psc 124 final

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Centrally planned (or command) economy; mixed economies

(or command economy), political authorities set prices and decide on quotas for production and consumption of each commodity according to a long-term plan, and international trade occurs at government-controlled prices. Proponents for central planning claimed that it would make economies both more rational and more just. By controlling the economy, governments could guarantee the basic needs of citizens and could mobilize the state fully for war if necessary. Proponents also hoped that governments' long-term view of resources and needs would smooth out the "boom and bust" fluctuations of capitalist economies (known as business cycles). (Soviet Union and Eastern Europe followed communist principles of central planning and state ownership).

Capital accumulation and economic surplus

Capital Accumulation: Economic development is based on capital accumulation which is the creation of standing wealth (capital) such as buildings, roads, and factories. Economic Surplus: A surplus created by investing money in productive capital rather than using it for consumption.

1) What are the pros and cons for developing countries when they allow MNCs to operate within their borders? (Also in the book). 2) Why did President Nixon bring an end to the gold standard?

Case One: MNCs based in developed countries (global North) establish operations in developing countries (south) but the management operations remain in the home country and the factories and processing operations are opened in the host countries. Host-Home relations where MNC opens operations in developing country which does bring jobs, production of wealth, builds the economy. Some developing countries will have export processing zones "free trade zones" (different from free trade area) which are special zones where host country keeps costs low for MNC or supplier giving tax breaks, no tariffs, few if any workers' rights, few if any environmental regulations, and the rationale is to attract foreign business because MNCs boost the economy. Conflicts: sometimes there are changes in the original agreements like the legalization of labor unions, security problems like protests, war ethnic conflict, stability of host country currency, MNC may engage in corruption, MNC free of regulation may mistreat the workers or other bad behaviors like ExxonMobil in Indonesia and it may result in the "race to the bottom" Case Two: sometimes developing country MNCs buy property in developed countries Nixon dumped the dollar-gold system because of: overspending on Vietnam war, increasing cost of energy, Europe and Japanese recovery post WWII, trade deficit, the dollar was overvalued and dropped in relation to gold, many countries came to the US to get gold in exchange for dollars they held so which was all significantly weakening the dollar.

Central bank (general definition; know US central bank) and discount rate

Central banks are in charge of printing money and maintaining inflation. Economists and technical experts who run central bank try to maintain the value of the state's currency by limiting the amount of money printed and not allowing high inflation. Run bank in national interests and aside from politics. An institution common in industrialized countries whose major tasks are to maintain the value of the state's currency and to control inflation. In most industrialized countries, politicians know they cannot trust themselves with day to day decisions about printing money. To enforce self discipline and enhance public trust in the value of money, they turn these decisions over to the central bank.The economists and technical experts who run the central bank seek to maintain the value of the state's currency by limiting the amount of money printed and not allowing high inflation. US central bank is the Fed Federal Reserve. The "reserve" is the government's stockpile of hard currency. Can affect economy by releasing or hoarding money. The US central bank is "The Fed" The central bank in the US is the Federal Reserve it's the stockpile of hard currency. It can affect the economy by releasing or hoarding its money. Discount Rate: Domestically, the Fed exercises its power mainly by setting a discount rate- the interest rate the government charges when it loans money to private banks. Rate controls how fast money will enter into circulation and inflation will result. If rate is too high, too little money will circulate and consumers and business will find it hard to borrow mas much or as cheaply from private banks. The interest rate charged by governments when they lend money to private banks. The discount rate is set by countries' central banks.

1992 Earth Summit:

1992 Earth Summit established the Commission on Sustainable Development which monitors states' compliance with the promises they made at the Earth Summit and hears evidence from environmental NGOs such as Greenpeace. But it lacks powers of enforcement over national governments it has 54 members progress has been slow. 1992 Earth Summit established the Commission on Sustainable Development which monitors states' compliance with the promises they made at the Earth Summit and hears evidence from environmental NGOs such as Greenpeace. But it lacks powers of enforcement over national governments it has 54 members progress has been slow.

What is the Carter Doctrine? How is it relevant to US policy toward oil in the Middle East?

1979 energy crisis- After the Iranian Revolution where Iran produced less oil and prices went up, panic resulted and drove the price up higher, 1980 Invasion of Afghanistan by the USSR, Carter Doctrine- in the State of the Union address: "Let our position be absolutely clear: An attempt by any outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf region will be regarded as an assault on the vital interests of the US, and such as assault will be repelled by any means necessary, including military force." So during the energy crisis he was very much like well the US people are going to have to reduce oil reliance and it's on us to make this cut off work and people hated this approach he was like if you're patriotic you reduce your use. But 1980 Carter Doctrine was a 180 degree change, our national interest, and our security depends on oil showing that we will use military force to get oil.

Caspian Sea (political controversy over whether it is a "sea" or a "lake"):

1990s Caspian Sea area became new largely untapped oil source but the oil must travel overland by pipeline to reach world markets but the main pipeline from oil producing Azerbaijan to Black Sea traveled through war torn Chechnya in southern Russia. Russia built a bypass route around Chechnya that carries Caspian oil through the Black Sea. Western powers sought routes that did not cross Russia, while Turkey sought control a larger market share and reduce environmental damage to the Bosporus waterway. 2002-04 negotiations states and oil companies built a large capacity pipeline costing billions through Azerbaijan and Georgia to Turkey's Mediterranean sea. Violence makes pipelines complex. All three countries on pipeline route were at war in the past decade, and a dozen other proposals are no easier. Dividing caspian sea: it's the largest inland body of water could be defined under international law as a lake or a sea. Lake would mean it has a joint area in the middle that can be exploited only if countries agree on the terms and coastal zones that would be under country's sole control. In sea less than 400 miles across the bordering countries 200 mile EEZ split up the whole sea and the sectors would be defined by median lines or 5 sectors of equal area which would give Iran a bigger sector. They cannot agree.

1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change:

1992 Earth Summit they adopted the Framework Convention on Climate Change set a nonbinding goal to limit greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The goal was not met. The treaty did not commit the states who signed to meet target levels of greenhouse emissions by a particular date because of US objections to such a commitment, Europe and Japan was more willing to regulate emissions than the US which burns more fossil fuels per person. 1992 Earth Summit they adopted the Framework Convention on Climate Change set a nonbinding goal to limit greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The goal was not met. The treaty did not commit the states who signed to meet target levels of greenhouse emissions by a particular date because of US objections to such a commitment, Europe and Japan was more willing to regulate emissions than the US which burns more fossil fuels per person.

Kyoto Protocol:

1997 Kyoto Protocol adopted a complex formula for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels in the global North over about a decade. Countries in the global South received preferential treatment because their levels were much lower. Yet China's fast growing coal burning economy is a major factor in global warming, and India is a source of carbon dioxide, the US signed but Congress never ratified it. (1997) The main international treaty on global warming, which entered into effect in 2005, and mandates cuts in carbon emissions. Almost all the world's major countries, except the US, are participants. 1997 Kyoto Protocol adopted a complex formula for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels in the global North over about a decade. Countries in the global South received preferential treatment because their levels were much lower. Yet China's fast growing coal burning economy is a major factor in global warming, and India is a source of carbon dioxide, the US signed but Congress never ratified it.

1997 Asian financial crisis

1997 financial crisis in Asia began when currency speculators began selling off the currencies of Southeast Asian countries. Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia were forced to let their currencies be devalued. Currency problems in Asian countries led to stock market crashes in several of them. Other so-called emerging markets- around the world- notably Brazil- suffered as investors generalised the problems in Asia. Other Asian countries real estate and stocks become overvalued as rapid economic growth led to speculation and ever-rising expectations. Banks made massive bad loans based on the overvalued assets and got away with it because of political corruption and cronyism. 1997 these economies suffered a serious financial crisis, which jumped across international borders and sent shock waves around the globe that reverberated for two years. -1990s US economy grew and value of US $ grew - Many Asian countries pegged currency to US $, so products expensive - Currency speculators started to sell off currencies of Southeast Asian countries (Indonesia, South Korea and Thailand most affected) - Countries forced to devalue currency - Worsened economic growth forced stock prices down and reduced foreign investment -Foreign loans harder to repay - Stock markets crashed

Malthusians (Malthus):

200 years ago Thomas Malthus warned that population increases faster than food supply and predicted that population growth would limit itself through famine and disease. Experts and officials today warning against world overpopulation are Malthusians, critics point out that technology has kept pace with the population in the past allowing more food and resources to be extracted even when population keeps growing.

Cartel (e.g. OPEC)

A cartel is an association for producers or consumers, or both, of a certain product- formed to manipulate its price on the world market. Unusual but interesting form of trade regime. Most often producers, and not consumers, form cartels because there are usually fewer producers than consumers, and it seems possible for them to coordinate to keep prices high. Use variety of means to affect prices; the most effective is to coordinate limits on production by each member and thus lower the supply, relative to demand, of the good. -Unusual but interesting form of trade regime. Producers usually not consumers, and it seems possible for them to coordinate to keep prices high. They use a variety of means to affect prices; the most effective is to coordinate limits on production by each member and thus lower the supply, relative to demand, of the good. Most prominent cartel in the international economy is the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Its member states together control hundreds of billions of dollars in oil exports annually- about 40% of the world total and enough to affect the price significantly. OPEC maintains headquarters in Vienna, Austria and holds negotiations several times a year to set quotas for each country's production of oil in negotiations several times a year to set quotas for each country's production of oil in order to keep world oil prices in a target range. OPEC illustrates the potential that a cartel creates for collective goods problems. Individual members of OPEN can cheat by exceeding their production quotas while still enjoying the collective good of high oil prices. Collective goods breaks down when too many members exceed their quotas, which has happened repeatedly in OPEC.

Chernobyl:

A city in Ukraine that was the site of a 1986 meltdown at a Soviet nuclear power plant. Caused by air pollution. Eastern Europe worked to limit nitrogen oxide emissions to protect against acid rain and the US and Canada eventually did too. 1986 meltdown of a Soviet nuclear power plant in Ukraine, created airborne radioactivity that spread over much of Europe from Italy to Sweden. Showing economic and technical decisions made in one state can affect other states and Soviets made this worse by not notifying other countries right away. 1986 meltdown of a Soviet nuclear power plant in Ukraine, created airborne radioactivity that spread over much of Europe from Italy to Sweden. Showing economic and technical decisions made in one state can affect other states and Soviets made this worse by not notifying other countries right away.

Sanctions

A state that breaks international law may face a collective response by a group of states, such as the imposition of sanctions- agreements among other states to stop trading with the violator or to stop some particular commodity trade (most often military goods) as punishment for its violation. Over time, a sanctioned state can become the pariah of the international community, cut off from normal relations with others. Which is costly in today's world where economic well being depends on trade and economic exchange in the world markets.

Enclave economy (know an example)

A historically important form of dependency in which foreign capital is invested in a third world country to extract a particular raw material in a particular place- usually a mine, oil well, or plantation. Important historical configuration of dependency Enclave Economy: in which foreign capital is invested in a third world country to extract a particular raw material in a particular place- usually a mine, oil well, or plantation. Here the cycle of capital accumulation is primed by foreign capital is fueled by local resources and completes itself with the sale of products on foreign markets. An arrangement leaves the country's economy largely untouched except to give employment to a few local workers in the enclave and to provide taxes to the state, over time it leaves the state's natural resources depleted.

Malnutrition and undernourishment

A lack of needed foods including protein and vitamins; about three million children die each year from malnutrition related causes. Refers to the lack of needed foods including protein and vitamins. The term hunger refers broadly to malnutrition or outright undernourishment- a lack of calories. The term hunger refers broadly to malnutrition or outright undernourishment- a lack of calories.

Responsibility to protect::

A major summit of world leaders in 2005 enshrined the concept of the responsibility to protect, which holds that governments worldwide must act to save civilians from genocide or crimes against humanity perpetrated or allowed by their own governments. Under certain circumstances the international community has a responsibility to protect world's citizens. International norm- sovereignty seen not as a privilege but as responsibility, focus on 4 crimes: ethnic cleansing, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. A norm not a law. Authority to employ the last resort, i.e. military force, rests with the UN SC and GA, international community somewhat more willing to exercise this violation of sovereignty in wake of failure to protect in Rwanda, April 2006 UN SC affirmed the norm.... They did not intervene in Rwanda 800,000+ people were murdered and the world was horrified, so the community must be willing to act sometimes. Three types of responsibility: 1. Rtp state's own population 2. If the state can't, international community has a responsibility to assist by helping to build the domestic capacity to protect 3. If a state fails to protect its citizens (or operates against them) the international community has a responsibility to intervene (must exhaust peaceful means first).

Sustainable Development:

A major theme of environmental conferences: refers to economic growth that does not deplete resources and destroy ecosystems so quickly that the basis of that economic growth is itself undermine, applies to the South and North. What is sustainable development? A major theme of environmental conferences: refers to economic growth that does not deplete resources and destroy ecosystems so quickly that the basis of that economic growth is itself undermine, applies to the South and North. Economic growth that does not deplete resources or degrade environment Three possible human responses to environmental problems New technologies - allow unabated growth No change - and then collapse: inability for earth to carry the load of current population and its expected living standard (carrying capacity) Human adaptation - limit growth (the economy), create sustainability

What are the advantages of bringing a cross-national dispute to a national court? Why is the US a favorite jurisdiction in which to bring cases? Why was Belgium a popular venue for international human-rights cases? What are some important limits to the use of national courts for international disputes?

A party with a dispute that crosses national boundaries gains several advantages by pursuing the matter through international channels. First, judgements are enforceable. The party that wins a lawsuit in a national court can collect from the other party's assets within the state. Second, individuals and companies can pursue legal complaints through national courts (as can subnational governmental bodies), whereas in most areas of international law, states must themselves bring suits on behalf of their citizens. (In truth, even national governments pursue most of their legal actions against each other through national courts). Third, there is often a choice of more than one state within which a case could legally be heard; one can pick the legal system most favorable in one's case. Each state's court system must decide whether it has jurisdiction in a case (the right to hear it), and courts tend to extend their own authority with a broad interpretation. Traditionally, a national court may hear cases concerning any activity on its national territory, any actions of its own citizens anywhere in the world, and actions taken toward its citizens elsewhere in the world. Noncitizens can use the national courts to enforce damages against citizens because the national court has authority to impose fines and, if necessary, to seize bank accounts and property. The US is a favorite jurisdiction within which to bring cases for two reasons. First, US juries have a reputation for awarding bigger settlements in lawsuits than juries elsewhere in the world (if only because the US is a rich country). Second, because many people and governments do business in the US, it is often possible to collect damages awarded by a US court. For these reasons, US courts in recent years gave rules on human rights cases brought by Chinese dissidents over the 1989 Tiananmen massacre, Cuban exiles against the Cuban government, and a Paraguayan doctor suing a Paraguayan police official for torturing a doctor's son. Alien Tort Claims Act 1789 gives federal courts jurisdiction over civil lawsuits against foreigners for "violation of the law of nations." Human rights activists have used the law against repressive governments in recent years, as when they sued US oil companies Exxon Mobil and Unocal for aiding abusive regimes in Indonesia and Burma, respectively. But in 2013, the US Supreme Court sharply limited the extension of US legal jurisdiction, throwing out a case against the Dutch company Shell for facilitating government atrocities in Nigeria. Belgium's national courts are a favorite venue for international human rights cases because of 1993 law gives them jurisdiction over any violation of the Geneva Conventions. In 2001, four people accused of war crimes in Rwanda in 1994 were sent to prison by a Belgian jury. (Rwanda is a former Belgian colony, and ten Belgian soldiers had been killed in a genocide there.) In 2005, Belgium indicted a former leader of Chad accused of 40,000 political murders in Chad in the 1980s, and Senegal (where he lived) asked the AU to role on whether it should extradite him. The AU encouraged Senegal to try him domestically instead. If an international issue is brought to the national court state must have jurisdiction for it to be in their courts: 1. Occurred on the country's own soil 2. Violation occurred against its citizen not on own soil, violation by its own citizens elsewhere in the world. Advantages (vs. World Court): enforceable, accessible to individuals, governments, and companies, choice of states ;; Us is a favorite place because the US juries are generous, possible to collect damages. Belgium is also popular because 1993 law gave Belgian courts jurisdiction over violations of geneva conventions, geneva conventions: treatment of wounded and sick on field, and at sea, treatment of prisoners of war, protection of civilians in wartime. Belgian courts were flooded, Bush and Sharon cases thrown out of Belgian court 9/2003 US threatened to move NATO headquarters out of Brussels, and said it would freeze US funding for NATO's new facility, international pressure- Belgian significantly amended the law in 2003, victim or suspect must be a Belgian citizen or long term resident. Limits to Suing in national courts: the authority of national court is domestic e.g. can't compel a citizen of another country to testify, can't compel a bank in another country to freeze assets, can't arrest except on own soil Unless the other government Cooperates: extradition

What is the nature of the digital divide between the Global North and South? In Africa? In the EU?

A person living in the global North is far more likely than a person in the global South to have a landline, cell phone, and Internet access. This gap along with the gap in access to information technologies within countries. 2015 the Internet bandwidth per user was 25x higher in Europe than Africa. Internet reached 80% households in the global North but only 30% in the South. Numbers or mobile phone internet are 80% in the North and 20% in the South.

Digital divide

UN Development Program (UNDP)

A program that coordinates the flow of multilateral development assistance and manages 6000 projects at once around the world (focusing especially on technical development assistance). Another major source of foreign assistance is UN programs. The overall flow of assistance through the UN is coordinated by the UN Development Program that manages 6000 projects at once around the world.

Biodiversity (definition and why it is a collective good):

Biodiversity: refers to the tremendous diversity of plant and animal species making up the earth's (global, regional, and local) ecosystems. Because of human destructiveness and killing ecosystems large numbers of species are already extinct.

Balance of payments (definition plus three kinds of transactions that go into BOP)

A state's balance of payments is like the financial statement of a company: summarizes all the flows of money in and out of the country. Technical and not political in nature. Three types of international transactions go into balance of payment: current account, flows of capital, and changes in reserves. A summary of all the flows of money into and out of a country. It includes three types of international transactions: the current account (including the merchandise trade balance), flows of capital, and changes in reserves. Current account: Money that flows out of a state to pay for imports and flows into the state to pay for exports. Includes merchandise and services.- Government transactions: are military and foreign aid grants, as well as salaries and pensions paid to government employees abroad.- Remittances are funds sent home by companies or individuals outside a country. Capital flows is composed of foreign investments in and by a country. Measured in net terms the total investments and loans foreigners make in a country minus its investments and loans that countries companies, citizens, and government invest in other countries. Divided into foreign direct investment: owning a company, factory, or real estate in foreign country and indirect portfolio investment: buying stocks and bonds or making loans to a foreign company. Changes in foreign exchange reserves makes the national accounts balance. Any difference between inflows and outflows of money is made up by an equal but opposite change in reserves.

About how many people live in abject poverty and where in the world are they concentrated? Somewhere in the world every 6 seconds a child dies as a result of what?

About 1 billion people live in abject poverty, without access to basic needs basic nutrition or health care. They are concentrated in Africa, where income levels have lagged. Every 10 seconds, somewhere in the world, a child dies as a result of malnutrition- not eating enough food or eating the right food to resist disease. Over 3 million a year. The ironic part is the world produces enough food to nourish these children and enough income to afford to nourish them, but their own families or states do not have enough income. They die, ultimately, from poverty. In the same 10 seconds the world spends over 500,000 on military forces, one thousandth of which could save the child's life and more.

1) According to classical liberalism, what are the three proper functions of government in the market? 2) What is the idea of the invisible hand? Whose idea is this? Why is the classical liberal economic view not in favor of protectionism? 3) What tensions have made it difficult for any agreements to be reached in the Doha round?

