PSCL 315: Exam 3
What do females prefer is short-term relationships?
1. Attractiveness 2. Genetic quality - Symmetry - Masculinity most preferred during ovulation 3. Resources in long-term relationships, less in short-term relationships
What forces inhibit altruistic behaviors?
1. Basic tendencies for self-preservation 2. Fear of embarrassment
What are are common, universal social behaviors in a relationship?
1. Caregiving between the mother and child 2. Wrestling amongst siblings 3. Flirtation by young people 4. Affection between romantic partners 5. Dominance display between adolescent males
Why are the two different types of relationships? Briefly define them and provide an example.
1. Communal relationship 2. Exchange relationship Communal relationship - seen in long-term relationships in which peoples' primary concern is to respond to the other person's needs Exchange relationship - seen in short-term relationships in which participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in their interactions
What are the different types of love? Briefly define each one.
1. Companionate love 2. Compassionate love 2. Romantic love 1. love typically experience with friends and family members 2. similar to communal relationships; tend to people's needs 3. intense emotion and sexual desire; sometimes referred to as passionate love
What are the different types of social influences?
1. Conformity 2. Obedience 3. Compliance COC
What are the four most harmful behaviors to a relationship? Define each one.
1. Criticism - finding fault with one's partner 2. Defensiveness - refusing something that one may be doing contributes to the conflict 3. Stonewalling - resisting dealing with problems 4. Contempt - one person looking down on another, which is particularly to maintaining romantic bonds
What are the thee basic types compliance approaches?
1. Directed at the head 2. Directed at the heart 3. Directed at the head and heart
What are the five steps to helping?
1. Does the individual notice the situation? 2. Does the individual interpret the situation as an emergency? - Depends on ambiguity of situation: is it clearly an emergency? Is helping appropriate? 3. Does the individual assume the responsibility to act? 4. Does the individual have the knowledge, training, or skills to help? 5. Does the individual decide to help? - Cost-benefit analysis This is the particular order one thinks through when deciding to help.
What does evolutionary psychology seek to synthesize?
1. Evolutionary biology 2. Modern psychological theories 3. Leading to testable hypothesis about design of the human mind
What are the factors of conformity pressure?
1. Group size Informational social influence - to a certain point, the larger the number of people who express a particular opinion, the more likely that opinion has merit as a source of information. The more people there are, the less their views are independent; therefore, additional consenting opinions do not offer any additional information Normative social influence - the larger the group, the more people one stands to displease, so conformity is more likely 2. Group unanimity - when the majority of a group agrees; it can be broken when the presence of an ally weakens both informational social influence and normative social influence. A tool for protecting independence and action: if you expect to be pressured to conform and want to remain true to your beliefs, bring along an ally 3. Anonymity - eliminates normative social influence and therefore should substantially reduce conformity Informative social influence leads to internalization, or the private acceptance of the position advanced by the majority, and normative social influence often has a greater impact on public compliance than on private acceptance 4. Expertise and status - 5. Culture 6. Tight and loos cultures 7. Gender
What are the reasons for mimicry?
1. Ideomotor action 2. To facilitate social connections
What impact does jealousy have on us?
1. It decreases our self-esteem 2. Becomes worse when - More people know about the situation - If one of the people that knows about is a threat or rival
Which explanations account for altruistic behavior in regard to evolutionary?
1. Kin selection 2. Reciprocity
What are factors that influence romantic relationships?
1. Love 2. Commitment 3. Relationship dissatisfaction 4. Creating stronger romantic bonds
What are some of the effects of loneliness?
1. Mortality rate increases 2. It is contagious (more time someone spends with someone lonely, the more lonely they will become) 3. It is cyclical (fewer friends over time) 4. Associated with increased risk of physical decline and death
What is Steinberg's triangle of love? Describe each one.
1. Passion - physical aspect of love; physiological changes 2. Intimacy - emotional aspect of love; includes closeness, sharing, and communication 3. Commitment - cognitive aspect of love; influences how we feel about someone; includes short-term decisions to date and long-term decisions to maintain the relationship PIC
What are the factors that influence attraction?
1. Proximity 2. Similarities 3. Physical attractiveness
What are the three determinants of the investment model of commitment?
1. Relationship satisfaction 2. Few alternative partners 3. Investment in the relationship Satisfaction Partners Investment
What are evolutionary differences?
1. Self-esteem 2. Facial structure and attractiveness 3. Group functioning 4. Altruism 5. Attachment 6. Happiness 7. Leadership 8. Psychological health
What are the three different types of theories? Provide a very brief definition of each one.
1. Social exchange theory - rewards and costs are assessed in relationships 2. Equity theory - people are motivated to pursue fairness 3. Attachment theory - early attachment can shape relationships for a person's whole life
What are the three motives for altruism? Which ones are selfish and selfless acts?
1. Social rewards - selfish 2. Personal distress - selfish 3. Empathetic concern - selfless
What accounts for the differences in rural-urban helping rates?
1. Stimulus overload - a narrow focus on important aspects that claim your thoughts, feelings, and actions; less likely to attend to others' needs and act altruistically 2. Diversity hypothesis - help others more like you. More likely to find someone like yourself in a rural area than in an urban area. 3. Diffusion of responsibility - more people are in urban areas than in rural areas, which may discourage people from helping out in urban settings 4. People's actions are more likely to be observed - in rural settings, people are more readily able to comment on their reputation to others
What are situational determinants of altruism? What are factors of each one?
