys are more competitive and girls are more sensitive -Theory of Moral Development (differed from Kohlberg's who said men are morally superior)

The Big 5: Agreeableness

-high: friendly, cooperative, trusting warm -low: cold, quarrelsome, unkind

Abraham Maslow

-humanist -Hierarchy of Needs

Carl Rogers

-humanist -conditions of worth vs unconditional positive regard -changed term from "patient" to "client"

Albert Ellis

-humanist -relational emotive therapy -self talk--if irrational, results in negative feelings -"musterbation" is mean and pernicious i.e. thoughts of "i must do this" are detrimental -all serious emotional problems stem from MAGICAL THINKING -therapy must be active and multi-modal -theory of personality -10 common cognitive distortions

Real: Couples Therapy

-in order to improve in therapy, the couple must have: managed psychiatric disorders, no acting out, no substance abuse -the therapist must NOT be neutral -therapy must be a safe space where men learn to be relational and women learn to speak directly

Terrence Real

-known as the "soul of blunt" -5 levels of intimacy -3 rings of patriarchy -3 stages of love -New views on couples therapy-- neutrality does NOT work

Carl Jung

-launched the trait approach -believed that there are 2 main personality types: introverted and extroverted and one is dominant -Extroversion-- orientation towards things outside of oneself -Introversion--tendency to turn inward and explore one's feelings and experiences -the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is based on Jung's personality types

Skinner: Negative Punishment (Extinction)

-negative= a stimulus was added -punishment=to decrease behavior -something is taken away in order to decrease behavior -e.g. Billy yells at bro and mom takes away TV time so Billy won't yell at bro anymore

Skinner: Negative Reinforcement

-negative= a stimulus was taken away -reinforcement= the behavior will increase -a stimulus was taken away in order to increase behavior -e.g. Billy cleans his room and his mom doesn't make him do chores so that Billy will clean his room in the future

Eysenck's 3 Dimensions: Extroversion

-outgoingness and assertiveness (borrowed from Cattell)

Skinner: Positive Punishment (Punishment)

-positive= a stimulus was added -punishment= to decrease the behavior -a stimulus is added to decrease behavior -e.g. Billy yells at his bro and mom makes him shovel so that he won't yell at bro anymore

Skinner: Positive Reinforcement

-positive= a stimulus was added -reinforcement= the behavior will increase -the addition of a stimulus in order to increase behavior -e.g. Billy cleans his room and mom gives him ice cream so that Billy will clean his room in the future

Gordon Allport

-saw the notion of "stable" traits as inadequate -rather, he believed that behavior is variable BUT there is a constant, core portion of each person, called the *proprium* -this is an idiographic approach -he believed that regularities in behavior arise bc an individual views many situation in the same way and many of his/her behaviors are similar in meaning, that is, they are *functionally equivalent*. He believed that a trait is an internal structure that "renders many stimuli functionally equivalent. e.g. a super-patriot views socialist and college professors as equally bad -he also studied the importance of culture and how that influences prejudice -ppl in the same culture have *common traits* -4 Dispositions: 1. Nuclear disposition--a person's unique goals, motive and style 2. Personal disposition--traits that are peculiar to an individual 3. Cardinal disposition--traits that exert an overwhelming influence on a person's behavior 4. Central dispositions--fundamental qualities that succinctly portray an individual and these 4 things make up a person's proprium

Pavlov: Classical Conditioning

-the primary type of learning involve the association of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli -experiment: there's an unconditioned stimulus (food) that elicits an unconditioned response (salivation) -pair a conditioned stimulus (bell tone) with UCS (food) so that dog learns that bell tone indicates food will come -result: the CS (bell tone) will elicit the CS (salivation) even if the food isn't present

Skinner: Shaping

-the process of making the desired response increase in probability, through reinforcement

Eysenck's 3 Dimensions: Psychoticism

-the tendency toward psychopathology -high: impulsive, cruel, shrewd, low on agreeableness and shrewdness -includes Cattell's tough-mindedness and shrewdness

Implicit Personality Theory (Asche)

-the theory that certain traits go together and we're not necessarily aware that we group them together. -there are consistencies in how we see things, particularly other people's personalities. We may erroneously group traits together

Watson: Second Order Conditioning: Generalization and Discrimination

-the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli can be further expanded -we can generalize Pavlov's experiement: an organism will emit the learned behavior in environments the resemble the original learning environment (e.g. if the dog hears a tone similar to a bell, he'll still salivate) -discrimination: when the animal can tell the diff b/w stimuli or environments and does NOT generalize the learned behavior