Adam Smith Liberalism- Wealth of Nations 1776: smith based his theory on individualist premises, for smith individuals are presumed to be naturally self interested, he saw human "propensity to truck, barter, and exchange one thing for another" he thought if humans are self interested but they naturally "truck barter, and exchange" which necessitates cooperation, how do we survive in a world where we must depend on others, but where humans are by nature self-interested individuals? Solution: the Invisible Hand: Individuals who produce goods and services that people want, at a fair price, will prosper those who fail to do so will be driven out of business by competitors, individuals seeking success are driven by self-interest into cooperating "enlightened self interest" the system leads to useful social work benefiting society by keeping prices low and providing incentives for a wide variety of goods and services Smith proper role of government: Government should interfere minimally with the free and efficient workings of the market, legitimate functions of government: 1. National defense 2. Administration of justice, protection of property rights, enforcement of contracts 3. Build infrastructure (roads, bridges, ports etc.) necessary to functioning of market, but not profitable for private entrepreneurs. Protectionism: -seen as political interference in the market -Policies of a country that protect domestic industries from international competition -From a pure liberal perspective, this is not desirable -Impedes free trade' ex. if US puts in policies to protect US cars that does not push the companies to innovate or be better for people and this squishes innovation. Doha Round: 2001 after failure in Seattle, trade ministers meeting in Doha, Qatar, agreed to launch a new round of trade negotiations. Issues under this negotiation included agriculture, services, industrial products, intellectual property, WTO rules (including how to handle antidumping cases), dispute settlements, and some trade and environmental questions. Doha Round of WTO negotiations stretched from 2001-2015 without conclusion. In 2007, participants tried to use a key deadline- expiration of the fast-track authorization by the US Congress, after which US approval of a new WTO agreement would become difficult- to inspire a final agreement. Each deadline passed through without states sticking to them and swerving their views. Smaller agreements within the WTO negotiations have kept hope alive that the Doha round will end with a new global trade agreement. Doha round continued.. A series of negotiations under the World Trade Organization that began in Doha, Qatar, in 2011. It followed the Uruguay Round and has focused on agricultural subsidies, intellectual property, and other issues.; GATT and WTO 'Rounds' -Rounds of negotiations- most recent= Uruguay and Doha; attempts to establish rules for trade Doha Round -2001 round of WTO negotiations, Doha, Qatar moved the meetings here to avoid protests. -- goals were to lower trade barriers around the world; supposed to help development -2006 talks were closed with no success- N/S divide -July 2008 talks broke down over agricultural issues Scheduled to start up again in 2009- didn't happen -The idea was to negotiate to make global South better and it was a miserable failure --- Breakdown of Doha Round 2006 Meetings -good for North and corporations if not broken down before agreement it would hurt South more -Vatican chimed in saying the agreement would not be just. -Vatican statement of hope for Doha and developing countries -Analysis by The Guardian- developing countries are better off without Doha agreement -Europe blamed the US and vice versa - Doha Bali Meetings 12/2013 came to a modest agreement, agreed on measures to reduce trade costs by simplifying customs procedures, agriculture still most difficult issue--- subsidies so they put a hold on that until the next meeting, major disagreements between the US and India about food security (small farmers forced to grow for export, become subject to international whims, lose their farms and ironically, starve).

1973 oil shock:

After WWII the British gave up their colonial claims to the Middle East, but Western oil companies kept producing cheap oil for Western consumption. Then in 1973, during Arab-Israeli war, oil producing Arab states of the region decided to punish the US for supporting Israel and they cut off their oil exports to the US and curtailed their overall exports. This supply disruption made prices sky rocket, OPEC raised the money because people were willing to pay for it to get oil. This 1973 oil shock had profound effect on the world economy and world politics huge amounts of hard currency accumulated in the treasuries of the Middle East oil producing countries which invested them around the world (petrodollars) high inflation plagued the US and Europe years afterward. Economic instability and sense of US helplessness coming atop the Vietnam War- seemed to mark a decline in American power and perhaps rise the global South.

What were the events in 1973 that led to the "oil shock"?

When is military force justified under the just war doctrine?

After the law of diplomacy, international law regarding war is one of the most developed areas of international law. Laws concerning war are divided into two areas- laws of war (when war is permissible) and laws in war (how wars are fought). Begin with laws of war, international law distinguishes just wars (which are legal) from wars of aggression (which are illegal). This area of law comes from centuries- old religious writings about just wars. Today, the legality of war is defined in the UN charter, which outlaws aggression. Just war doctrine has become a strong international norm, not one that all states follow but an important part of modern intellectual tradition governing matters of war and peace that evolved in Europe. Response to aggression is the only allowable use of military force according to just war doctrine. The idea of aggression, around which the doctrine of just war evolved, is based on a violation of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of states. Aggression refers to a state's use of force, or an imminent threat to do so, against another state's territory or sovereignty- unless the use of force is in response to aggression. The lines are somewhat fuzzy. Tanks swarming across the border constitute aggression, but so do tanks massing at the border if their state has threatened to invade. But for a threat to constitute aggression (and justify the use of force in response), it must be a clear threat of using force, not just a hostile policy or general rivalry. States have the right to respond to aggression in the only manner thought to be reliable- military force so it's not based on nonviolence the just war doctrine. Response can include repelling the attack itself and punishing the aggressor. Response can be made by the victim of aggression or by other states not directly affected to maintain norm of non aggression in the international system. The just war approach explicitly rules out war as an instrument to change another state's governments or policies, or in ethnic and religious conflicts. The UN charter makes no provisions for "war" but rather for "international police actions" against aggressors. The analogy is with law and order in a national society, enforced by police when necessary. Because only aggression justifies military force, if all state obeyed the law against aggression, there would be no international war.

Just-war doctrine, jus ad bellum, jus in bello, jus post bellum [the last three are from lecture primarily]

IMF conditionality and structural adjustment programs (SAPs) (and the controversy over conditionality)

An agreement to loan IMF funds on the condition that certain government policies are adopted is called IMF conditionality agreement; implementation of these agreements is referred to as structural adjustment program. (SAPS) ::: An agreement to loan IMF funds on the condition that certain government policies are adopted. Dozens of third world states have entered into such agreements with the IMF in the past two decades. Dozens of developing countries have entered into such agreements with the IMF in the past two decades. The terms insisted on by the IMF are usually painful for the citizens the IMF demands that inflation be brought under control, which requires reducing state spending and closing budget deficits. These measures often spur unemployment and require that subsidies of food and basic foods be reduced or eliminated. Short- term consumption is curtailed in favor of longer-term investment. Surplus must be concentrated to service debt and invest in new capital accumulation. It also demands steps to curtail corruption. The IMF wants to ensure that money lent to the country is not spent for politically popular but economically profitable purposes (such as subsidizing food). Because of the pain inflicted by a conditionality agreement- and to some extent by any debt renegotiation agreement- such agreements are often politically unpopular in the global South. Some have brought rioters into the streets demanding the restoration of subsidies for food, gasoline, and other essential goods. Occasionally governments have been toppled.

Autarky:

An obvious way to avoid becoming dependent on other states, especially for a weak state whose trading partners would tend to be more powerful, is to avoid trading and instead to try to produce everything that state needs by itself. Autarky is self reliance. Has proven ineffective. A self-reliant state pays a very high cost to produce goods for which it does not have a comparative advantage. As other states cooperate among themselves to maximize their joint creation of wealth, the relative power of the autarkic state in the international system tends to fail. A policy of self-reliance, avoiding or minimizing trade and trying to produce everything one needs (or the most vital things) by oneself. -Self-sufficiency is undesirable, the opportunity cost of self sufficiency (called autarky) is very high since: -we will be less efficient -receive lower incomes -and pay higher taxes

What is the role of women's status in population growth (or decrease) and what factors affect women's choices and ability to impact birthrate?

Birthrates are heavily influenced by the status of woman in society. In cultures that traditionally see woman as valuable only in producing babies grat sanction exist against woman who stop doing so. Many women do not use birth control because their husbands will not allow them to. These husbands think that having many children us proof to their manliness. However, as women's status improves and they can work in various occupations, own property and vote woman gain power as well as the education and money necessary to limit the size of their families. According to the UNFPA, improving the status of women is one of the most important means of controlling world population growth. Government policies about women's status vary from one state to another. International programs and agencies, such as the UN Commissioner of the Status of Woman, are working to address this issue on a global scale.

Autonomous agencies (general definition; IAEA, WHO):

Autonomous international agencies that are not under the UN General Assembly control. Most are specialized technical organizations through which states pool their efforts to address problems such as health care and labor conditions. International Atomic Energy Agency headquartered in Vienna, Austria. It was established under the UN but is formally autonomous. Although it has an economic role in helping develop civilian nuclear power plants, it mainly works to prevent nuclear proliferation. It was responsible for the inspections in Iraq in 2002-03 which found no evidence of a secret nuclear weapons program. WHO World Health Organization in the area of health care, Geneva-based, provides technical assistance to improve conditions and conduct major immunization campaigns in poor countries. In 60s and 70s, WHO led one of the great public health victories of all time- the worldwide eradication of smallpox and today is a leading player in the worldwide control AIDS. Autonomous Agencies: 15 agencies with ties to the UN but not run by the UN, specialized technical organizations: IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), WHO (World Health Organization), UNESCO (Education, Scientific and Cultural), WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) WTO, IMF, World Bank (World Trade Organization, International Monetary fund) FAO (food and agriculture organization) ILO (International Labor Organization)

Balance of trade (understand positive and negative BOT)::

Balance of trade is the value of a state's imports relative to its exports. A state that exports more than it imports has a positive balance of trade, or trade surplus. A state that imports more than it exports has a negative balance of trade (trade deficit). Balance of Trade: The value of a state's exports relative to its imports. global south has 80% of the world's population but only accounts for 45% of global trade (up from 40% in recent years) and conversely the north has 20% of the population and 55% of trade Balance of Trade: Ratio imports to exports, positive balance or trade surplus means exports are higher than imports; negative balance of trade of "trade deficit" means the imports are higher than exports; often just fluctuates without problems, sustained trade deficit is a problem you end up exporting part of "standing wealth" e.g. foreigners begin to own state's property, companies, bank accounts.

How do states use the diplomatic environment to communicate displeasure to another state?

Because of diplomatic, espionage activities are commonly conducted through diplomatic corps, out of an embassy. Spies are often posted to low-level positions in embassies, such as cultural attache, press liaison, or military attache. If the host country catches them spying, it cannot prosecute them, so it merely expels them. Diplomatic norms (through not law) call for politeness when expelling spies; To break diplomatic relations means to withdraw one's diplomats from a state and expel that state's diplomats from one's own state. This tactic is used to show displeasure with another government; it is a refusal to do business as usual. When a revolutionary government comes into power, some countries may withdraw recognition. When two countries lack diplomatic relations, they often do business through a third country willing to represent a country's interests formally through its own embassy. This is called an interests section in the third country's embassy. Thus, the practical needs of diplomacy can overcome a formal lack of relations between states. States register lower levels of displeasure by recalling their ambassadors home for some period of a time; diplomatic norms call for a trip home "for consultations" even when everyone knows the purpose is to signal annoyance. Milder still is the expression of displeasure by a formal complaint.

What was the impact of the exclusion of the agriculture and textile sectors from the rules of the GATT?

Because of the need for capital and wealth created by international trade, most states of the global South see their future economic development as resting on a close interconnection with the world economy, not on national autarky or regional economic communities. These poor states must play by the rules embedded in international economic regimes. However, the economic sectors in which poor states have a comparative advantages on world market- such as with agriculture and textiles- were largely excluded from free trade rules for decades. Instead, world trade deals concentrated on free trade in manufactured goods, in which states in the North have comparative advantages. As a result, some developing countries had to open their home markets to foreign products, against which home industries were not competitive, yet see their own export products shut out of foreign markets. Current WTO negotiations are attempting to remedy this inequity but so far without success.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of borrowing for poor countries? What was the third world debt crisis? What are the tensions around debt renegotiation?

Borrowing money is an alternative to foreign investment as a way of obtaining funds to prime a cycle of economic accumulation. If accumulation succeeds, it produces enough surplus to repay the loan and still make a profit. Borrowing has several advantages. It keeps control in the hands of the state (or other local borrowers) and does not impose painful sacrifices on local citizens, at least in the short term. Debt has disadvantages too. The borrower must service the debt- making regular payments of interest and repaying the principal according to the terms of the loan.

The Bretton Woods monetary exchange regime lasted from 1944 to 1971. What happened in 1971?

Bretton Woods set a regime of monetary exchange, based on the US dollar and backed by gold, that lasted 1944-1971. During this period the dollar had a fixed value equal to 1/35 of an ounce of gold, and US government guaranteed to buy dollars for gold at this rate. Other states currencies were fixed relative to the dollar. Fixed exchange rates set by the IMF based on long-term equilibrium that could be sustained for each currency, operated within a narrow range around the fixed rate. This was abandoned in 1971, the institution survived, and even the monetary regime underwent more of an adjustment than a collapse. The US economy no longer held the overwhelming dominance it had in 1944-mostly because of European and Japanese recovery from WWII, but also because of US overspending on the Vietnam War and the outflow of US dollars to buy oil. The dollar became seriously overvalued, was no longer worth 1/35th of an ounce of gold, and US had to abandon its fixed exchange rate. Nixon unilaterally dumped the dollar- gold system and allowed the dollar to freely float.

How has AIDS deepened the North-South division? How is AIDS a collective goods problem?

By 2014 AIDs/HIV killed more than 30 million people and estimated 35 million infected. Two thirds live in Africa and half of the rest in South Asia leaving 16 million orphans worldwide (75% in Africa) each year 2.3 million people are newly infected and 1.6 million die from AIDs including almost 200,000 children. In Africa AIDs is a leading force driving the nation into an even deeper poverty, about 5% adults have HIV more than half being woman. 1990s drug companies came up with ways to combat HIV/ AIDS but these are too expensive to Africa and other poor regions. And cannot illegally export this drug without punishment due to patents on drugs. AIDs has deepened the North-South division in some ways. 2001 UN session also revealed sharp differences between the Western, secular states and a number of Islamic states that objected to any reference of gay people. This point was underscored when the then-president of Iran 2007 speech to Columbia University, claimed there were no gay people in Iran, Catholic authorities worldwide object to programs encouraging condom use. So some of the most effective methods to prevention are socially and culturally politically sensitive. To combat this are IGOs like the WHO that are funded by industrialized countries whose the budget of WHO is equivelent to a midsize hospital in the global North.

Tragedy of the commons:

Collective goods dilemma that is created when common environmental assets (such as the world's fisheries) are depleted or degraded through the failure of states to cooperate effectively. Britain solved this problem, overfishing and grazing. A collective goods dilemma that is created when common environmental assets (such as the world's fisheries) and depleted or degraded through the failure of states to cooperate effectively. One solution is to "enclose" the commons (split them into individually owned pieces): international regimes can also be a (partial) solution.Tragedy of the commons: Collective goods dilemma that is created when common environmental assets (such as the world's fisheries) are depleted or degraded through the failure of states to cooperate effectively.Commons are a collective goods dilemma: cultural and natural resource open to everyone and it's not privately owned all can use it, it's a free rider problem like water, air, oceans.

Convertible currencies

Convertible currencies means that there is a guarantee of being able to trade it or another currency. The guarantee that the holder of a particular currency can exchange it for another currency. Some states' currencies are non-convertible. -strong currencies are convertible currencies you can buy other things and in any country people wanted.

How does corruption in the global South present a collective goods problem for states in the North?

Corruption in the global South presents a collective goods problem for states and MNCs in the global North: individually, MNCs and their home states can profit by clinching a deal with a private payoff, but collectively, the MNCs and states of the North lose money by having to make these payoffs. Therefore, there is an incentive to clamp down on corruption only if other industrialized states do likewise. The US in recent decades has barred US companies from making corrupt deals abroad, but other countries of the North had not done so until recently. Germany and Canada even allowed their companies to deduct foreign bribes on their taxes.

Corruption and transparency

Corruption: is an important negative factor in economic development in many states. Corruption centers on the government as the central actor in economic development, especially in its international aspects. Transparency: Transparency helps solve the collective goods problem. A Berlin-based nongovernmental organization called Transparency International pushed successfully for action to stem corruption in international business deals. The group publishes annual surveys showing the countries that business executives consider most corrupt. In 1997, the world's 29 leading industrialized states agreed to forbid their companies from bribing foreign officials. And the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, a coalition of states, NGOs, and MNCs launched by Britain in 2002, fights corruption in the especially vulnerable oil, gas, and mineral sectors worldwide by getting companies to release information on payments they make to developing countries. Dealing with corruption- Transparency: openness and accountability in government NGO Transparency International: "Corruption is the abuse of entrusted power for private gain. It hurts everyone whose life, livelihood, or happiness depends on the integrity of people in the position of authority. Corruption is both a cause of poverty, and a barrier to overcoming it. It is one of the most serious obstacles to reducing poverty"

In what ways have states had more success in negotiating agreements and developing regimes to manage the ozone problem compared to dealing with global warming?

Costs of replacing CFCs was much lower than addressing global warming they could be replaced by other chemicals at moderate costs and this was more immediate an issue and defined than attacking the whole problem of global warming. So states had much more success in addressing and negotiating agreements to manage ozone depletion. In the 1987 Montreal Protocol 22 states agreed to reduce CFCs by 50% by 1998 in 1990 the timetable was accelerated and expanded with 81 states agreeing to eliminate CFC use by 2000. 1992 when ozone depletion levels raised it was accelerated again major industrial states agreeing not to use CFCs by 1995. Also they agreed in principle to help establish funds for the developing countries to pay for alternative refrigeration not based on CFCs. 2010 to face out CFC production. Again revised and strengthened in 1997 and 1999 respectively rich countries stopped using CFCs in 1996 and have contributed 3 billion to developing fund. The ozone hole is projected to shrink back slowly over the next 50 years if these policies continue. Montreal Protocol became the most successful international negotiation to preserve the global environment.

Montreal Protocol:

European Union:

Created after WWII and has developed since. 500 million citizens and surpasses US economy in GDP. The official term for the European Community and associated treaty organizations. the EU has 28 members states and is negotiating with other states that have applied for membership.

Bretton Woods system (three outcomes - gold standard, IMF, World Bank)

Created end WWII to deter wars by further interdependence. Bretton Woods system was adopted at a conference of the winning WWII states in 1944, in New Hampshire. It established the World Bank- as a source of loans to reconstruct the Western European economies after the war and to help states through future financial difficulties. Closely linked with the World Bank is International Monetary Fund (IMF) which coordinates international currency exchange, the balance of international payments, and national accounts. A post-WWII arrangement for managing the world economy, established at a meeting in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944. Its main institutional components are the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Trade Regimes: Bretton Woods -meeting in 1944 to create a new global economic regime -Bretton Woods NH -idea was make a dependable economic system that gives more stability to global economy which would deter war Tried to create four things but only created 3: 1. IMF 2. World Bank 3. Gold Standard 4. Did not make ITO international trade organization did create GATT and WTO Bretton Woods System -established rules for commercial and financial relations -first example of fully negotiated monetary order Chief Features: -monetary policy re exchange rate and gold standard -provide loans to help countries establish economic growth and to weather difficult economic conditions.

Debt service, default, debt renegotiation, and debt forgiveness

Debt service: Debt service is a constant drain on whatever surplus is generated by investment of the money. With foreign direct investment, a money-losing venture is the problem of the foreign MNC; with debt, it is the problem of the borrowing state, which must find the money elsewhere. Often, a debtor must borrow new funds to service old loans, thus slipping further into debt. Debt service has created a net financial outflow from South to North in recent years, as the South has paid billions more in interest to banks and governments in the North than it has received in foreign investment or development aid. Default on debt: Failure to make scheduled payments, called a default, is considered a drastic action because it destroys lenders' confidence and results in the cutoff of future loans.::: to make scheduled debt payments. Debt renegotiation: Rather than defaulting, borrowers usually attempt debt recognition- reworking the terms on which a loan will be repaid. By renegotiating their debt with lenders, borrowers seek a mutually acceptable payment scheme to keep at least some money flowing to the lender. If interest rates have fallen since a loan was first taken out, the borrower can refinance. Borrowers and lenders can also negotiate to restructure a debt by changing the length of the loan or the other terms. ::: A reworking of the terms on which a loan will be repaid; frequently negotiated by third world debtor governments in order to avoid default. Debt forgiveness: In recent years, activists and NGOs have called for extensive debt forgiveness for the poorest countries, most of which are in Africa. Critics say such cancellations just put more money in the hands of corrupt, inept governments. But G7 members in 2005 agreed to eliminate all debts owed by 37 very poor countries to the World Bank and IMF- cutting almost in half the poorest countries' estimated $200 billion in debt. The first $40 billion, owed by 18 countries, began to be written off in 2006. As of 2014, the IMF had forgiven $75 billion of debt in the poorest 36 countries.

Colonialism and decolonization

Decolonization: Decolonization began with the British colonists in the US, who declared independence in 1776. Most of Latin America gained independence a few decades later. The new states in North America and Latin America were, of course, still run by the descendants of Europeans, to the disadvantage of Native Americans and African slaves. When colonies gain independence. In a wave of decolonization after WWII, it was not local colonists (as in the Americas) but indigenous populations in Asia and Africa who won independence. Decolonization continues through the mid 1970s until almost no European colonies remained. Most of the newly independent states have faced tremendous challenges and difficulties in the postcolonial era because of their colonial histories. Colonialism: Most states in the global South they have a history of being colonized by Europeans it's central to their identity, foreign policy, and place in the world. Revolve around asymmetric power relationships with industrialized states and they're in favor of socialist perspectives. Being colonized has a devastating effect on people and culture. Foreigners overrun a territory with force and take it over they install their own government, staffed by own nationalists. Inhabitants are forced to speak language of the colonizers, to adopt their culture guidelines, and to be educated in schools run under their guidance and they are told they are rationally inferior. Colonialism also has devastating economic consequences they usually take anything they can extract the good things. deeply relevant to current world politics and economy, and status of developing countries, 12th-15th centuries: European development; scientific and technological progress- agriculture, industry, military able to dominate other world regions.

Why are EU political leaders as well as some EU citizens concerned about "Eurocrats"?

Eu headquarters and staff have the reputation of colorless bureaucrats - sometimes called Eurocrats- who care more about technical problem solving than about politics. These supranational bureaucrats are balanced in the EU structure by provisions that uphold the power of states and state leaders. Although the rule of Eurocrats follows the functionalist plan, it has created problems as the EU progressed. Politicians in member states have qualms about losing power to the Eurocrats. Citizens in those states have become more uncomfortable in recent years with the growing power of faceless Eurocrats over their lives. Citizens can throw their own political leaders out of office in national elections, but Eurocrats seem less accountable.

1) What are EPZs? What are the advantages and disadvantages to developing countries to using EPZs as a tool for economic development? 2) What are the criticisms of the WTO?

EPZs- Export Processing Zones (Free trade zones- Not free trade area) how developing countries attract this kind of investment aka "Free trade zones" most in developing countries, special zones where normal trade barriers (tariffs and nontariff barriers) don't apply, rationale- to attract foreign business and boost economy, often used by multinational corporations (MNCs). Incentives in EPZs: no taxes or tax free for many years, special services in the zones e.g. better infrastructure than rest of the country, security, close to airports, few labor protection laws, low wages, unions are illegal, no responsibility to protect the environment e.g. Honduras Benefits to Host Country: creates jobs, builds skills in the workforce, more people working mens more income to be spent domestically, more people working means less poverty so fewer social services needed, theoretically should lead to economic growth overall. EPZ is low, low, money area so to draw companies but also hurts the country. Criticism of EPZs: gives MNCs undue influence over already corrupt governments, company receives more liberty than citizens, anti-democratic effects (e.g. no unions), captive workforce- few other options, frequent "bidding wars"- rapid movement of business from one country to another= the "race to the bottom"= the threat to leave gives MNC too much leverage in bargaining, environmental protections lifted.

1) What does the accumulation of capital have to do with economic development? 2) What is the hypothesized division of labor between the core and the periphery?

Economic development depends on the accumulation of capital and capital includes standing wealth: buildings, factories, roads, infrastructure i.e.things of value that contribute to building more wealth, so not consumer goods. Growth comes from investing capital to create more capital- requires an economic surplus; however current level of economic growth doesn't indicate how much wealth has been accumulated in the past like ex. US has slower growth but large base of capital while Mexico has more rapid growth but much lower level of surplus capital. Poorer countries don't have large base of capital (money, standing wealth) so they lag behind (that is very little surplus capital to invest in growth) concentrating of wealth is self-reinforcing: possession of wealth makes efficient investment possible, and this generates more wealth. When wealth is concentrated in some states, this gives those states power and the ability to dominate politically (i.e. establish policies and regimes that favor themselves over others) so global north retains its superior economic power. Immanuel Wallerstein: theory to explain current global situation the world system= capitalist world economy with regionalized class divisions, postulates a "core" and a "periphery" class struggle is between core and periphery.

Cultural imperialism

Emerging global culture is primarily the culture of white Europeans and their descendants in rich areas of the world. For many people, especially in global South, information revolution carrying global culture into their midst is, despite its empowering potential, an invasive force in practice because cultures are being subsumes, half of the world's 7000 languages risk extinction this century according to UNESCO. Dominated by the world's superpower US. a term critical of US dominance of the emerging global culture.;; is the economic, technological and cultural hegemony of the industrialized nations, which determines the direction of both economic and social progress, defines cultural values, and standardizes the civilization and cultural environment throughout the world.

How is the environment sometimes impacted negatively by free trade?

Environmental groups have also actively opposed the unrestricted expansion of trade, which they see as undermining environmental laws in industrialized countries and promoting environmentally harmful practices worldwide. Put in rules of overfishing, change laws regarding imported gasoline, and regulations under Clean Air Act. Unrestricted trade trends tends to force countries to equalize their regulations in a variety of areas not limited to labor and environmental rules.

Trafficking

Estimated 700,000 people annually are trafficked across international borders against their will. Include both sex and labor slaves that include females, males, adults, and children. Around 20,000 of these people are trafficked in the US annually.

What is spillover in relation to neofunctionalism? Why did functionalists such as Schuman and Monnet suggest that technical (and later scientific) collaborations be undertaken as a step toward integration and peace?

European experience went beyond the creation of specialized agencies to include the development of more general, more political supranational bodies, such as European Parliament. Neofunctionalism is a modification of functional theory by IR scholars to explain these developments. Neo Functionalists argue that economic integration (functionalism) generates a political dynamic that drives integration further. Closer economic ties require more political coordination in order to operate effectively and eventually lead to political integration as well as a process of spillover. EU- Created after WWII and has developed since. 500 million citizens and surpasses US economy in GDP.;;;; Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman, were developing to plan to implement the idea of functionalism in Europe- the future wars could be prevented by creating economic linkages that would eventually bind states together politically. 1950 Schuman, the French foreign minister proposed a first modest step to merge French and German steel and coal industries into single framework. Schuman plan gave birth to 1952 European Coal and Steel Community, 6 countries banded together worked through ECSC to reduce trade barriers in coal and steel and coordinate their coal and steel policies. ECSC also established high authority that to some extent could bypass governments and deal directly with companies, labor unions, and individuals.

1) Extreme poverty spills over and creates other problems. What are some of these problems? 2) How does spending on perfumes in the US and Europe compare to spending to improve basic health and nutrition in the global South? 3) What is the relationship between drug companies and health in Africa?

Extreme poverty may fuel revolution, terrorism, and anti-Western sentiments. War is a leading obstacle to accessing basic needs. Poverty increases vulnerability to disasters (e.g. wars, tsunamis, drought, environmental problems), lack of literacy, education interferes with the ability to move through the demographic transition, HIV/AIDS significantly impacts a country's ability to develop its economy, development policies sometimes increase poverty. Vulnerability to disasters- no safety nets: even countries that have had some economic success are extremely vulnerable to change/disasters/climate change, ex. Zambia- the Kariba Dam provided electricity enough to sell to neighboring countries that contributed to political stability, economic growth, and development. But sustained drought magnified by climate change cut water levels to a record low so minimal power, now struggling to pay public workers and has to go to the IMF for loans, growth projections were cut in half. AIDS is a major obstacle to fight against hunger and poverty and these AIDS victims are young adults the age group that usually does work of growing crops, in ½ of sub-Saharan Africa, per capita economic growth is falling by as much as 1.2% each year as a result of AIDS, AIDS orphans can't provide for themselves, so impacts a state's economy. The development process can lead to more poverty for some: the displacement of subsistence farmers leads to massive population shift (through shift to cash crops) urbanization: movement from rural areas to the city in search for economic opportunity, capital accumulation is concentrated in cities, and this influx of people can cause difficulties like slums and gaps between more affluent and poor. Migration: millions of people from the global South have crossed international borders, often illegally, to reach the North, migration produces complex patterns of winners and losers, and most industrialized states try to limit immigration from the global South- war and politics Syrian refugees, illegal immigration, legal immigration but community conflict. Dealing with Problems in the Global South: Overview: 1. Priorities in spending: Compared: Perfumes in Europe and the US spending is 12 billion US dollars while basic health and nutrition costs of basic social services in the global South is 13 billion... For effective health care in the south it's estimated would only be $4 a day for primary care using UNICEF methods Politics of Drug Companies: AIDS drugs, breast cancer medicines all protected as Intellectual property- WHO request to drug companies to be flexible about patents: but there is no patents only after 20 years OR non-enforcement in poor countries; little success in getting drug companies to ease up, 2016 international AIDS conference and further pharmaceutical companies run drug trials in Africa which are often unethical or without consent "medical neocolonialism" WHO allows patent monopoly on drugs.

Hyperinflation::

Extremely high, uncontrollable inflation- more than 50% per month or 13,000% per year. An extremely rapid, uncontrolled rise in prices, such as occurred in Germany in the 1920s and some third world countries more recently. -Out of control inflation, money is not worth anything. countries with political instability often have this.

Exxon-Mobil is being sued by a human rights NGO in what court? Why?

ExxonMobil case in Aceh: it's an international case that was brought to the national court because were they aiding repressive regimes? Labor rights group sued in US court, used the Alien Tort Claims Act (ATS cases), human rights activists sued oil companies for aiding abuse in Indonesia. Exxon hired violent Indonesian soldiers to protect the oil field, a family put Exxon on trial for allowing killing and rape of people and helped cover it up. Brought to US courts 20-16 years and still in the US courts 15 years. Dealing with jurisdiction issues used Alien Torts act to bring cse to company that acting poorly beyond own country. ExxonMobil based in the US but CEOs did not know this is going on so no jurisdiction. 2015 brought to light the CEOs knew what was going on so the jurisdiction should pass. Our Secretary of State was a CEO of ExxonMobil when this happened: brought during confirmation has terrible human right record. Supreme Court heard Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum Co (Nigeria), decided for RDP. Said ATS cases can proceed if complaints "touch and concern" the US directly. Rex Tillerson, Secretary of State, was senior VP and then the President of ExxonMobil at the time. Court Decision, Plaintiffs: ExxonMobil had the ability to control the actions of soldiers but they didn't and its policies were "run out of Houston"; US District Court Judge Lamberth 2014- plaintiffs can't find justice in Indonesian courts (corruption) so US courts have jurisdiction, 10/2015 decision that the case can go ahead. Letter to Foreign Relations Committee re Tillerson Nomination: Lawsuits accusing ExxonMobil of complicity in human rights abuses in Aceh are still ongoing after 15 years; as secretary of State, Mr. Tillerson could- and would likely- advocate advancing the interests of corporations over the human rights of impacted persons and communities in future briefs.

What two major changes were initiated by the Single European Act (Europe 1992 and the European Central Bank)? How does the case of the "chocolate wars" illustrate tensions around economic integration?

First major revision to the Treaty of Rome- 1985 Single European Act began a new phase of accelerated integration. EU set a target date 1992 for creation of a true common Europe market, aimed to eliminate nontariff barriers to free trade in goods, services, labor, and capital within the EC. Raged for decades the definition of chocolate, Belgium famous for chocolate required the exclusive use of cocoa butter for a product to be called chocolate; Britain and other countries use cheaper products to process chocolate like vegetable oil. Belgium did not want to lose their advantage of chocolate sales to these cheap products. Under pressure of integration the EU is moving to unify standards such as food regulations. Chocolate wars illustrate that the seemingly simple concept of economic integration sets in motion forces of change that reach into every corner of society and affect the daily lives of millions of people. Single European Act gave push to create European Central Bank (frankfurt, Germany) and a single currency and monetary system

The Single European Act

Fiscal and monetary policy:

Fiscal policy government decisions about spending and taxation are called this, decisions about printing and circulating money are called monetary policy. These are the two main tools available for governments to manage an economy. Monetary policy: A government's decisions about printing and circulating money, and one of the two major tools of macroeconomic policy making (the other being fiscal policy) Fiscal Policy: A government's decisions about spending and taxation, and one of the two major tools of macroeconomic policy making (the other being monetary policy)

International Criminal Court (ICC) (what is it, what kinds of cases are heard, what is universal jurisdiction, what triggers a case; how is it different from the World Court)

Following up on the UN tribunals for former Yugoslavia in Rwanda, in 1998 most of the world's states signed a treaty to create a permanent International Criminal Court's (ICC). It hears cases of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity from anywhere in the world. The ICC opened for business in 2003 in The Hague, with 18 judges sworn in from around the world (but not US). 2008 ICC began first trial of a militia leader from the Democratic of the Congo accused for drafting children under age 15 and killing civilians. He was convicted 2012. The US has refused to ratify the ICC agreement and shows little interest in doing so. Also has pressured many ICC member states to sign immunity agreements to protect American soldiers serving in those countries from prosecution. Leaders are concerned that American soldiers, serving peacekeeping missions for NATO allies will fall under the jurisdiction of the ICC rather than under American military's own justice system. What makes the ICC different (controversial) is the idea of universal jurisdiction- the ICC has the ability to prosecute individuals of any nation. Distinguishing them from the World Court, which has only states as complainants and defendants. Under ICC individuals can be prosecuted for their roles in violations of human rights. Three mechanisms can trigger an ICC trial. First, a state can turn over an individual for trial if the state agrees to do so. Second, against the wishes of a state, a special prosecutor at the ICC can begin a trial if the crimes occurred in the territory of a signatory to the ICC. Third, the UN Security Council can begin proceedings even against individual case of war crimes, will also serve to deter potential violators of these norms under the threat of potential prosecution under the ICC. Designed to hear cases re genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity; universal jurisdiction: can prosecute individuals of any state (contrast with the World Court) three triggers: 1. State turns over an individual 2. Special prosecutor of ICC initiates case against wishes of the state (if crimes occurred in signatory state) 3. Security Council initiates, even for individuals from non-signatory states

Foreign assistance

Foreign Assistance (or overseas development assistance) is money or other aid made available to help states speed up economic development or simply meet basic humanitarian needs. It covers a variety of programs- from individual volunteers lending a hand to massive government packages. Large amounts of foreign assistance come from governments in the North. Of the roughly $150 billion in governmental foreign assistance provided in 2013, almost 90% came from members of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) (a committee whose members- consisting of states from Western Europe, North America, and Asia- provided 95% of official development assistance to countries of the global South)

What is foreign assistance? Where does the majority of foreign assistance come from?

Gold standard

Gold was valuable because they were a world currency because people around the world trusted that the metals could be exchanged for future goods. Bars of gold would be held by states as a kind of bank account denominated in an international currency. Piles of gold were object of mercantilist trade policies. A system in international monetary relations, prominent for a century before the 1970s, in which the value of national currencies was pegged to the value of gold or other precious metals. -1944-1971 US dollar was pegged to value of gold. Inherent value with high consistency this means that banks needed gold, there to back up the dollar giving stability to the currency. -1971 Nixon unilaterally dumped dollar-gold system. The dollar stopped being the same value of gold, the value was decreasing but was still pegged to gold and people would go to the bank and take gold out instead of money so they were losing out.

Standing wealth:

Hard currency reserves owned by governments are one form of standing wealth. Most standing wealth though is in the form of homes and cars, farms and factories, ports and railroads. Capital goods which are products that can be used as inputs for further production. Standing wealth lasts for enough years to be treated differently from goods that are quickly consumed. Can used to create more wealth. Standing wealth creates new wealth, so the economy tends to grow over time. As it grows, more standing wealth is created, money makes more money. Economies also contain standing wealth. The hard currency reserves owned by governments are one form of standing wealth, but not the most important. Most standing wealth is in the form of homes and cars, farms, and factories, ports and railroads. Capital goods, in particular, that can be used as inputs for further production. Nothing lasts forever, but standing wealth lasts for long enough years to be treated differently from goods that are quickly consumed. The main difference is that capital can be used to create more wealth: factories produce goods, railroads support commerce, and so forth. Standing wealth creates new wealth, so the economy tends to grow over time. As it grows more standing wealth is created.

UN General Assembly (what is it, who are members, and generally what does it do):

How did the character of the General Assembly change in the 1950s and 1960s? What hampered its functioning in the Cold War? After the Cold War how did the role of the UN change?::: In the 1950s and 60s the UN's membership more than doubled as colonies in Asia and Africa won independence. This changed the character of the GA, in which each state has one vote regardless of size. The new members had different concerns from those of the Western industrialized countries in many cases resented having been colonized by Westerners. Many states in the global South believed that the US enjoyed too much power in the UN. They noticed that the UN is usually effective in international security affairs only when the US leads the effort (which happens when US interests are at stake). The growth in membership affected voting powers of the UN. During the UN's first two decades, the GA had regularly sided with the US, and the Soviet Union was the main power to use its veto in the Security Council to counterbalance that tendency. But when newly independent states began to predominate, the US found itself in the minority on many issues, and by the 1970s and 80s it had become the main user of the veto. Throughout the Cold War, the UN had few successes in international security because the US-Soviet conflict prevented consensus. The Un appeared somewhat irrelevant in the world order. Some few exceptions, such as defending South Korea during Korean War and agreeing to station peacekeeping forces in the Middle East, but the UN did not play a central role in solving international conflicts. The GA focused on the economic and social problems of poor countries, and these became the main work of the UN. After the Cold War, the great powers could finally agree on measures regarding international security. UN moved to center stage in international security affairs. The UN had several major successes in the late 1980s ending violence in regional conflicts while introducing peacekeepers to monitor the cease-fires. By 1990s, the UN had emerged as the world's most important tool for settling international conflicts. The General Assembly is made up of all 193 member states of the UN, each with one vote. Usually meets every year, from late September through January, in plenary session. The Assembly convenes for special sessions every few years on general topics such as economic cooperation and has the power to accredit national delegations as members of the UN. The General Assembly's main power lies in its control of finances for UN programs and operations, including peacekeeping. It also can pass resolutions on various matters, but these are purely advisory and at times have served largely to vent frustrations of the majority of poor countries. Also elects members of certain UN agencies and programs. Finally, the Assembly coordinates UN programs and agencies through its own system of committees, commissions, councils, and so forth. The assembly coordinates UN programs and agencies through the Economic and Social Council, which has 54 member states elected by the General Assembly for three-year terms. General Assembly: all states are members currently 193 (addition of S Sudan in 2011), one vote per state so the state equality principle, make up of GA has changed post-colonialism; often venue for concerns/complaints of developing countries. Functions and Powers: control of finances for UN programs and ops, pass resolutions- merely advisory (327 in 69th session 2014-2015, appoint non-permanent members of the Security Council, Coordinate UN agencies and programs (ECOSOC)

Emerging markets:

I'm going to have to say they are places in developing countries that are making markets. Like poor countries working up.