Ellis: Theory of Personality

-there are 3 aspects of personality: 1. physiological basis-- we're born with genes that give us a template of our personality 2. social aspects-- we spend too much time caring about what other people think 3. psychological aspects-- humans create their own misery

Gilligan/Kohlberg: Theory of Moral Development

-there are 6 stages of moral development: 1. deference to authority 2. reward orientation 3. concern for others** 4. doing one's duty** 5. social contract orientation 6. universal ethical principle Kohlberg had 3 and 4 on diff levels bc he used mostly boys to form the scale and they regarded doing one's duty as higher and when a few women took his test, he scored them lower bc they valued concern for others. BUT he had mostly boys so Gilligan re-did the scale and put 3 and 4 on the same level

Horney: Comprehensive Neurotic Solution

-things ppl with idealized images do: 1. Need for perfection 2. Neurotic ambition-- you set the bar impossibly high for yourself and need to be the master of time, space and dimension 3. Vindictive Triumph-- you're out for revenge against other ppl

R.B. Cattell

-took Allport's observations and reduced the traits statistically -used factor analysis/cluster analysis -he gathered info from: --T-Data: he gave tests and saw what ppl did --L-Data: got info about the subject from his/her family and friends --Q-Data: he used questionnaires -from Q-Data, he developed the 16PF (personality factors) -16PF- there are 16 factors and using factor analysis can tell us where someone falls on each factor

Rogers: Unconditioned Positive Regard and Conditions of Worth

-we need UPR but get c of w, bc UPR isn't practical with parents -if a person gets more c of w, they'll have incongruence (distortion and loss of sense of self)

Thorndike: Operant Conditioning

-whereas classical conditioning talks about pairing stimuli and responses, operant conditioning talks about *reinforcement*

Horney: Basic Anxiety

-you're born into an environment that should be a *good fit*, but if it's not, you'll develop basic anxiety -a child's fear of being alone, helpless and insecure -in contrast to Freud's theory of biological emphasis (that we're driven by sexual urges) -this anxiety can continue throughout life, e.g. an adult who is lonely and helpless would be described by Horney as having basic anxiety

Ellis: 10 Cognitive Distortions

1. All or Nothing Thinking 2. Overgeneralization 3. Mental Filter 4. Disqualifying the Positive 5. Jumping to Conclusions a. Mind Reading b. Fortune Teller Error 6. Magnification or Minimization 7. Emotional Reasoning 8. "Should" Statements 9. Labelling and Mislabelling 10. Personalization

Real: 3 Stages of Love

1. Love without knowledge-- beginning of a relationship when you're in love with someone, but don't know them so well 2. Knowledge without love-- once you get to know someone, you learn more about them and may not be as compatible as you thought 3. Mature love-- working through challenges and being okay. Communication is key. Only 50% of relationships make it here.

Chodorow: 4 Aspects of Masculinity

1. Masculinity remains a problem for boys (bc they are told to never talk about their feelings, but they still have feelings) 2. Denial of attachment in relationships (bc they're pushed away from their moms early) 3. Repression of anything feminine within the self 4. Devaluing femininity --**because of these, men are more likely to take off during a fight with a spouse, but the do a boomerang and come back

Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs

1. Physiological-- hunger, thirst, fatigue, bodily needs 2. Safety Needs-- shelter, security 3. Belongingness and Love Needs-- friends, affection, intimacy 4. Self-Esteem Needs-- feeling good about yourself, self-respect, mastery 5. Cognitive Needs-- knowledge seeking 6. Aesthetic Needs- beauty seeking 7. Self-Actualization-- living up to your full potential (8.) Peak Experiences

Horney: Different Aspects of the Self

1. Real Self 2. Despised Self 3. Idealized Self --if you don't relate to the world in a healthy way, you rely on the conception of the idealized self --a false sense of self based on imagination- it is an *imagined* version of yourself --involved using the Comprehensive Neurotic Solution --"tyranny of the should" you base your life on what you should be doing

Real: 3 Rings of Patriarchy

1. The great divide/Halving-- we divide everything based on what's masculine and what's feminine 2. Dance of contempt-- the psychology of oppression. We value the masculine over the feminine 3. Code of silence-- men are taught they can't speak about their emotions, so they remain silent

Real: 5 Levels of Intimacy:

1. Thoughts 2. Feelings 3. Physical closeness 4. Spirituality (having common experiences) 5. Sexuality

Real: 3 Levels of Daily-Related-ness

1. harmony 2. disharmony 3. repair -in a relationship, this is a continuous cycle you go through