Imperialism:

Imperialism (Marxism) especially in the 16th to mid 20th centuries, structured world order starkly around the dominance principle, with masters and slaves, conquerors and conquered peoples with their land, labor, and treasures. At the same time, Imperialism depends on the identity principle to unite the global North around a common racial identity that defines non white people as the outgroup.

What are four major reasons for the fact that most former colonies are making only slow progress in accumulation? (technical and administrative skills; economies based on single or dual commodities; borders and ethnic rivalries; ineffective postcolonial governments)

Imperialism concentrated the accumulation of wealth in the core and drained economic surplus from the periphery, one might expect the accumulation in the global South would take off once colonialism was overthrown. Generally, however, this was not the case. A few states, such as Singapore, have accumulated capital successfully since becoming independent. But others, including many African states, seem to be going backward, with little new capital accumulating to replace the old colonial infrastructure. Most former colonies are making only slow progress in accumulation. Political independence has not been a cure-all for poor countries. One reason for these problems is that under colonialism the training and experience needed to manage the economy were often limited to white Europeans, leaving a huge gap in technical and administrative skills after independence. Another problem faced by the newly independent states was that, as colonies, their economies has been narrowly developed to serve the needs of the European home country. Many of these economies rested on the export of one or two products. For Zambia, it was copper ore, El Salvador coffee, Botswana diamonds. Such a narrow export economy would seem well suited to use the state's comparative advantage to specialize in one niche of the world economy. But it leaves the state vulnerable to price fluctuations on the world markets. The liberal free trade regime based around the WTO corrected only partially for the North's superior bargaining position in the North-South trade. And the WTO has allowed agriculture to remain protected in core states while promoting liberalization of trade in manufactured goods exported by the core. It's not easy to restructure an economy to export a few commodities. Nor do state leaders generally want to do so because the leaders benefit from the imports that can be bought with hard currency. In any case, coffee plantations and copper mines take time and capital to create, and they represent capital accumulation- they cannot just be abandoned. Also, local inhabitants' skills and training are likely to be concentrated in the existing industries. Infrastructure, such as railroads, most likely was set up to serve the export economy. The newly independent states inherited borders that were drawn in European capitals by foreign officers looking at maps. As a result, especially in Africa, the internal rivalries of ethnic groups and regions made it very difficult for the new states to implement coherent economic plans. In a number of cases, ethnic conflicts within former colonies led to civil wars, which halted or reversed capital accumulation. Finally, the governments of many postcolonial states did not function very effectively, creating another obstacle to accumulation. In some places corruption became much worse after independence. Other places governments tried to impose central control and planning on their national economy based on nationalism, mercantilism, or socialism. Liberation from colonial control did not change underlying economic realities. Main trading partners of newly independent countries were usually their former colonial masters. Main products were usually those developed under colonialism. The administrative units and territorial borders were those created by Europeans. The state continued to occupy the same peripheral position in the world-system after independence as it has before. And in some cases, it continued to rely on its former colonizer for security.

Import substitution and export-led growth

Import Substitution: One way to create a trade surplus, used frequently a few decades ago, is through import substitution- the development of local industries to produce items that a country had been importing. These industries may receive state subsidies or tariff protection. This might seem to be a good policy for reducing dependency- especially on the former colonial master- while shrinking trade deficit or building a trade surplus. But it is against the principle of comparative advantage and has proven effective in most cases. Some scholars think that import substitution is a useful policy only at a very early phase of economic development, after which it becomes counterproductive, others think it is never useful. Export-led growth: More and more states have shifted to a strategy of export-led growth, a strategy used by the NICs. This strategy seeks to develop industries that can compete in specific niches in the world economy. These industries may receive special treatment such as subsidies and protected access to local markets. Exports from these industries generate hard currency and create a favorable trade balance. The state can then spend part of its money on imports of commodities produced more cheaply elsewhere. Such a strategy has risks, especially when a state specializes in the export of a few raw materials. It leaves poor countries vulnerable to sudden price fluctuations for their exports.

What caused a setback in the US and world economies in the 1930s? How did the Hawley-Smoot Act contribute to that setback?

In 1930s, the US world economies suffered a severe setback in the Great Depression. The protectionist Smoot-Hawley Act adopted by the US in 1930, which imposed tariffs on imports, contributed to the severity of the depression by provoking retaliation and reducing world trade.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (what is it, does it have the force of law, the principle is it based on)

In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted what is considered the core international document concerning human rights: the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The UDHR does not have the force of international law, but it sets forth international norms regarding behavior by governments towards their own citizens and foreigners alike. The declaration roots itself in the principle that violations of human rights upset international order (causing outrage, sparking rebellion, lations of human rights etc.) and the fact the UN charter commits states to respect fundamental freedoms. The declaration proclaims that "all human beings are born free and equal" without regard to sex, race, religion, political affiliation, or territory they were born in. Goes on to promote norms in wide variety of areas including banning torture, guaranteeing religious and political freedom, and ensuring the right of economic well-being. UDHR does not have the force of law, but since the adoption of UDHR, the UN has opened eight treaties for state signature to further define protections of human rights. These treaties are legally binding contracts signed by states. Human rights are codified and written down in international documents and binding treaties, UDHR, 8 UN treaties (e.g. Convention against torture, Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Woman) Human rights: one of newest and least developed areas of international law, difficult because of sovereignty, continues to develop because of several factors: spillover, information revolution- more aware of violations, "crimes against humanity"- from Nuremberg trials, 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights set the norms it's not a law.

Nigeria and the "resource curse"

In Africa, Nigeria is the largest country and, with oil to export, should be one of the less impoverished but its income is quite low and corruption takes a steady toll on the economy. Oil provides 95% of export earnings and provides revenue for two-thirds of the government's budget. After years of military dictatorship, elections were held in 1999, and Nigeria enjoyed more political stability in the new century, but a cease-fire with armed rebels in the oil-rich south was followed by an upsurge of Islamist terrorist bombings in the north. Since 2009, the main Islamist group, known as Boko Haram, has killed thousands of civilians, thus contributing to political instability. Nigeria's political and economic conditions remain fragile. Nigeria is the largest country in Africa and the most populous country in Africa, 8th in the world, 1960 it gained independence from England so it's only 57 years old. There is a long history of military governments, but now democratic form of government (although elections are criticized as being unfree and unfair) rapid population growth- high birth rate, slowing death rate (in the middle of the demographic transition) education provided for free by government, english is official language (legacy of British rule) Several religions- Islam, Christianity, indigenous. Colonialism: Portuguese and British exploited resources; slave trade. 1901 became British protectorate, administratively divided into Northern and Southern provinces and Lagos colony, western education and development of economy more rapid in the south. Slavery was not outlawed until 1936 and independence gained in 1960. Post colonialism: ethnic (and religious) tensions, especially north and south; border problems- several ethnic groups with nationalist aspirations inside Nigerian borders, civil war and several military coups, oil boom in 1970s generated billions of dollars, but corruption resulted in wealth remaining with public officials. Economy largely dependent on oil- single commodity economy "resource curse" and terrorist group Boko Haram Nigerian Economy: 2016 largest economy in Africa classified as an emerging market, significant oil reserves and other resources (poster child for the resource curse) but well developed financial and communications sectors, ranked 39th in the world re GDP 2014, 24th in 2016 (CIA WF) 14th largest exporter of goods to the US, used oil profits to pay off its debt in 2006, economic slump in 2015-2016 world oil prices. Labor force over 62% of 190 million people live in extreme poverty, 10% in industry, 20% in services, 70% in agriculture Over 2 million people are Internally Displaced Persons causes: Boko haram attacks, counterinsurgency efforts in northern Nigeria, communal violence between Christians and Muslims, flooding, forced evictions, competition for resources. But still despite development there is political instability and close to a single commodity economy (oil accounts for 35% of GDP, 90% of export revenues).. Ethnic and religious tensions, severe environmental problems- oil spills, soil degradation, deforestation, waste management cities.. And severe theft of oil in Nigeria because of a somewhat weak government, internal conflict, poverty.. Have made theft possible public officials are corrupt, pirates, drug cartels, and terrorists.

What is Nigeria's economic status? How is its current economic status in part a legacy of colonialism?

How did the character of the General Assembly change in the 1950s and 1960s? What hampered its functioning in the Cold War? After the Cold War how did the role of the UN change?

In the 1950s and 60s the UN's membership more than doubled as colonies in Asia and Africa won independence. This changed the character of the GA, in which each state has one vote regardless of size. The new members had different concerns from those of the Western industrialized countries in many cases resented having been colonized by Westerners. Many states in the global South believed that the US enjoyed too much power in the UN. They noticed that the UN is usually effective in international security affairs only when the US leads the effort (which happens when US interests are at stake). The growth in membership affected voting powers of the UN. During the UN's first two decades, the GA had regularly sided with the US, and the Soviet Union was the main power to use its veto in the Security Council to counterbalance that tendency. But when newly independent states began to predominate, the US found itself in the minority on many issues, and by the 1970s and 80s it had become the main user of the veto. Throughout the Cold War, the UN had few successes in international security because the US-Soviet conflict prevented consensus. The Un appeared somewhat irrelevant in the world order. Some few exceptions, such as defending South Korea during Korean War and agreeing to station peacekeeping forces in the Middle East, but the UN did not play a central role in solving international conflicts. The GA focused on the economic and social problems of poor countries, and these became the main work of the UN. After the Cold War, the great powers could finally agree on measures regarding international security. UN moved to center stage in international security affairs. The UN had several major successes in the late 1980s ending violence in regional conflicts while introducing peacekeepers to monitor the cease-fires. By 1990s, the UN had emerged as the world's most important tool for settling international conflicts.

Free-trade areas::

In these areas groups of neighbouring states agree to remove most or all trade barriers within their area. Most important one is in Europe connected with the EU. Beyond free trade areas, states may reduce trade barriers and adopt common tariff toward states that are not members of the agreement. This is a customs union. If members of a customs union becomes a common market. The creation of a regional trade agreement allows a group of states to cooperate in increasing their wealth without waiting for the rest of the world. No tariffs inside trade area.

Transparency:

Information revolution greatly increases transparency in international relations. As result, states don't need to arm against unknown potential threats because they see the real threats. The ability to monitor performance of agreements makes collective goods problems easier to resolve because cheaters and free riders can be identified. Ability of governments to bargain effectively with each other and to reach mutually beneficial outcomes is enhanced by the availability of instant communications channels. Increased transparency allowed by new technologies strengthens the reciprocity principle as a solution to IR conflicts. Complex monitoring and accounting required in international agreements based on reciprocity from trade deals to arms control becomes much easier in a transparent world.

What is the most successful example of international integration? Why is it surprising that this region is successfully integrating?

International integration refers to the process by which supranational institutions replace national ones- the gradual shifting upward of sovereignty from state to regional or global structures. Theory of international integration attempts to explain why states choose supranationalism, which challenges once again foundations of realism. Ultimate expression of integration would be a merger of several or many states into a single state- or ultimately into a single world government. Most successful process of integration is the European Union, the regional coordination now occurring in Western Europe is a new historical phenomenon since WWII. Until 50 years ago Europe was the embodiment of national sovereignty, state rivalry, and war. For 500 years until 1945 the states of Europe were locked in chronic intermittent warfare. They have religious, ethnic, and cultural differences. Speak all different languages, they appeared to be a failure of integration, but they were able to do it especially France and Germany coming together, the bitterest enemies.

International Integration:

What are three reasons that states follow international law?

International law is much more difficult to enforce. There is no world police force. Enforcement of international law depends on the power of states themselves, individually or collectively, to punish transgressors. Enforcement depends heavily on the reciprocity principle. States follow international law most of the time because they want other states to do so. International law recognizes in certain circumstances the legitimacy of reprisals: actions that would have been illegal under international law may sometimes be legal if taken in response to the illegal actions of another state. A state that breaks international law may face a collective response by a group of states, such as the imposition of sanctions- agreements among other states to stop trading with the violator or to stop some particular commodity trade (most often military goods) as punishment for its violation. Over time, a sanctioned state can become the pariah of the international community, cut off from normal relations with others. Which is costly in today's world where economic well being depends on trade and economic exchange in the world markets. International law enforcement through reciprocity and collective response has one great weakness- it depends entirely on national power. Reciprocity works only if the aggrieved state has the power to inflict costs on the violator. Collective response works only is the collective cares enough about an issue to respond.

Foreign direct investment:

Investment means exchanging money for ownership of capital. Investments in foreign countries are among the most important, and politically sensitive, activities of MNCs. Foreign Direct Investment involves tangible goods such as factories and office buildings. The acquisition by residents of one country of control over a new or existing business in another country.

Why did China escape harm from the 1997 Asian financial crisis?

Its economic growth has been less speculative, its currency was not freely convertible, it held massive reserves of hard currency, and its government had shown the discipline necessary to bring inflation under control. Government reduced inflation from 20% to less than 4% in 1995-1997, and the engineer of this tight-money policy, Rongji, became Chinese Prime Minister in 1998.

What changes in the structure of the SC have been suggested and what are pros and cons of those changes?

Japan and Germany are great powers that contribute largely to the UN dues and make large contributions to UN programs and peacekeeping operations. Yet they have exactly the same formal representation in the UN as tiny states with less than one-hundredth their populations: one vote in the GA and chance to rotate on the Security Council, Japan and Germany have huge stakes in the ground rules for international security affairs and would like seats at the table. Including Germany and Japan as permanent Security Council members would not be easy. If Germany joined, three of the seven permanent members would be European giving them unfair weight. The three European states could merge into one, but this would water down power of Britain and France, which an just veto any change in the UN charter. Japan's bid for a seat faces Chinese opposition. Also if Japan or Germany got a seat what about India or about a Islamic country like Indonesia? What about Africa and Latin America? Possible new permanent member include Germany, Japan, India, Brazil, Egypt, and either Nigeria, or South Africa. None of these plans have made much progress. To change UN Charter would mean the five permanent members must all agree and not veto. 2004 an expert panel suggested expanding the Security Council to 24 members under either two formulas, neither changing veto powers. Proposals debuted in 2005, but no agreements were reached and the issue was put on hold. During the debate 42 million Chinese and 40 other countries signed a petition against Japan on the Security Council until it recognizes and sincerely apologizes for its war crimes in WWII. No african seat, Japan Germany?

The Schuman Plan (including the European Coal and Steel Community)

Jean Monnet and Robert Schuman, were developing to plan to implement the idea of functionalism in Europe- the future wars could be prevented by creating economic linkages that would eventually bind states together politically. 1950 Schuman, the French foreign minister proposed a first modest step to merge French and German steel and coal industries into single framework. Schuman plan gave birth to 1952 European Coal and Steel Community, 6 countries banded together worked through ECSC to reduce trade barriers in coal and steel and coordinate their coal and steel policies. ECSC also established high authority that to some extent could bypass governments and deal directly with companies, labor unions, and individuals. 1952 - European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC): Created by the Treaty of Paris, proposed by Robert Schumann. For the purpose of Coal and Steel, the member countries were to be as if "one country". Member States (the "Six"): Germany, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg Institutions: the High Authority (Executive), Council of Ministers (Legislative), Assembly, Court of Justice

War crimes and crimes against humanity:

Large scale abuses of human rights often occur during war. Serious violations of this kind are considered war crimes. In wartime, international law is especially difficult to enforce, but extensive norms of legal conduct in war as well as international treaties are widely followed. After a war, losers can be punished for violations of the laws of war, as Germans were in the Nuremberg trials after WWII. Because the Nazi murders of civilians did not violate German law, the Nuremberg Tribunal treated them as a new category, crimes against humanity, conceived as inhumane acts and persecutions against civilians on a vast scale in the pursuit of unjust ends.

What are national currencies valued against in today's world?

National currencies today are valued against each other, not against gold or silver. Each state's currency can be exchanged for a different state's currency according to an exchange rate.

Security community::

Low expectation of violence among the states of Western Europe created a security community in which such feelings could grow.

MFN status and Generalized System of Preferences

MFN: WTO framework rests on principle of reciprocity matching states' lowering of trade barriers to one another. It also uses the concept of non discrimination embodied in MFN concept, which says that trade restrictions imposed by WTO members on its most favored trading partner must be applied equally to all WTO members. Most-Favored Nation: A principle by which one state, by granting another state MFN status, promises to give it the same treatment given to the first state's most favored trading partner.;; -It's a WTO principle of reciprocity; Most Favored Nation concept; trade restrictions placed on most-favored trading partner have to be applied equally to all WTO members; so barriers aren't eliminated, but are equalized for level playing field.;;; -the notion is that you treat your favorite state's same as everybody else, which brings harmony.;;; -bbuuutt states are different, generalized system; help out and give better deals for developing countries, if help them out- more markets which benefits the whole world. Generalized System of Preferences: An exception to the MFN system is the Generalized System of Preferences dating from 1970s, by which rich states give trade concessions to poor ones to help their economic development. Preferences amount to a promise by rich states to allow imports from poor ones under lower tariffs than those imposed under MFN. Generalized System of Preferences:: A mechanism by which some industrialized states began, in the 1970s, to give tariff concessions to third world states on certain imports; an exception to the most-favored nation (MFN) principle.; Under WTO Principles of reciprocity; Generalized system of preferences;; -exception to MFN;; -Developed states give trade concessions to developing countries to help economic development process;;; -For example, US allowed China to provide subsidies to certain industries - for a while. Now disagrees.

Maastricht Treaty (what is it, three areas of focus)

Maastricht Treaty signed in the Dutch city of Maastricht 1992, renamed the EC as the EU and committed it to further progress in three main areas. First was monetary union where the existing national currencies were abolished and replaced by single European currency. Second, regarding justice and home affairs, created European police agency and responded to the new reality that borders were opening to immigrants, criminals, sex trafficking, and contraband. Expanded idea of citizenship too. Third was political and military integration commits European states to world toward a common foreign policy with a goal of eventually establishing a joint military force. A treaty signed in the Dutch city of Maastricht and ratified in 1992; it commits the EU to monetary union (a single currency and European Central Bank) and to a common foreign policy. "Economic Community" becomes the "European: Union", European Court of Justice strengthened, further extension of QMV, social charter adopted, decision to adopt a single currency, the Euro, by 2002. Three decision-making pillars: -Pillar One: Common Market- more supranational, QMV -Pillar Two: Common Foreign and Security Policy- more intergovernmental, mostly consensus -Pillar Three: Justice and Home Affairs- same as pillar two

Concentration of capital

Manufacturing emerges as a key factor in both export-led growth and self-sustaining industrialization. To invest in manufacturing, these countries must concentrate what surplus their economies produce. Money spent building factories cannot be spent subsidizing food prices or building better schools. Thus, the concentration of capital for manufacturing can sharpen disparities in income. And because manufacturing industries in poor countries are not immediately competitive on world markets, one common strategy is first to build up the industry with sales to the home market (protected by tariffs and subsidies). But home markets for manufactured goods do not come from poor peasants in the countryside or the unemployed youth in city slums. Rather, wealth must be concentrated in a middle class that has the income to buy manufactured goods. These disparities may result in crowds rioting in the streets or guerillas taking over the countryside.

Third world states want to use manufacturing to improve their economies. What is one great difficulty in getting this sector started?

Land reform

Many cities cannot accommodate the influx of people with jobs, housing, and serviced. Slums basic human needs are not met. Many states have considered policies to break up large landholdings and redistribute land to poor peasants for the use of subsistence farming- land reform. The main opponents of land reform are large landowners, who often wield great political power because of their wealth and international connections to markets, MNCs, and other sources of hard currency. Policies that aim to break up large landholdings and redistribute land to poor peasants for use in subsistence farming.Many cities cannot accommodate the influx of people with jobs, housing, and serviced. Slums basic human needs are not met. Many states have considered policies to break up large landholdings and redistribute land to poor peasants for the use of subsistence farming- land reform. The main opponents of land reform are large landowners, who often wield great political power because of their wealth and international connections to markets, MNCs, and other sources of hard currency.

Protectionism::

Many states try to manipulate international trade to strengthen one or more domestic industries and shelter them from world markets. Such policies are protectionism- protection of domestic industries from international competition. The protection of domestic industries against international competition, by trade tariffs and other means.:: Not everyone gains from trade, but that's okay losers will face stiffer competition from world market: -inefficient industries (no comparative advantage, poorly done) can't compete -workers in those industries may lose income or jobs that's okay, even desirable, because displaced workers and industries will innovate however, management and labor in those industries likely to call for protectionism Protectionism: -seen as political interference in the market -Policies of a country that protect domestic industries from international competition -From a pure liberal perspective, this is not desirable -Impedes free trade' ex. if US puts in policies to protect US cars that does not push the companies to innovate or be better for people and this squishes innovation. Motivations for Protection -political demands -national security -international political reasons -defensive move e.g. to respond to predatory practices like dumping -build infant industries -give "breathing room" when market conditions shift of new competitors arise Methods of protection=market imperfections -tariffs -non-tariff barriers like subsidies; tax breaks; regulations; quotas Protectionism: seen as political interference in the market, policies of a country that protect domestic industries from international competition, from a pure liberal perspective this is not desirable because it impedes free trade. Motivations for Protection: political demands- protectionist forces, national security, international political reasons (e.g. sanctions against Libya), defensive move- e.g. to respond to predatory practices like dumping (sometimes legitimate), build infant industries (seen as relatively legitimate) give "breathing room" when market conditions shift or new competitors arise (or global economy is threatened) Protection: US Congress not give into US auto demands, national security- we give deals to agriculture- we must provide for our country to feed our people also protects steel industry to supply weapons and building

Mercantilism and liberalism (define and compare and contrast)

Mercantilism generally shares with realism the belief that each state must protect its own interests at the expense of others- not relying on international organizations to create a framework for mutual gains. Mercantilists emphasize relative power (as do realists): what matters is not so much a state's absolute amount of well-being as its position relative to rival states. Like realism again it holds that the importance of economic transactions lies in their implications for the military. States worry about relative wealth and trade because these can be translated directly into military power. Economic liberalism, an alternative approach, generally shares with liberal internationalism a belief in the possibility of cooperation to realize common gains. It holds that, by building international organizations, institutions, and norms, states can mutually benefit from economic exchanges. It matters little to liberals whether one state gains more or less than another- just whether the state's wealth is increasing in absolute terms. Liberalism is the dominant approach in Western economics, through more so in microeconomics (firms and households study) than macroeconomics (study of national economies). Liberalism emphasized the shared interests in economic exchanges, whereas mercantilism emphasizes the conflicting interests. For liberals, the most important goal of economic policy is to create a maximum of total wealth by achieving optimal efficiency (max output, minimum waste). For mercantilists, most important goal is to create the most favorable possible distribution of wealth. Liberalism sees individual households and forms as the key actors in the economy and views government's most useful role as one of noninterference in economics, except to regulate markets in order to help them function efficiently (and create infrastructure). Politics, in this view, should serve the interests of economic efficiency. With the hand of government removed from markets, the "invisible hand" of supply and demand can work out the most efficient patterns of production, exchange, and consumption. Because the benefits of free trade among countries, liberals disdain realists' obsession with international borders because borders constrain the maximum efficiency of exchange. Trade-based wealth depends on international political cooperation, and violence usually does not work well in pursuing such wealth. So, liberals argue that interdependence inherently promotes peace. Contrast mercantilists think economics should serve politics: the creation of wealth underlies state power. Because power is relative, trade is desirable only when the distribution of benefits favors one's own state over rivals. The terms of exchange shape the relative rates at which states accumulate power and thus shape the way power distributions in the international system over time. Mercantilists preferred means of making trade serve a state's political interests- even at the cost of some lost wealth that free markets might have created is to create a favorable balance of trade. Global South has 80% of the world's population, but accounts for 45% of global trade while the North has 20% of the population but 55% of the trade. Mercantilism: are the realists, suggesting not to rely on IOs, emphasize relative power in economics, that your own wealth is important more wealth means more power, importance of economic transactions= relevance to military power. Liberalism: is the political philosophy most centrally concerned with individual rights and liberties, limited government, and free markets, it emerged in England between the 17th and 19th centuries (aka John Locke); basis of capitalism stressing individual rights and liberty, free trade, free markets, freedom from coercion we cannot force others to do what we want them to. Classical liberalism accords primacy to individual liberty/freedom, underlies basic democratic theory, the only real freedom is freedom from coercion, it follows that political authority and law must be justified because they limit the liberty of citizens, basic task of government is to protect the equal liberty of citizens. Idea that everybody is better off if everybody is better off, not a competition, just focus on individual wealth, wants government as an identity to protect economics. Economic liberalism: Adam Smith challenged mercantilism; liberalism assumes anarchy, but doesn't rule out cooperation to achieve mutual gains (not altruism, but rather the Tragedy of the Commons lesson) Liberalism values building international institutions, rules, norms, focus is on the gains in absolute wealth, not relative wealth. According to Philosophical Liberalism a world market offers: freedom- voluntary transactions based on individual choice; prosperity- efficient use of resources and maximum possible consumption opportunities; peace- international cooperation and interdependence. Adam Smith Liberalism- Wealth of Nations 1776: smith based his theory on individualist premises, for smith individuals are presumed to be naturally self interested, he saw human "propensity to truck, barter, and exchange one thing for another" he thought if humans are self interested but they naturally "truck barter, and exchange" which necessitates cooperation, how do we survive in a world where we must depend on others, but where humans are by nature self-interested individuals? Solution: the Invisible Hand: Individuals who produce goods and services that people want, at a fair price, will prosper those who fail to do so will be driven out of business by competitors, individuals seeking success are driven by self-interest into cooperating "enlightened self interest" the system leads to useful social work benefiting society by keeping prices low and providing incentives for a wide variety of goods and services Mercantilism: An economic theory and political ideology opposed to free trade; it shares with realism the belief that each state must protect its own interests without seeking mutual gains through international organizations. -more realist, less significant today -shouldn't rely on IOs emphasize relative power in economics -importance of economic transactions= relevance to military power -your own wealth matters, the more wealth than other states= you have more power

How does the mercantile view of foreign direct investment differ from the liberal view?

Mercantilists tend to view foreign investments in their own country suspiciously. In developing countries, foreign direct investment often evokes concerns about a loss of sovereignty because governments may be less powerful than the MNCs that invest in their country. Fears also reflect historical effect of colonizers on Southern countries, and although these investments create jobs, they bring dislocations of traditional ways of life and cultures. Liberal economists emphasize that global efficiency and the increased generation of wealth result from the ability of MNCs to invest freely across international borders. Investment decisions should be made solely on economic grounds, not nationalistic ones. View of liberal economists, foreign investments in US help, rather than hurt, US economy.

Microcredit, Mohammed Yunus, and Grameen Bank

Microcredit: A related approach to capitalization in very poor countries, growing in popularity in recent years, is microcredit (or microlending). The use of very small loans to small groups of individuals, often woman, to stimulate economic development. Based on a successful model in Bangladesh (the Grameen Bank) which won the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize and now operates more than 2400 branch offices, microcredit uses small loans to poor people, especially women to support economic self-sufficiency. The borrowers are organized into small groups and take responsibility for each other's successes, including repaying the loans. Repayment rates have been high, and the idea has spread rapidly in several regions. In one popular application, village women used small loans to start businesses renting cell phone time. Rural farmers used the phone time to find out market conditions before making a long trek to sell their products. Thus, bringing the information revolution to isolated villages raised incomes for the farmers and the women alike, and the bank for its loans repaid. Microcredit is now being applied on a macro scale. Tens of millions of families have received loans from thousands of institutions worldwide. Microcredit is the opposite of a trickle-down approach it injects capital at the bottom of the economic hierarchy. A loan to buy a goat or cell phone may do more good, dollar for dollar, than a loan to build a dam. Microcredit: small loans to the poor, focus on woman because of spillover, projects like "phone ladies"; there was a microlending bank in Bangladesh Muhammad Yunus and the Grameen Bank won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006 for providing very small loans: self-sufficiency versus dependency, structured to ensure ability to repay loans, almost 97% repay loans according to terms.

Migration, migrants vs. refugees

Migration: Basic needs deprivation, displacement from land, and urbanization culminate in big issue of North-South relations: migration from poorer to richer states. Migrants and Refugees: International law and custom distinguised migrants from refugees as people fleeing to find refuge from war, natural disaster, or political persecution. Millions of people from the global South have crossed international borders to reach the North. Some move to a new country in search of better economic opportunities, a better professional environment, or better access to their family, culture, or religion. Such migration is considered voluntary. The home state is under no obligation to receive these migrants. Immigrants provide cheap labor and as with any trade issue migration creates winners and losers. Cheap labor benefits the hosting country but also they have to compete for jobs with the country's poor citizens. Most industrialized states try to limit immigration and weed out illegal immigration. Many migrate anyway. International law and custom distinguised migrants from refugees as people fleeing to find refuge from war, natural disaster, or political persecution. They're fleeing from chronic discrimination may or may not be grounds for refugee status depends on how they define it. International norms obligate countries to accept refugees who arrive at their borders. Refugees from wars or natural disasters are generally housed in refugee camps temporarily until they can return home (their stay can drag on for years). Refugees from political persecution may be granted asylum to stay in the new state- acceptance of refugees and the question of which state must bear the costs is a collective goods problem. Number of refugees in 2014 were over 15 million.

Why do people migrate? What are the international norms concerning treatment of refugees? How are refugees a collective goods problem?

Millions of people from the global South have crossed international borders to reach the North. Some move to a new country in search of better economic opportunities, a better professional environment, or better access to their family, culture, or religion. Such migration is considered voluntary. The home state is under no obligation to receive these migrants. Immigrants provide cheap labor and as with any trade issue migration creates winners and losers. Cheap labor benefits the hosting country but also they have to compete for jobs with the country's poor citizens. Most industrialized states try to limit immigration and weed out illegal immigration. Many migrate anyway. International law and custom distinguised migrants from refugees as people fleeing to find refuge from war, natural disaster, or political persecution. They're fleeing from chronic discrimination may or may not be grounds for refugee status depends on how they define it. International norms obligate countries to accept refugees who arrive at their borders. Refugees from wars or natural disasters are generally housed in refugee camps temporarily until they can return home (their stay can drag on for years). Refugees from political persecution may be granted asylum to stay in the new state- acceptance of refugees and the question of which state must bear the costs is a collective goods problem. Number of refugees in 2014 were over 15 million.

After Mao died in 1976, what economic reforms were instituted by Deng Xiaoping?

Moa died in 1976, China under Deng Xiaoping instituted economic reforms and transformed its southern coastal provinces into free economic zones open to foreign investment and run on capitalist principles. Peasants worked their own fields, instead of collective farms, and got rich (by Chinese Standards) if they did well. Entrepreneurs started companies, hired workers, and generated profits. Foreign investment flooded into southern China, taking advantage of its location, cheap labor, and relative political stability. The state required more industries to turn a profit and gave more initiative to managers to run their own companies and spend the profits as they saw fit. Economic growth has been rapid since these policies were instituted and standards of living raised sustainably.

Remittances:

Money immigrants send back. Money sent home by migrants to relatives in their country of origin important source of income for the poor countries. 2014 worldwide remittances neared $600 billion, after tripling in a decade, and were three times as large as global foreign aid, according to the World Bank.

Brain drain

More poor states seek to build up an educated elite with knowledge and skills to run the national economy. One way to do is to send students to industrialized states for higher education. This entails some risks, however. Students may enjoy life in the North and fail to return home. The problem of losing skilled workers to richer countries, called the brain drain, has impeded economic development in states such as India, Pakistan, and the Philippines.

Where are most of the largest rain forests located? What issues are relevant to the rain forests for the developing countries that have them?

Most of the rainforests belong to few states which makes it potentially easier to make deals and get things done these states have the power to slow down or speed up the destruction of the forests and the international agreements are working to shift the costs from these few states to the broader groups of states that benefit from the rainforests. Most of the largest forests are in poor states: Brazil, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Madagascar and they can benefit economically by exploiting the land cutting lumber, clearing for agriculture, and mining. Until recent, rich states have been encouraging maximum economic growth in poor states so that their foreign debts could be paid with little regard for environmental damage. Now that they have become concerned with the environment they are using development assistance as leverage to induce poor states to protect their forests. International agreements in 1990s rich countries contributed hundreds of millions of dollars of foreign aid for this.

MNCs (definition and three types of MNCs)

Multinational Corporations (MNCs) are companies based in one state with affiliated branches or subsidiaries operating in other states. No exact definition, but the clearest case of an MNC is a large corporation that operates on a worldwide basis in many countries simultaneously, with fixed facilities and employees in each. Estimated there are tens of thousands worldwide. Most important are industrial corporations, which make goods in factories in various countries and sell them to businesses and consumers in various countries, oil, automobile biggest ones and most in G8 states. Financial corporations (most important are banks) also operate multinationally- although often with more restrictions than industrial MNCs. Some MNCs sell services- like McDonald's.

Newly industrializing countries (NICs)

Newly Industrializing Countries: Handful of poor states that achieved self-sustaining capital accumulation, with impressive economic growth. These semi periphery states, which export light manufactured goods, posted strong economic growth in the 1980s and early 1990s and then suffered from the 1997 Asian financial crisis because growth has been too fast, with over idealistic loans, speculative investments, and corrupt deals but the NICs quickly resumed growth and have developed further and much faster than most of global South. ::: NICs: Third world states that have achieved self-sustaining capital accumulation, with impressive economic growth. The most successful of the "four tigers" or "four dragons" of East Asia: South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore.

What country has been producing high quality counterfeit US currency? Why can this be seen as a threat to national security? 2) What are some of the criticisms of the IMF and World Bank?

North Korea has been counterfeiting US currencies and the Bush administration: saw counterfeiting could be an act of war, could be construed by some as a hostile act against the US, can create a lack of trust in the national currency, and thus 'pose a threat to the American people. There's three missions of the IMF and WB which have changed over time: provide stability and access to provide stability and access to capital post WWII (Japan and Western Europe), promote economic development in poor countries- 70s and 80s to today, integration of Eastern Europe and Russia- 1990s. Criticisms of the World Bank: rather than reducing poverty, the Bank supports US business interests, bank projects have actually sometimes increased poverty and been detrimental to the environment and public health. Promotion of US/Western political interests, "imperialist" structure of the Bank- President is always from the US, nominated by the US president Lack of transparency, "cookie cutter" approach says Joseph Stiglitz who was a famous economist who quit in disgust that the World Bank has cookie cutter policies and treats countries the same. Criticisms of the IMF: IMF has supported military dictatorships. SAPs or Structural Adjustment Programs ("austerity programs"= reductions in domestic social programs) Delays in IMF response to crises. Policies do the opposite of what was intended e.g. Jamaica borrowed from the IMF in 1978, by 1995 the Jamaican dollar had decreased in value from being about equal to a US dollar to less than 2 cents. And again Joseph Stiglitz IMF hubris the economist criticized both these IMF and World Bank.

What are transitional economies? Why has the transition been difficult?

Now the former Soviet republics and Eastern Europe are transitional economies, changing over to a market-based economy connected to the world capitalist economy. Transition proved difficult. First half of 1990s the total GDP of the region shrank about 35% depression worse than the Great Depression that the US had in 1930s. Living standards dropped.

Fixed and floating exchange rates; managed float system

One form of currency exchange uses fixed exchange rates. Here, governments decide individually or jointly, to establish official rates of exchange for their currencies. States have various means for trying to maintain, or modify, such fixed rated in the face of changing economic conditions. Floating exchange rates are now more commonly used for the world's major currencies. Rates are determined by global currency markets in which private investors and governments alike buy and sell currencies. There is a supply and demand for each state's currency, with prices constantly adjusting in response to market conditions. National governments periodically intervene in financial markets, buying and selling currencies in order to manipulate their value. Such government intervention to manage the otherwise free-floating currency rates is called a managed float system. The leading industrialized states often, but not always, work together in such interventions. Example is the US dollar goes down too much relative to other important currencies governments step into the currency markets, side by side with private investors and buy dollars. Interventions usually happen quickly but may be repeated throughout weeks. Fixed Exchange Rates: The official rates of exchange for currencies set by governments; not a dominant mechanism in the international monetary system since 1973. -fixed exchange rate pegging currency to something else Floating exchange rates: The rates determined by global currency markets in which private investors and governments alike buy and sell currencies.-floating allow currencies to move with the market- can have large fluctuations; when rate floats, value of currency fluctuates with status of economies and the international currency market (trading of currencies) Managed float system: A system of occasional multinational government interventions in currency markets to manage otherwise free-floating currency rates. -managed float system keep value more stable than true floating system. Ceiling and a floor of dollar value.

Why do states go into debt?

One major reason states go into debt is trade deficit. Trade deficit must somehow be made up. It's common to borrow money to pay for a trade deficit. Second reason is the income and consumption pattern among households and businesses. If people and firms spend more than they take in, they must borrow to pay their bills. Third is for national debt is government spending relative to taxation. Under principles of Keynesian economics governments sometimes spend more on programs than they take in from tax revenues- deficit spending- to stimulate economic growth. Strategy that has been adopted by many G8 countries, especially the US, in the current financial crisis. If this strategy works, increased economic growth eventually generates higher tax revenues to make up the deficit. If it does not, a state finds itself with a poor economy in even deeper debt.

Debt-for-nature swaps:

Poor countries burdened by foreign debts environmentalists and bankers from rich countries have worked out this debt-for-nature swap where debt is cancelled out in exchange for state's agreement to preserve forests.

One problem with achieving a monetary union in the EU is that the economies of the countries vary greatly in their strength. How did the Treaty of Maastricht attempt to deal with this problem?

One solution to work to equalize Europe's economies to reduce disparity between rich and poor EU states, Maastricht Treaty increased the EU budget by $25 billion annually to provide economic assistance to the poorer members- but richer pay the cost for this aid and poor countries are free riders on the collective good of EU integration. Main solution was to restrict membership to monetary union, at least the first round, to only those countries with enough financial stability not to jeopardize the union.

When and why was the UN founded? How were the world powers induced to join the UN at the outset, given that it involves a certain amount of diminishment of sovereignty?

One way the UN induced all the great powers to join was to reassure them that their participation in the UN would not harm their national interests. Recognizing the role of power in world order, the UN Charter gives five great powers each a veto over the substantive decisions of the Security Council. UN was founded in 1945 in San Francisco by 51 states. It was the successor of the League of Nations, which had failed to counter aggression effectively in the 1930s. Like the League, the UN was founded to increase international order and rule of law to prevent another world war.

Ozone layer:

Ozone is high in the atmosphere and screens out harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun but certain chemicals emitted by industrial economies float to the top of the atmosphere and interact with ozone in a way that it breaks it down. As it thins more ultraviolet radiation reaches the earth's surface over Antarctica a seasonal hole in the ozone grew larger year by year if ozone levels keep rising the increased radiation could eventually kill vegetation, reduce agriculture, and just kill us all :) crisp us like bugs under a microscope.

How is peacekeeping different from military action?

Peacekeeping forces are not actually mentioned in the UN Charter. The UN's own forces borrowed from armies of member states but under the flag and command of the UN- have been peacekeeping forces to calm regional conflicts, playing a neutral role between warring forces. Peacekeeping forces serve at the invitation of a host government and must leave if that government orders them out. Authority for peacekeeping forces is granted by the Security Council, usually for a period of three to six months that may be renewed. Funds must be voted on by the General Assembly, and lack of funds is today the single greatest constraint on the use of peacekeeping forces. Peacekeeping forces are not actually mentioned in the UN Charter. The UN's own forces borrowed from armies of member states but under the flag and command of the UN- have been peacekeeping forces to calm regional conflicts, playing a neutral role between warring forces. Peacekeeping forces serve at the invitation of a host government and must leave if that government orders them out. Authority for peacekeeping forces is granted by the Security Council, usually for a period of three to six months that may be renewed. Funds must be voted on by the General Assembly, and lack of funds is today the single greatest constraint on the use of peacekeeping forces. Peacekeeping: the UN's own forces (borrowed) calm regional conflicts, help implement peace agreements (don't make peace, keep it), neutral role between conflicting groups- buffer and "honest broker", must be invited by host government, can be observers (unarmed) or peacekeepers (armed). Definition: ""Peacekeeping is a way to help countries torn by conflict create conditions for sustainable peace. UN peacekeepers—soldiers and military officers, police and civilian personnel from many countries—monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict situations and assist conflicting parties to implement the peace agreement they have signed. Such assistance comes in many forms, including promoting human security, confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development." Budget for UN Peacekeeping operations for 2016-17 is 7.87 billion, less than .5% of the world military expenditures.

Peacekeeping forces (what is the role of peacekeepers, where does authority for peacekeeping forces come from)

Peacekeeping forces are not actually mentioned in the UN Charter. The UN's own forces borrowed from armies of member states but under the flag and command of the UN- have been peacekeeping forces to calm regional conflicts, playing a neutral role between warring forces. Peacekeeping forces serve at the invitation of a host government and must leave if that government orders them out. Authority for peacekeeping forces is granted by the Security Council, usually for a period of three to six months that may be renewed. Funds must be voted on by the General Assembly, and lack of funds is today the single greatest constraint on the use of peacekeeping forces. Peacekeeping: the UN's own forces (borrowed) calm regional conflicts, help implement peace agreements (don't make peace, keep it), neutral role between conflicting groups- buffer and "honest broker", must be invited by host government, can be observers (unarmed) or peacekeepers (armed). Definition: ""Peacekeeping is a way to help countries torn by conflict create conditions for sustainable peace. UN peacekeepers—soldiers and military officers, police and civilian personnel from many countries—monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict situations and assist conflicting parties to implement the peace agreement they have signed. Such assistance comes in many forms, including promoting human security, confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development." Budget for UN Peacekeeping operations for 2016-17 is 7.87 billion, less than .5% of the world military expenditures.

Sanctions:

Political interference in free markets is most explicit when governments apply sanctions against economic interactions of certain kinds or between certain actors. Political power then prohibits an economic exchange that would otherwise have been mutually beneficial. Enforcing sanctions is always a difficult task because participants have a financial incentive to break the sanctions through black markets or other means, the power of the IPE is more diffused among states than it is in security affairs. Sanctions are political interference in free markets is most explicit when governments apply sanctions against economic interactions of certain kinds or between certain actors. Political power then prohibits an economic exchange that would otherwise have been mutually beneficial. Imposing sanctions is a difficult task because participants have a financial incentive to break the sanctions through black markets or other means. Without broad, multilateral support for international sanctions, they generally fail. The difficulty of applying sanctions reflects a more general point that power in the IPE is more diffused among states than it is in security affairs. Refusing to participate in mutually profitable economic trade often harms oneself more than the target of one's actions, unless nearly all other states follow suit.

Why do poor countries have an interest in foreign investment inside their borders? What are the pros and cons of foreign investment?

Poor countries have little money available to invest in new factories, farms, mines, or oil wells. Foreign investment- investment in such capital goods by foreigners (most often MNCs) is one way to get accumulation started. Foreign investment has been crucial to the success of China and other Asian developing countries. Overall, private capital flows to the global South were over 700$ billion in 2014- four times the amount given in official development assistance. Foreigners who invest in a country then own the facilities, the investor, by virtue of its ownership, can control decisions about how many people to employ, whether to expand or shut down, what products to make, and how to market them. Also, the foreign investor can usually take the profits from the operation out of the country. However, host governments can share in the wealth by charging fees and taxes, or by leasing land or drilling rights. Because of past colonial experiences, many governments in the global South have feared the loss of control that comes with foreign investments by MNCs. Sometimes the presence of MNCs was associated with the painful process of concentrating capital and the sharpening of class disparities in the host state. Although such fears remain, they are counterbalanced by the ability of foreign investors to infuse capital and generate more surplus. By the 1980s and 1990s, as models based on autarky or state ownership were discredited and the NICs gained success, many poor states rushed to embrace foreign investment.

How do revolutionary governments deal with foreign policy? What happens to revolutionary governments after a decade or two?

Poverty and lack of access to basic human needs are prime causes of revolutions, especially when poor people see others living much better. Most revolutionary movements espouse egalitarian ideals- a more equal distribution of wealth and power. In foreign policy, revolutionary governments often start out planning radically different relationships with neighbors and great powers. The pattern of international alliances often shifts after revolutions. But the new government usually discovers that, once it holds power, it has the same interest as other states in promotive national sovereignty and territorial integrity. The rules of the international system now work for the revolutionaries instead of against them, once they control a state. Their state also has the same geographical location as before, the same historical conflicts with its neighbors, and the same ethnic ties. So it is not unusual over time to find similar foreign policies emanating from revolutionary government as from its predecessor. Although revolutions create short-term shifts in foreign policy over the longer term the rules of international relations have tended to triumph over revolutionary challenges.

Predatory practices (e.g. dumping)::

Protectionism may be motivated by a defensive effort to ward off predatory practices by foreign companies or states. Predatory generally refers to efforts to capture unfairly a large share of world markets, or even a near-monopoly, so that eventually the predator can raise prices without fearing competition. Most of these efforts entail dumping products in foreign markets at prices below the minimum level necessary to make a profit. Governments try to restrict imports in such situations to protect their state's industries. Such restrictions are recognized as legitimate, although great disagreements exist about whether a given price level is predatory or merely competitive generally now resolved in WTO. Dumping complaints are usually lodged by particular industries that feel they have been harmed by foreign competitors. They must first convince their own governments that they have been unfairly targeted. Then when the government places tariffs on imports of the good, the foreign government may file a complaint with the WTO. Defensive move is dumping: country produces lot of goods at a given low price, swamping the market of low price and other country cannot keep up and loses that by artificially low prices- predatory moves are not allowed.

Acid rain:

Rain caused by air pollution that damages trees and often crosses borders. Limiting acid rain (via limiting nitrogen oxide emissions) has been the subject of several regional agreements. Caused by air pollution. Eastern Europe worked to limit nitrogen oxide emissions to protect against acid rain and the US and Canada eventually did too.

UN Security Council (what is it, who are members and how are they determined, what does it do, what power does it have?)

Role of the Security Council: What power does it have: The Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security for restoring peace when it breaks down. Its decisions are binding on all UN member states. The Security Council has tremendous power to define the existence and nature of a security threat, to structure the response to such a threat, and to enforce its decisions though mandatory directives to UN members (such as to halt trade with an aggressor). The five permanent members of the Council- the US, Britain, France, Russia and China. What they can agree on, the world basically has to go along with. The nonpermanent members rotate into the Council for two- year terms. They are elected (five each year) by the GA from a list prepared by informal regional caucuses. Main one because it reaches overriding decisions and binding resolutions; 5 permanent members with veto power, 10 non-permanent (rotating) members to create regional balance, 9 of 15 votes needed to pass binding resolutions, the decisions made are binding on all UN member states, powers: they get to define what a threat is to peace and security, choose a response the UN will make, and enforced through mandatory directions/ resolutions. Proposed Changes: France has a seat but Germany cannot? No African seat? India? No Islamic country spot? Japan spot?

The industrialized West accounts for what proportion of international trade?

Role of trade in the economy varies somewhat from one nation to another, but overall it is at least as important in the global South as in the industrialized North. Global South accounts for a relatively small part of all trade in the world economy, but this is because its economic activity itself it only about 45% of the world total. South 80% population but 45% trade, North 20% population but 55% trade.

What is the status of water in the global South? How is unsafe drinking water related to disease?

Safe water is essential in basic human needs in many rural locations people must walk miles for fresh water, it means a clean well or faucet for a village. 1990-2010 number without access fell by half meeting the MDG target early but one in six people worldwide still lack safe drinking water. And many among those with safe drinking water lack sanitation facilities. Some 2.5 billion people, a third of the world's population, do not have access to sanitation. Rural areas are worse than cities.

When do sanctions work and when do they fail? Why are sanctions difficult to apply?

Sanctions are political interference in free markets is most explicit when governments apply sanctions against economic interactions of certain kinds or between certain actors. Political power then prohibits an economic exchange that would otherwise have been mutually beneficial. Imposing sanctions is a difficult task because participants have a financial incentive to break the sanctions through black markets or other means. Without broad, multilateral support for international sanctions, they generally fail. The difficulty of applying sanctions reflects a more general point that power in the IPE is more diffused among states than it is in security affairs. Refusing to participate in mutually profitable economic trade often harms oneself more than the target of one's actions, unless nearly all other states follow suit.

Functionalism and neofunctionalism

Scholars proposed Europe moves toward integration could be explained by functionalism- growth of specialized technical organizations that cross national borders. According to functionalists, technological and economic development lead to more and more supranational structures as states seek practical means to fulfill necessary functions. As these connections became denser and flows faster functionalism predicted that states would be drawn together into stronger international economic structures. European experience went beyond the creation of specialized agencies to include the development of more general, more political supranational bodies, such as European Parliament. Neofunctionalism is a modification of functional theory by IR scholars to explain these developments. Neo Functionalists argue that economic integration (functionalism) generates a political dynamic that drives integration further. Closer economic ties require more political coordination in order to operate effectively and eventually lead to political integration as well as a process of spillover. Functionalism: Moves towards integration could be explained by the growth of specialized technical organizations that cross national borders. As cross-border connections intensify, states become drawn together into stronger international economic structures. Neofunctionalism: a theory that holds that economic integration (functionalism) generates a "spillover" effect, resulting in increased political integration.;; Economic integration generates a "spillover" effect, a political dynamic that drives integration further - closer economic ties require more political coordination.

Tariffs and nontariff barriers::

Several motives for protectionism so they use tools to implement this policy. The simplest is a tariff or duty- a tax imposed on certain types of imported goods (usually a percentage of their value) as they enter a country. Tariffs not only restrict imports but also can be an important source of state revenues. International norms prefer tariffs for protectionism. Other means to discourage imports are nontariff barriers to trade. Imports can be limited by a quota- these are ceilings on how many goods of a certain kind can be imported; they are imposed to restrict the growth of such imports. Extreme version is flat prohibition against importing a certain good. The two nontariff barriers that are most fought about in the WTO are subsidies and regulation. Subsidies are payments by a government to a domestic industry that allow it to lower its prices without losing money- can use tax breaks, loans to struggling industry. Imports can be limited by restrictions and regulations that make it hard to distribute and market a product even when it can be imported. Sometimes a state's culture can discourage imports citizens may follow the philosophy of economic nationalism. Overall, protectionism has both positive and negative effects on the economy, mostly helping producers but hurting consumers impeding companies need to get better. Tariff: a duty or tax levied on certain types of imports (usually as a percentage of their value) as they enter a country. Tax on goods being imported Nontariff Barriers: Forms of restricting imports other than tariffs, such as quotas (ceilings on how many goods of a certain kind can be imported: quotas on the numbers of goods.

South Korea's OPEN system; Green revolution; Balinese water priests

South korea's OPEN system: Seoul Metropolitan government- the OPEN system, Mayor Goh Kun committed to reduce corruption especially how officials give permits, you can only get a permit by bribing before so he changed it so officials post online who they are, date a permit is given, date of resolution; if officials took long to get permitted that's showing sign of corruption and they're arrested, transparency because it was put online. Green Revolution: Breeding new improved plant varieties, application of modern agricultural practices. If you could use science to develop seeds and produce higher crop yields at the same cost you win. They're scientifically bred plants giving higher yield and higher productivity in underdeveloped countries the desired effect it to make food, export, mae money, give people food. Result: higher yield of crops with the same amount of seed on the same area of land. Results from Green Revolution the yield and production goes up. Criticisms: agricultural quality, globalization and social change, sustainability. Quality- with this tech they are destroying biodiversity, not good for pest control, health, and dependence on one or two crops inrease use of pesticides and fertilizers; pushed large scale agricultural farming, fall subsistence, move to cities, poor. Need great farm mechanisms and fuel for them. Bali Water Priests: steeply stepped wet-rice terraces, hundreds of farming communities, priests of "water temples" coordinated irrigation, religious, social and technical processes: optimized water sharing, reduced pest infestations, successful yield and Dutch pressured to follow green revolution to improve crop yields. -- you need to understand local conditions not all the same cases: Bali, historical agriculture: it was part of their life, integrated into religion even. Dutch wanted to change the system to the Green Revolution. 1st year crop yield went down, 2nd year crop yield went down, the Dutch were confused because the science was not working; funded researcher thought old system worked better he got a computer and showed how the model show historic works better; finally enough and they went back to the old way and the old way made crop yield go up.

Aral Sea:

Soviet Union decades of centrally planned industrialization there were serious environmental problems which created staggering economic consequences. Aral Sea was severely polluted now shared by Uzbekistan And Kazakhstan once the world's fourth largest inland sea it shrank in half, fisheries destroyed, after a Soviet-era mega-irrigation project to grow cotton in the desert diverted the Aral Sea's inlet rivers and polluted them with pesticides. Shoreline kept receding and local populations suffered from health effects of the disaster. Soviet Union decades of centrally planned industrialization there were serious environmental problems which created staggering economic consequences. Aral Sea was severely polluted now shared by Uzbekistan And Kazakhstan once the world's fourth largest inland sea it shrank in half, fisheries destroyed, after a Soviet-era mega-irrigation project to grow cotton in the desert diverted the Aral Sea's inlet rivers and polluted them with pesticides. Shoreline kept receding and local populations suffered from health effects of the disaster. Was large lake in the world 5 million years old, was part of the Soviet Union- much water is gone. Lake is much much smaller, water is gone. The Soviet Union produced cotton around aral sea and did not replenish the lake they also used lots of fertilizers that ran-off into the lake and into the soil to dry up, and this dirt blew around causing many people to get cancer, 9x the average rate of cancer in the area and the lake dried up.

Subsistence farming and cash crops

Subsistence farming: traditionally rural communities have grown their own food in this way. Colonialism disrupted this pattern, and the disruption has continued in postcolonial times. States in the global South shifted from subsistence to commercial agriculture. Small plots were merged into big plantations, often under the control of wealthy landlords. By concentrating capital and orienting the economy toward a niche in world trade, this process is consistent with liberal economics. But it displaces subsistence farmers from the land. Commercial agriculture relies on machinery, commercial fuels, and artificial fertilizers and pesticides which must be bought with cash and often must be imported. To pay for these supplies, big farms grow cash crops- agricultural goods produced for export to world markets. These crops usually provide little nutrition to local peasants like coffee, tea, sugar cane, flowers. They end up working on these farms for little wages or migrate to cities for jobs. Often end up hungry. Subsistence Farming: Rural communities growing food mainly for their own consumption rather than for sale in a local or world market.Subsistence farming: traditionally rural communities have grown their own food in this way. Colonialism disrupted this pattern, and the disruption has continued in postcolonial times. States in the global South shifted from subsistence to commercial agriculture. Small plots were merged into big plantations, often under the control of wealthy landlords. By concentrating capital and orienting the economy toward a niche in world trade, this process is consistent with liberal economics. But it displaces subsistence farmers from the land. Cash Crops: Agricultural goods produced as a commodities for export to world markets.Commercial agriculture relies on machinery, commercial fuels, and artificial fertilizers and pesticides which must be bought with cash and often must be imported. To pay for these supplies, big farms grow cash crops- agricultural goods produced for export to world markets. These crops usually provide little nutrition to local peasants like coffee, tea, sugar cane, flowers. They end up working on these farms for little wages or migrate to cities for jobs. Often end up hungry.

World Bank and International Monetary Fund

Technical mechanisms of the IMF are based on each member state's depositing financial reserves with the IMF. Upon joining, a state is assigned a quota for such deposits, partly of hard currency and partly of a state's own currency. Quota is based on the size and strength of a state's economy. IMF and World Bank are weighted voting system- each state has a vote equal to its quota. So the advanced economies control the IMF although nearly all the world's states are members. Since 1944 IMF and World Bank have tried to accomplish three major mission. First sought to provide stability and access to capital for states ravaged by WWII, it was a great success. Second, especially 1970s and 80s but still ongoing have tried to promote economic development. Less successful- lingering South poverty. Third mission, 1990s integration of Eastern Europe and Russia into the world capitalist economy, mixed record but general success. World Bank: Formally the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), an organization that was established in 1944 as a source of loans to help reconstruct the European economies. Later, the main borrowers were third world countries, and in the 1990s, Eastern European ones. Group of 5 institutions: -responsible for financing and supporting projects in developing countries -encouraging and safeguarding international investment Methods: -long term loans, grants, training -recently- combating corruption and supporting small local enterprises -WB is trying deal with humanity problems have been criticized for favoring the US. "Cookie Cutter"- a famous economist, quit in disgust that the WB has cookie cutter policies and treats countries as the same. WB-Two Goals for 2030 -"The World Bank Group has set two goals for 2030" 1. end extreme poverty by decreasing the percentage of people living on less than $1.25 a day to no more than 3% 2. Promote shared prosperity by fostering the income growth of the bottom 40% for every country. IMF: IMF An intergovernmental organization (IGO) that coordinates international currency exchange, the balance of international payments, and national accounts. Along with the World Bank, it is a pillar of the international financial system. -Goal: stabilize international exchange rates, facilitate development -oversee global financial system -monitor exchange rates, balance of payments -offer technical and financial assistance -keep track of overall monetary position of each state- through national accounts -provide vehicle for countries to maintain a balance of payments IMF System- Balance of Payments 1. Current account -money that comes in to pay for exports -Money that flows out to pay for imports -Government transactions -Remittances 2. Capital flows - foreign investments -Investments and loans by foreigners -Minus investments in other countries -FDI and portfolio 3. Changes in foreign exchange reserves -To make national accounts balance SDRs, gold, other countries' hard currencies

Technology transfer

Technology Transfer: refers to a poor state's acquisition of technology (knowledge, skills, methods, designs, and specialized equipment) from foreign sources, usually in conjunction with foreign direct investment or similar business operations. A developing country may allow an MNC to produce certain goods in the country under favorable conditions, provided the MNC shares knowledge of the technology and design behind the product. The state may try to get its own citizens into the management and professional workforce of factories or facilities created by foreign investment. Not only can physical capital accumulate in the country but so can the related technological base for further development. But MNCs may be reluctant to share proprietary technology. Tech transfer= when a third world country acquires technology (skills, knowledge, methods, equipment, from foreign sources) Issues: Legacy of colonialism, brain drain, importance of understanding local conditions: "the green revolution"

What branch of government is the Secretariat most like? What is the main power of the GA?

The Secretariat of the UN is its executive branch, headed by the Secretary General. It is a bureaucracy for administering Un policy and programs, just as the State department is a bureaucracy for US foreign policy. In security matters, the Secretary General personally works with the Security Council; development programs in poor countries are coordinated by the second-in-command, the director-general for Development and International Economic Co-operation. The Secretariat is divided into functional areas, with under-secretaries general and assistant secretaries-general. What is the role of the Secretary General: The Secretary General of the UN is the closest thing to a "president of the world" that exists. But the Security General represents member states- not the 7 billion people. Where the great powers do have consensus, it is hard for the Secretary General to make anything happen. The Secretary General is nominated by the Security Council-requiring the consent of all five permanent members- and must be approved by the General Assembly. The term of office is 5 years and may be renewed. Past Secretaries General have come from various regions of the world but never from a great power. The current Secretary General Ban Ki-moon was re-elected in 2012. Secretary General is more than a bureaucratic manager he is a visible public figure whose personal attention to regional conflict can move it toward resolution, and also works to bring together the great power consensus on which Security Council action depends. He can use the UN's good offices to serve as a neutral mediator in international conflicts- to bring hostile parties together in negotiations. He has the power to bring to the Security Council any matter that might threaten international peace and security, and so to play a major role in setting the UN's agenda in international security affairs. But there is tension there. The Secretariat of the UN is its executive branch, headed by the Secretary General. It is a bureaucracy for administering Un policy and programs, just as the State department is a bureaucracy for US foreign policy. In security matters, the Secretary General personally works with the Security Council; development programs in poor countries are coordinated by the second-in-command, the director-general for Development and International Economic Co-operation. The Secretariat is divided into functional areas, with under-secretaries general and assistant secretaries-general.

Principles of the UN Charter:

The UN Charter is based on the principles that states are equal under international law; the states have full sovereignty over their own affairs; that states should have full independence and territorial integrity; and that states should have full obligations, such as respecting diplomatic privileges, refraining from committing aggression, and observing the terms of treaties they sign. The UN Charter also lays out the structure of the UN and the methods by which it operates. The UN exists to serve the needs of states. A state's membership in the UN is a form of indirect leverage. States gain leverage by using the UN to seek more beneficial outcomes in conflicts. Cost of leverage is modest: UN dues and expenses of diplomatic representatives, in addition to the agreement to behave accordance with the UN Charter. States benefit from the UN. Foremost among these is the international stability (especially in security affairs) that the UN tries to safeguard; this allows states to realize gains from trade and other forms of exchange. UN is a symbol of international order and even global identity. It's also a forum where states promote their views and bring their disputes. And it is a mechanism for conflict resolution in international security affairs. Also promotes and coordinates development assistance and other programs of economic and social development in the global South. These programs reflect the belief that economic and social problems- above all, poverty- are an important source of international conflict and war. The UN is coordinating system for information and planning by hundreds of internal and external agencies and programs, and for the publication of international data. Every year, the world spends almost two trillion on the military, and about 5 billion on the UN regular budget. The whole budget of the UN operations, peacekeeping, programs, and agencies combined is less than 3% of the world's military spending. That's even more extreme in the US it's about 100 to 1. UN charter as a basis for the UN; state equality, full sovereignty over their own affairs, full independence and territorial integrity, states should carry out their own international obligations. UN Charter "the purpose of the UN, as set forth in the Charter, are".. To maintain international peace and security, to develop friendly relations among nations, to cooperate in solving international economic, social, and cultural and humanitarian problems and in promoting respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, and to be centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in attaining these ends.

United Nations:

What benefits do states get from the UN? How does UN spending compared to global military spending?

The UN is the closest thing to a world government that has ever existed, but it's not a world government. Its members are sovereign states that have not empowered the UN to enforce its will within states' territories except with the consent of those states' governments. Every year, the world spends almost two trillion on the military, and about 5 billion on the UN regular budget. The whole budget of the UN operations, peacekeeping, programs, and agencies combined is less than 3% of the world's military spending. That's even more extreme in the US it's about 100 to 1. The UN is the closest thing to a world government that has ever existed, but it's not a world government. Its members are sovereign states that have not empowered the UN to enforce its will within states' territories except with the consent of those states' governments. UN was founded in 1945 in San Francisco by 51 states. It was the successor of the League of Nations, which had failed to counter aggression effectively in the 1930s. Like the League, the UN was founded to increase international order and rule of law to prevent another world war. Members are sovereign states who give consent to the UN to carry out its mission an IGO, goals broad and very big. Has not always played an active role, it did not during the Cold War; end of the Cold War they focused more on economic and social problems of poor countries. Established in 1945 (51 states) to prevent world wars, and it was the successor to the League of Nations, not 193 member states there was a remarkable increase in the 50s and 60s, not a world government it's created to serve state's needs, and they have a number of permanent observers who are non-member states and other IGOS. Three pillars: Peace and Security, Human Rights, Development. The UN Charter is based on the principles that states are equal under international law; the states have full sovereignty over their own affairs; that states should have full independence and territorial integrity; and that states should have full obligations, such as respecting diplomatic privileges, refraining from committing aggression, and observing the terms of treaties they sign. The UN Charter also lays out the structure of the UN and the methods by which it operates. The UN exists to serve the needs of states. A state's membership in the UN is a form of indirect leverage. States gain leverage by using the UN to seek more beneficial outcomes in conflicts. Cost of leverage is modest: UN dues and expenses of diplomatic representatives, in addition to the agreement to behave accordance with the UN Charter. States benefit from the UN. Foremost among these is the international stability (especially in security affairs) that the UN tries to safeguard; this allows states to realize gains from trade and other forms of exchange. UN is a symbol of international order and even global identity. It's also a forum where states promote their views and bring their disputes. And it is a mechanism for conflict resolution in international security affairs. Also promotes and coordinates development assistance and other programs of economic and social development in the global South. These programs reflect the belief that economic and social problems- above all, poverty- are an important source of international conflict and war. The UN is coordinating system for information and planning by hundreds of internal and external agencies and programs, and for the publication of international data. Every year, the world spends almost two trillion on the military, and about 5 billion on the UN regular budget. The whole budget of the UN operations, peacekeeping, programs, and agencies combined is less than 3% of the world's military spending. That's even more extreme in the US it's about 100 to 1.

What are some of the economic challenges that are faced by Russia and E. Europe after the Cold War?

The US provided limited capital (investments, loans, and grants) to help get the Russian and Eastern European region on its feet again after the Cold War. (Did not use policies like they used after WWII). Instead, states in this region faced challenges of converting from centrally planned to capitalist economies and joined the world capitalist economy. Like integrating into the world trading system and attracting foreign investment. Struggled to join international monetary system, they had to have stable and convertible currency to attract foreign business and expanding international trade. Most in former block became members of IMF and were assigned quotas. But IMF and World Bank would not make loans available to these states until their governments took strong action to curb inflation, balance government budgets, and ensure economic stability, but this stability would only be possible from foreign loans. All economies of the region experienced deep depression, most have turned around especially Russia.

The World Court (a branch of what?, who can bring cases, what kind of cases typically come to the court, optional clause and the case of the US and Nicaragua)

The World Court is also called what? It is a branch of what IO? Who can sue and be sued in the WC? How is the Court structured?:: As international law has developed, a general world legal framework in which states can pursue grievances against each other has begun to take shape. The rudiments of such a system now exist in the World Court, formally called the International Court of Justice, although its jurisdiction is limited and its caseload light. The World Courts is a branch of the UN. Only states, not individuals or businesses, can sue or be sued in the World Court. When a state has a grievance against another, it can take the case to the World Court for an impartial hearing. The Security Council or General Assembly may also request advisory Court opinions on matters of international law. The World Court is a panel of 15 judges elected for nine year terms (five judges every three years) by a majority of both the Security Council and General Assembly. The Courts meet in The Hague, Netherlands. It is customary for permanent members of the Security Council to have one of their nationals as a judge at all times. Ad hoc judges may be added to the 15 if a party to a case does not already have one of its nationals as a judge. What is the optional clause (in regards to the US and Nicaragua): The great weakness of the World Court is that states have not agreed in a comprehensive way to subject themselves to its jurisdiction or obey its decisions. Almost all states have signed the treaty creating the Court, but only a third have signed the optional clause in the treaty agreeing to give the Court jurisdiction in certain cases- and even many of those signatories have added their own stipulations reserving their rights and limiting the degree to which the Court can infringe on national sovereignty. Columbia withdrew in 2012 after the Court awarded disputed territorial waters to Nicaragua. Similarly, Iran refused to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the Court when sued by the US in 1979 over its seizure of the US embassy in Iran. In such a case, the Court may hear the case anyway and usually rules in favor of the participating side- but it has no means to enforce the ruling. International court of justice (ICJ) or the World Court: it's the judicial arm of the UN; settles legal disputes, provides advisory opinions, has jurisdiction when states consent to it, majority of casess are border disputes, current cases: Ukraine and Gabon border. International court of justice are a branch of the UN only states can sue/ be sued, states must sign onto the court which is optional showing which countries are willing to be sued this was a way to retain sovereignty which the US withdrew from the optional clause 1986- only allow case by case basis, ex. Raegan planted bombs in Nicaragua and withdrew from the court so not to go on trial for this. The judges: panel of 15 with 9 year terms, chosen by a majority of both SC and GA, permanent members have one judge, can add judge if appropriate for the case

Collective security:

The banding together of the world's states to stop an aggressor-- the UN Charter establishes a mechanism for this.

Urbanization

The displacement of peasants from subsistence farming contributes to a massive population shift that typically accompanies the demographic transition. More and more people move to the cities from the countryside- urbanization. This is hard to measure though because there is no standard definition of when a town is considered a city. But industrialized states report about 70-90% of their populations live in cities. China 50% in 2013, Asia and Africa about 30-40%. A shift of population from the countryside to the cities that typically accompanies economic development and is augmented by displacement of peasants from subsistence farming. The displacement of peasants from subsistence farming contributes to a massive population shift that typically accompanies the demographic transition. More and more people move to the cities from the countryside- urbanization. This is hard to measure though because there is no standard definition of when a town is considered a city. But industrialized states report about 70-90% of their populations live in cities. China 50% in 2013, Asia and Africa about 30-40%.

How do energy consumption patterns differ between the regions of the world; who uses more and who uses less, and why? What country has the largest oil reserves and is the largest oil exporter?

The four industrialized regions of the North use much more energy per person than those of the South, North America uses 15x per person as South Asia and Africa regions. The least efficient places is Soviet Republics; North America is also rather insufficient, Europe and Japan are the most energy efficient efficiency of energy use is GDP produced per unit of energy consumed. Per capita Consumption: North America 285, net energy exports: -4 Europe 135, net energy exports: -37 Japan/Pacific 180 net energy exports:-22 Russia/CIS 155, net energy exports: +28 China 80, net energy exports: -4 Middle East 140, net energy exports: +45 Latin America 60, net energy exports: +3 South Asia 18, net energy exports: -4 Africa 16 net energy exports: +18 World Average: 75 So the Industrial West are large importers of energy and middle east and Russia are large exporters of energy, most important form of internationally traded energy is oil, cheapest to transport over long distances. Largest source of oil exports is the Middle East especially around the Persian Gulf. Saudi Arabia is largest oil exporter and holds the largest oil reserves and the politics of world energy revolve around the Middle Eastern oil shipped to Western Europe, China, Japan, and Northern America.

Developing countries, LDCs

The global south where most people live and the names for this region: less developed countries (LDCs), underdeveloped countries, or developing countries. Less Developed countries (LSDs) the world's poorest regions-the global South- where most people live, also called underdeveloped or developing countries. Countries in the global South have several labels what are they? E.g. less developed- underdeveloped- developing countries The global south where most people live and the names for this region: less developed countries (LDCs), underdeveloped countries, or developing countries.

USAID

The main agency dispensing US foreign economic assistance (but not military aid) is the State Department's Agency for International Development (USAID) which works mainly through the US embassy in each recipient country. Major recipients of US foreign aid includes Israel, Egypt, and Turkey- all important strategic allies in the volatile Middle East.

Four tigers (also known as the Asian Tigers)

The most successful NICs are the "four tigers" or "four dragons" of East Asia: South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Each succeeded in developing particular sectors and industries that were competitive on the world markets.

How did the Treaty of Rome reduce state leaders' fears of losing sovereignty?

To reduce the state's leaders' fears of losing sovereignty- Treaty of Rome provides that changes in its provisions must be approved by all member states. Each has a veto power.

Comparative advantage (David Ricardo) ::

The overall success of liberal economics is due to the substantial gains that can be realized through trade. These gains result from the comparative advantage that different states enjoy in producing different goods (a concept pioneered by economists Adam Smith and David Ricardo). The principle that says states should specialize in trading goods that they produce with the greatest relative efficiency and at the lowest relative cost (relative, that is, to other goods produced by the same state) -David Ricardo and Comparative Advantage: Assuming that nobody does everything equally well, we are better off to specialize- compared to other ways we could use our time and resources -i.e., focus on our comparative advantage ex. Hunters and makers of bows and arrows Specialization- Dual Gains when we specialize and trade for other goods we need, we gain twice: 1. Increased output from our own specialization-- higher income 2. Trade with other specialized-- lower costs David Ricardo and Comparative Advantage: assuming that nobody does everything equally well, we are better off to specialize- compared to other ways we could use our time and resources i.e. focus on our comparative advantage; classic example: Hunters and makers of bows and arrows. When we specialize and trade for other goods we need, we gain twice: 1. Increased output from our own specialization-- higher income 2. Trade with other specializers-- lower costs. (of course the product must be desirable) According to the theory not everyone gains but that's okay: losers will face stiffer competition from world market: inefficient industries (no comparative advantage, poorly done) can't compete, workers in those industries may lose income or jobs but that's okay and even desirable because displaced workers and industries will innovate however, management and labor in those industries likely to call for protectionism.

Neocolonialism

The period after interdependence is sometimes called neocolonialism- the continuation of colonial exploitation without formal political control. This is like US global South relations and N-S international relations of Latin American states. The continuation, in a former colony, of colonial exploitation without formal political control -liberation from colonial rule does not change the underlying economic situations; main products usually those developed by colonizing power, the territorial borders are drawn from the former colonizers, the new country can often still be depended on the former colonizing country for economy and for security

Diplomatic recognition:::

The status of embassies and of an ambassador as an official state representative is explicitly defined in the process of diplomatic recognition. Diplomats are accredited to each other's governments (they present "credentials"), and therefore the individuals so defined enjoy certain rights and protections as foreign diplomats in the host country. Diplomats have the right to occupy an embassy in a host country, within which the host country's laws may not be enforced without the consent of the embassy's country. Diplomacy: the most developed area of international law, one tool of statecraft, diplomatic recognition, diplomatic immunity (spies?), diplomatic pouches, actions serving as communications: make formal complaint, recall ambassadors for period of time, withdraw own diplomats and expel theirs (i.e., break diplomatic relations)

Bilateral and multilateral aid

Three-quarters of the DAC countries' government assistance goes directly to governments in the global South as state-to-state bilateral aid; the rest goes through the UN or other agencies as multilateral aid. Bilateral aid: government assistance that goes directly to the third world governments as state-to-state aid. Multilateral agreement: Government foreign aid from several states that goes through a third party, such as the UN or another agency.

In relation to international trade negotiations, what are the key tensions between the global North and South surrounding the garment industry, agriculture, and intellectual property rights?

Traditionally, agriculture has been protected because self-sufficiency in food reduces national vulnerability. Security concerns have faded a bit but farmers are well organized and powerful in some countries. Doha Round of WTO negotiations, agricultural subsidies were a key sticking point. Second important has been textile and garment sector. 2005 textile quotas worldwide were dropped as part of previously negotiated WTO deals. At the same time, China began dominating world clothing exports. With vast pools of cheap and disciplined labor, China threatened to drive US textile and clothing producers out of business and give stiff competition to exporters such as Pakistan and Bangladesh. 2005 EU and US each reached bilateral agreements with China to reimpose textile quotas for a few years. Intellectual Property Rights are a third contentious area of trade negotiations. Intellectual property rights are the rights of creators of books, films, computer software, and similar products to receive royalties when their products are sold. US had abnormal problems of piracy over these but they could not enforce their own rules in other states. Piracy worldwide started soaring. In response, the international community has developed an extensive IGO with 184 member states, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which tries to regularize patent and copyright law across borders. Most states have signed an important 1994 patent treaty and a 1996 copyright treaty. The WTO oversees the world's most important multilateral agreement on intellectual property, called Trade-Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS). Most industrialized countries prefer to use TRIPS rules because these rules are stronger than WIPO safeguards and can be relaxed only if all WTO members agree. WIPO rules require only a majority vote to change.

Sources of international law (four)

Treaties, custom, general principles of law (such as equity), and legal scholarship (including past judicial decisions). Treaties and other written conventions signed by states are the most important source. Enforcement of International Law: Difficult to enforce compared to national law, enforcement depends broadly on reciprocity and collective response by countries: the power of states to punish, the power of states to reward/cooperate, sanctions imposed by a group of states e.g. Libya (Pan Am Flight 103

Treaty of Rome (including Euratom and EEC)

Treaty of Rome in 1957 the same six states (France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Netherlands, Luxembourg) created two new organizations. One extended the coal and steel idea into a new realm, atomic energy. Euratom, the European Atomic Energy Community, was formed to coordinate nuclear power development by pooling research, investment, and management, continues today with more members. Second was European Economic Community, EEC. (1957) The founding document of the European Economic Community (EEC) or Common Market, now subsumed by the European Union.

Millennium Development Goals

UN in 2000 adopted Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which set targets for basic needs measures to be achieved by 2015 and measured against 1990 data. The first of the eight goals is to cut in half the proportion of the world's population living in "extreme poverty" less than 1.25 a day. This goal was met in 2010. Since 1990, two billion people have gained access to improved drinking water, but nearly 1 billion remain hungry around the world. UN in 2000 adopted Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which set targets for basic needs measures to be achieved by 2015 and measured against 1990 data. The first of the eight goals is to cut in half the proportion of the world's population living in "extreme poverty" less than 1.25 a day. This goal was met in 2010. Since 1990, two billion people have gained access to improved drinking water, but nearly 1 billion remain hungry around the world.

UNCLOS (what is it; EEZs):

UNCLOS: UN convention on the law of sea negotiated 1973 to 1982, governs the oceans. US signed this after decades of delay and renegotiation of the deep mining aspects 1994 signed and ratified it. UNCLOS establishes laws on territorial waters 12 miles for shipping and 200 miles exclusive economic zone EEZ for economic activities like fishing and mining. EEZ: 200 miles exclusive economic zone EEZ for economic activities like fishing and mining. UNCLOS: UN Convention on the Law of the Sea: A structure established in 1964 to promote third world development through various trade proposals.;; UN convention on the law of sea negotiated 1973 to 1982, governs the oceans. US signed this after decades of delay and renegotiation of the deep mining aspects 1994 signed and ratified it. UNCLOS establishes laws on territorial waters 12 miles for shipping

UNEP, IPCC:

UNEP: UN Environmental Program whose main function is to monitor environmental conditions, works with the World Meteorological Organization to measure changes in global climate from year to year. IPCC: from year to year since 1989 the UN sponsored this Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has served as negotiating forum for this issue. In 2007 the IPCC issued a report from scientists around the world, approved by more than 100 countries, calling global warming "unequivocal" and expressing "very high confidence" that humans are the main cause.

UNHCR, UNDP

UNHCR the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees coordinates efforts to protect, assist, and eventually repatriate the many refugees who flee across international borders each year to escape war and political violence. UNDP UN Development Program funded by voluntary contributions, coordinates all UN efforts related to development in poor countries. With about 5000 projects operating simultaneously around the world, UNDP is the world's largest international agency for technical development assistance.

UNICEF health care methods (4 methods that have saved millions of children's lives)

UNICEF has promoted four inexpensive methods that together are credited with saving the lives of millions of children each year. One method is growth monitoring. Experts estimate that regular weighing and advice can prevent half of all cases of malnutrition. Second is oral rehydration therapy which stops diarrhea in children before they die from dehydration. There's a faculty that produces 300 packets per day of this simple sugar-salt remedy at 1.5 cents each, built in Guatemala for just $550. Children deaths from diarrhea was cut in half in one year. Third is immunization against six common deadly diseases: measles, polio, tuberculosis, tetanus, whooping cough, and diphtheria. Recent decades, number of children immunized in poor countries has risen 5% to 50%. Fourth method is the promotion of breastfeeding rather than infant formula.

NAFTA and FTAA:

US, Canada, and Mexico signed the North American Free Trade Agreement 1994, following a US-Canada free-trade agreement in 1988. NAFTA's first decade, US imports from both Mexico and Canada more than doubled, then fell back after 1999. Canada and Mexico were the largest and third-largest US trading partners, respectively (Japan was second). Initially, Mexico's currency dropped drastically relative to the dollow 1994-1995. US opponents of NAFTA, including various labor unions, criticized the low wages and poor labor laws in Mexico, which they feared would drag down US labor standards. But over 20 years, neither the great benefits predicted by NAFTA supporters nor the disasters predicted by opponents materialized. Politicians in North and South America have long spoken of creating a single free trade area in the Western Hemisphere, from Alaska to Argentina- the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). President Clinton asked Congress in 1997 to reinstate fast-track legislation. But Democrats in Congress defeated the measure, demanding that free trade agreements include requirements for labor and environmental standards for other countries. Bush was more successful FTAA negotiations began in 2003 with target date 2005. FTAA failed though. Currently FTAA talks remain in hibernation, and the weight of trade negotiations fall to the Doha Round. Meanwhile, though the US, reached free trade agreements with several Latin American Countries. FTAA: FTAA: Free Trade of the Americas History: first talks 1994 in Miami -2001 in Quebec City: massive protests -2003 in Miami: more protests -2005 in Argentina: no agreement status: proposed agreements to eliminate or reduce trade barriers in all Americas -Disagreements similar to Doha Round -Developed countries want expanded services trade and intellectual property rights -developing countries want an end to agricultural subsidies NAFTA: North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement A free trade zone encompassing the US, Canada, and Mexico since 1994. -example of regional free trade agreement NAFTA 1994 and 2015 -North American Free Trade Agreement- US, Canada, and Mexico Principles: -gradual phasing out of tariffs over 14 years -removal of restrictions on certain industries e.g. agriculture, autos, computers, and textiles -protection of intellectual property rights -plus supplements (environment and labor) -different from EU-not an institution -"Three Amigos Meetings" 2015 postponed- there's different issues for each state Mexico feels it's losing out Canada and US is wealthier, but US feels it's losing jobs to Mexico. US- job losses, downward pressure on wages in manufacturing, trade deficit Canada- job losses, declining competitiveness in manufacturing Mexico- slow growth, minimal job creation, significant harm to agricultural sector -tensions- keystone pipeline (Canada), immigration (Mexico). -all three- NAFTA allows foreign investors to sue government if legislation negatively impacts profits (seen as anti democratic effect)

What causes urbanization in the global South?

Urbanization is not caused by higher population growth in cities than in the countryside, actually the opposite is true. In cities the people are generally better educated with higher incomes. They are further along in the demographic transition and have lower birth rates than people in the countryside. Rather, the growth of urban population is caused by people moving to the cities from the countryside. They do so because of the higher income levels in the cities- economic opportunity- and the hope of more chances for an exciting life. They also move because population growth in the countryside stretches available food, water, arable land, and other resources.

Uruguay Round and Doha Round

Uruguay Round: Started in 1986 (in Uruguay). Rough outlines of a new GATT agreement emerged after a few years, closure eluded five successive Group of Seven (G7) summit meetings in 1990-1994. As round dragged on participants said GATT should be renamed General Agreement to Talk and Talk. Successful conclusion to the round would add more than 100 billion to the world economy annually. But the money was a collective good, to be enjoyed both by states that made concessions in the final negotiations and by states that did not. Agreement was finally reached after in late 1994. The US has pressured Europe to reduce agricultural subsidies and states in the global South to protect intellectual property rights. In the end, US got some, but not all, of what it wanted. Example, France held out adamantly and won the right to protect its film industry against US films. ---- 1947 onward, GATT encouraged states to use import tariffs rather than nontariff barriers to protect industries and to lower those tariffs overtime. GATT concentrated on manufactured goods and succeeded in substantially reducing the average tariffs, from 40% of the goods' value decades ago to 3% by 2002 under Uruguay round. Agriculture trade is politically more sensitive than trade in manufactured goods and came into play in the Uruguay round. Uruguay Round Continued.. A series of negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) that began in Uruguay in 1986 and concluded in 1994 with agreement to create the World Trade Organization. The Uruguay Round followed earlier GATT negotiations such as the Kennedy Round and the Tokyo Round.;; GATT and WTO 'Rounds';; -Rounds of negotiations- most recent= Uruguay and Doha; attempts to establish rules for trade -1999 Uruguay round, focused on issues of global north and global south many protestors came "battle for seattle" fight WTO rules are not democratic the protesters believe, they favor global north and that they do not protect the environment, or rights and workers rights. US also job loss they're protesting mad they're offshoring jobs to cheaper places because of free trade and they had to shut down these talks. Doha Round: 2001 after failure in Seattle, trade ministers meeting in Doha, Qatar, agreed to launch a new round of trade negotiations. Issues under this negotiation included agriculture, services, industrial products, intellectual property, WTO rules (including how to handle antidumping cases), dispute settlements, and some trade and environmental questions. Doha Round of WTO negotiations stretched from 2001-2015 without conclusion. In 2007, participants tried to use a key deadline- expiration of the fast-track authorization by the US Congress, after which US approval of a new WTO agreement would become difficult- to inspire a final agreement. Each deadline passed through without states sticking to them and swerving their views. Smaller agreements within the WTO negotiations have kept hope alive that the Doha round will end with a new global trade agreement. Doha round continued.. A series of negotiations under the World Trade Organization that began in Doha, Qatar, in 2011. It followed the Uruguay Round and has focused on agricultural subsidies, intellectual property, and other issues.; GATT and WTO 'Rounds' -Rounds of negotiations- most recent= Uruguay and Doha; attempts to establish rules for trade Doha Round -2001 round of WTO negotiations, Doha, Qatar moved the meetings here to avoid protests. -- goals were to lower trade barriers around the world; supposed to help development -2006 talks were closed with no success- N/S divide -July 2008 talks broke down over agricultural issues Scheduled to start up again in 2009- didn't happen -The idea was to negotiate to make global South better and it was a miserable failure --- Breakdown of Doha Round 2006 Meetings -good for North and corporations if not broken down before agreement it would hurt South more -Vatican chimed in saying the agreement would not be just. -Vatican statement of hope for Doha and developing countries -Analysis by The Guardian- developing countries are better off without Doha agreement -Europe blamed the US and vice versa - Doha Bali Meetings 12/2013 came to a modest agreement, agreed on measures to reduce trade costs by simplifying customs procedures, agriculture still most difficult issue--- subsidies so they put a hold on that until the next meeting, major disagreements between the US and India about food security (small farmers forced to grow for export, become subject to international whims, lose their farms and ironically, starve).

Intellectual property rights;

WIPO: Intellectual Property Rights are a third contentious area of trade negotiations. Intellectual property rights are the rights of creators of books, films, computer software, and similar products to receive royalties when their products are sold. US had abnormal problems of piracy over these but they could not enforce their own rules in other states. Piracy worldwide started soaring. In response, the international community has developed an extensive IGO with 184 member states, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which tries to regularize patent and copyright law across borders. (Intellectual property rights) the legal protection of the original works of inventors, authors, creators, and performers under patent, copyright, and trademark law. Such rights became a contentious area of trade negotiations in the 1990s pharmaceutical companies have lots of power and come from developed countries, WTO rules allow companies to patent their drug for a long time which gives them a monopoly and a very expensive drug. favors global north over south. ex. drug for HIV/AIDs is too expensive.

WTO and GATT

WTO is World Trade Organization is a global, multilateral intergovernmental organization that promotes, monitors, and adjudicates international trade. Together with the regional and bilateral arrangements described shortly, the WTO shapes the overall expectations and practices of states regarding international trade. WTO is the successor organization to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GATT which created 1947 to facilitate freer trade on a multilateral basis. GATT was more of negotiating framework than an administrative institution. It did not actually regulate trade. 1995 GATT became WTO, which incorporated the GATT agreements on manufactured goods and extended the agenda to include trade in services and intellectual property. WTO has more powers of enforcement and an international bureaucracy that monitors trade policies and practices in each member state and adjudicates disputes among members. WTO framework rests on principle of reciprocity matching states' lowering of trade barriers to one another. WTO: World Trade Organization.. an organization begun in 1995 that replaced the GATT and expanded its traditional focus on manufactured goods. The WTO created monitoring and enforcement mechanisms. -in 1995 countries were willing to have institution now so World Trade Organization, signed on states must follow through, they chose who/if country can raise tariffs on other countries. -Global IGO; establishes rules for international trade. Promotes, monitors, and adjudicates, has 164 members (Seychelles and Kazakhstan joined in 2015; Afghanistan and Liberia 2016) -WTO added services and intellectual property 1995 GATT: General agreement on Tariffs and Trade A world organization established in 1947 to work for freer trade on a multilateral basis; the GATT was more of a negotiating framework than an administrative institution. It became the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995. -Was made by Bretton Woods: attempt to create ITO but unsuccessful (US objected) -Created GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) a series of rounds of negotiations to create a system of rules on trade- 1948; several "rounds" re-manufactured goods -in 1995 GATT became WTO (at end of Uruguay) GATT plus services and intellectual property, controversial, but most countries want to belong and benefit instead of ITO they had GATT: meetings, principles we can agree on "rounds" in different countries. It began with manufactured goods -GATT focused on manufactured goods- tariff reductions globally

UN Secretariat (what is it, who is the Secretary General, what is his role, what role does the Secretariat play)

What is the role of the Secretary General: The Secretary General of the UN is the closest thing to a "president of the world" that exists. But the Security General represents member states- not the 7 billion people. Where the great powers do have consensus, it is hard for the Secretary General to make anything happen. The Secretary General is nominated by the Security Council-requiring the consent of all five permanent members- and must be approved by the General Assembly. The term of office is 5 years and may be renewed. Past Secretaries General have come from various regions of the world but never from a great power. The current Secretary General Ban Ki-moon was re-elected in 2012. Secretary General is more than a bureaucratic manager he is a visible public figure whose personal attention to regional conflict can move it toward resolution, and also works to bring together the great power consensus on which Security Council action depends. He can use the UN's good offices to serve as a neutral mediator in international conflicts- to bring hostile parties together in negotiations. He has the power to bring to the Security Council any matter that might threaten international peace and security, and so to play a major role in setting the UN's agenda in international security affairs. But there is tension there. The Secretariat of the UN is its executive branch, headed by the Secretary General. It is a bureaucracy for administering Un policy and programs, just as the State department is a bureaucracy for US foreign policy. In security matters, the Secretary General personally works with the Security Council; development programs in poor countries are coordinated by the second-in-command, the director-general for Development and International Economic Co-operation. The Secretariat is divided into functional areas, with under-secretaries general and assistant secretaries-general. Bureaucracy for administering UN policy and programs, develops international civil service system- diplomats and bureaucrats with allegiance to world, led by the Secretary-General, nominated by UNSC, approved by GA for 5-year terms. :: New Secretary General is Antonio Guterres of Portugal, began term of office on Jan 1, 2017, his over arching priority: pursuit of peace in a conflict torn world

Monopoly::

When there is just one supplier of an item- a monopoly- the supplier can set the price high. is a type of market problem, it's something markets don't deal with well -Monopoly in production (AT&T or Microsoft) or monopsony in retailing (Wal-Mart) competition is important so do not want monopolies -when there is just one supplier of an item- that's a monopoly- the supplier can set the price quite high.

Free trade

Workers in industrialized countries in industries that face increasing competition from low-wage countries in global South like steel, automobiles, electronics, and clothing- are the most adversely affected by free trade. The competition from low-wage countries holds down wages in those industries in the industrialized countries. Also creates pressures to relax standards of labor regulations, such as those protecting workers safety, and it can lead to job losses if manufacturers close down plants in high-wage countries and move operations to the global South. Human rights NGOs have joined labor unions in pushing for trade agreements to include requirements for low-wage countries to improve working conditions such as minimum wage, child labor, and worker safety. US bans imports of goods made by South Asia's 15 million indentured child laborers. More than 200 million children under 14 work in the global South, more than half in hazardous labor, according to International Labor Organization. Ivory Coast, tens of thousands work for low wages, or even slaves. 2013 Bangladesh killed over 1,000 workers and injured 2,000 bringing new attention to worker safety issues.

How are workers in industrialized countries negatively affected by free trade? How are workers in developing countries negatively affected by free trade?

World system theory; core, periphery and semiperiphery

World System: The global system of regional class divisions has been seen by some IR scholars as a world=system or capitalist world economy. Marxist in orientation and relies on a global level of analysis. In world system, class divisions are regionalized. In world system, class divisions are regionalized. Regions in global south mostly extract raw materials (agriculture) work that uses much labor and little capital and pays low wages. Industrialized regions mostly manufacture goods, work that uses more capital, requires more skilled labor, and pays higher wages. These manufacturing regions are called the core (center) of the world-system and the extraction are called the periphery. Core uses its power derived from its wealth to concentrate surplus from the periphery and has for like 500 years. Conflicts among great powers, ex the Cold War, result in a competition among core states over the right to exploit periphery. Semi periphery is an area in which some manufacturing occurs and some capital concentrates, but not to the extent of the most advanced areas in the core, Eastern Europe and Russia are often called this. Semiperiphery acts as political buffer between the core and periphery because poor states can aspire to join the semiperiphery instead of aspiring to rebel against dominant one.

Fossil fuels:

causing global warming oil, coal, and natural gas. To run cars, factories, warehouses etc.

Free economic zones (China)

free economic zones open to foreign investment and run on capitalist principles.

Race to the Bottom:

frequent "bidding wars"- rapid movement of business from one country to another= the "race to the bottom"= the threat to leave gives MNC too much leverage in bargaining

common market:

in addition to customs union, member states allow labor and capital as well as goods to flow freely across borders. a zone in which labor and capital (as well as goods) flow freely across borders. Free movement of: Products Capital Labor Services In addition, distortion of competition amongst the members is no longer tolerated, while discrimination of member-state products within the common market is illegalized

economic and monetary union (EMU):

in which the overall economic policies of the member states would be coordinated for greatest efficiency and stability. A single currency would replace the separate national currencies now in use. Economic Union: Composed of both a common market and a customs union, extends to include several macro-economic policies. An Economic Union can include a Monetary Union.

Free trade area:

lifting tariffs and restrictions on the movement of goods across EEC borders, today European Free Trade Association is extended free trade associated with EU, its members are Norway, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland. A zone in which there are no tariffs or other restrictions on the movement of goods and services across borders.;;; no internal obstacles to trade (tariffs and quotas). This creates a problem, as external products will tend to enter the area via the country with the lowest tariff (with the "rules of origin" providing only a partial solution). In order to deal with that issue, some countries move on to a...

Greenhouse gases:

named because when concentrated in the atmosphere these gases act like the glass in the greenhouse they let energy in as short wave solar radiation but reflect back when it tries to exit again as longer wavelength heat waves. Greenhouse gases are: carbon dioxide (2 thirds of the problem) methane gas, CFCs chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide. Carbon dioxide and other gases that, when concentrated in the atmosphere, act like the glass in a greenhouse, holding energy in and leading to global warming.

Enclosure:

of the commons, splitting it into privately owned pieces on each of which a single owner would have an incentive to manage more responsibly. The world's states have taken a similar approach to coastal fisheries by extending territorial waters to put more fish under the control of single states.The splitting of a common area or good into privately owned pieces; giving individual owners an incentive to manage resources responsibly. Britain solved this problem, overfishing and grazing, by Enclosure: of the commons, splitting it into privately owned pieces on each of which a single owner would have an incentive to manage more responsibly. The world's states have taken a similar approach to coastal fisheries by extending territorial waters to put more fish under the control of single states. enclosure: value to humanity publically owned and suffering you assign it to private owner to preserve it sometimes it can work.

customs union:

participating states adopt a unified set of tariffs with regards to goods coming in from outside the free trade area. 1969 Treaty of Rome committed the six states to creating a customs union. A customs union creates free and open trade within its member states, bringing great economic benefits, became heart of the EU and the one aspect widely copied elsewhere in the world. A common external tariff adopted by members of a free trade area; that is, participating states adopt a unified set of tariffs with regard to goods coming in from outside. a single unified external tariff is adopted. Why do some nations prefer to stick to an FTA in the face of its disadvantages? All states do single tariff and some people object to this; the UK did, the UK market was the third in the world at the time and becoming part of the EU they had custom union meaning high tariffs on outside things like North America for example.

Postcolonial dependence

post- colonialism::: Imperialism concentrated the accumulation of wealth in the core and drained economic surplus from the periphery, one might expect the accumulation in the global South would take off once colonialism was overthrown. Generally, however, this was not the case. A few states, such as Singapore, have accumulated capital successfully since becoming independent. But others, including many African states, seem to be going backward, with little new capital accumulating to replace the old colonial infrastructure. Most former colonies are making only slow progress in accumulation. Political independence has not been a cure-all for poor countries. One reason for these problems is that under colonialism the training and experience needed to manage the economy were often limited to white Europeans, leaving a huge gap in technical and administrative skills after independence. Another problem faced by the newly independent states was that, as colonies, their economies has been narrowly developed to serve the needs of the European home country. Many of these economies rested on the export of one or two products. For Zambia, it was copper ore, El Salvador coffee, Botswana diamonds. Such a narrow export economy would seem well suited to use the state's comparative advantage to specialize in one niche of the world economy. But it leaves the state vulnerable to price fluctuations on the world markets. The liberal free trade regime based around the WTO corrected only partially for the North's superior bargaining position in the North-South trade. And the WTO has allowed agriculture to remain protected in core states while promoting liberalization of trade in manufactured goods exported by the core. It's not easy to restructure an economy to export a few commodities. Nor do state leaders generally want to do so because the leaders benefit from the imports that can be bought with hard currency. In any case, coffee plantations and copper mines take time and capital to create, and they represent capital accumulation- they cannot just be abandoned. Also, local inhabitants' skills and training are likely to be concentrated in the existing industries. Infrastructure, such as railroads, most likely was set up to serve the export economy. The newly independent states inherited borders that were drawn in European capitals by foreign officers looking at maps. As a result, especially in Africa, the internal rivalries of ethnic groups and regions made it very difficult for the new states to implement coherent economic plans. In a number of cases, ethnic conflicts within former colonies led to civil wars, which halted or reversed capital accumulation. Finally, the governments of many postcolonial states did not function very effectively, creating another obstacle to accumulation. In some places corruption became much worse after independence. Other places governments tried to impose central control and planning on their national economy based on nationalism, mercantilism, or socialism. Liberation from colonial control did not change underlying economic realities. Main trading partners of newly independent countries were usually their former colonial masters. Main products were usually those developed under colonialism. The administrative units and territorial borders were those created by Europeans. The state continued to occupy the same peripheral position in the world-system after independence as it has before. And in some cases, it continued to rely on its former colonizer for security. postcolonial: structural legacy is still there from colonization The people colonizing did not allow: 1. Training and experience 2. Made narrow economies based on few things or one as the North required them 3. They made the borders without regard to ethnicity and history of the area 4. New governments are puppet governments, and inefficient and corrupt.

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