1. The presence of other people - bystander intervention, diffusion of responsibility, the illusion of transparency, and the spotlight effect 2. Victim characteristics - the situation is clear and the need is unambiguous, and people are similar to themselves, such as those from their own racial or ethnic group or similar social class background
What are three truths of altruism?
1. We have strong emotions - empathic concern or sympathy - that drive us to acts of altruism 2. Altruism is more likely to be directed to be some people than others 3. There are often powerful situational constraints upon altruistic action 4. Altruism cannot be cultivated - it is shaped by culture
What is the reciprocal concessions technique?
A compliance approach that involves asking someone for a very large favor that will certainly be refused and then following that request with one for a smaller favor (which tends to be seen as a concession the target feels compelled to honor) Essentially... First ask a large favor, then ask the favor you really want, which is more likely to be accepted
What is the foot-in-the-door technique?
A compliance approach that involves making an initial small request with which nearly everyone complies, followed by a larger request involving the real behavior of interest Essentially... Ask a small favor everyone agrees with, then ask a larger favor that everyone is really interested in
What is the norm of reciprocity?
A norm dictating that people should provide benefits to those who benefit them Essentially... Do a favor to receive a favor
What are the primary reason to belong in relationships? A. Better off from an evolutionary perspective B. Higher self-esteem, which leads to increased happiness and health C. Easily form social bonds D. Decreased divorce rates E. All of the above F. A, B, and C
A, B, and C A. Better off from an evolutionary perspective B. Higher self-esteem, which leads to increased happiness and health C. Easily form social bonds
What is the comparison level and comparison level for alternatives? What is the difference?
Comparison level (CL) - expectations people have about what they believe the deserve or expect from a relationship Comparison level for alternatives (CLA) - expectations people have about what they can get out of available, alternative relationships Difference: They are identical in the sense that people have an expectation or belief they deserve to get something out of a relationship. However, the difference is that CL is applied to the current, ongoing relationship, whereas CLA is applied to external relationships. The latter explains why people may stay in abusive relationships (very low level of CLA) or leave a relationship for another one after a few months (very high level of CLA).
People engage in cost-benefit analysis to determine whether they should help someone or not. What happens when the costs are high and low, respectively? What is a potential outcome for helping?
Cost-benefit relationship Low costs = helping increases High costs = helping decreases Outcome Social rewards, such as being thanked from the victim, social praise, and avoiding guilt for not helping
Diffusion of responsibility is _____. What is also known as?
Definition a reduction of the sense of urgency to help someone in an emergency or dangerous situation, based on the assumption that others who are present will help Also known as... bystander effect
Kin selection is _____.
Definition an evolutionary strategy that favors the reproductive success of one's genetic relatives, even at the cost of one's own survival and reproduction Essentially... an evolutionary strategyy that favors behaviors that increase the chance of survival of genetic relatives
Reciprocal altruism is _____. When does it work best?
Definition helping others with the expectation that they will probably return the favor in the future Works best when... there is a power balance
Parental investment _____. Why are behaviors between males and females different?
Definition refers to the expenditure of time energy, resources that benefit one offspring at the cost of the parent's ability to invest in other components of fitness Difference The difference in behavior is due to females investing more time and resources into each child than the male
Descriptive norm is _____. What does it correspond to?
Definition the behavior exhibited by most people in a given context Correspondence What something is
Social responsibility norm is _____. When does it work best?
Definition the expectation that people will others who are dependent upon them Works best when... if there is a power imbalance
Pluralistic ignorance is _____. Why is this done?
Definition the tendency to rely on other bystanders to know how to behave Done because... people what is the correct behavior in the situation
Prescriptive norm is _____. What does it correspond to?
Definition the way a person is supported to behave in a given context; also called injunctive norm Correspondence What something ought to be
What does negative mood do for compliance? What factors influence it?
Effect on compliance It can increase and decrease. Factors 1. Guilt - increase compliance 2. Seeing an unfortunate event occur on a victim - increase compliance
What does positive mood tend to do for compliance? What are the two main reasons?
Effect on compliance It increases compliance Reasons 1. Mood colors how wee interpret events - we are likely to view requests for favors as less intrusive and less threatening when we're in a good mood 2. Mood maintenance - sustain a good mood
What are the emotion-based approaches? What do they aim at?
Emotion-based approaches 1. Positive mood 2. Negative mood Aim Heart
What is the difference between envy and jealousy?
Envy - the desire for something that another person has Jealousy - the suspicion that someone wants something you have and the fear of losing it
How can upper class people feel a similar level of compassion as those in lower class?
Expose upper class individuals to feel compassion to respond in a prosocial fashion.
What are the two exceptions to the mere exposure effect?
It does not apply to: 1. auditory stimuli 2. stimuli that we initially dislike
What does the sense of being watched do to altruism?
It increases acts of altruism.
What is effective norm-based approach?
Letting people know what others are doing. It is most effective when the information is surprising
What are the differences between lower class and upper class empathic concern and altruism?
Lower class people prove to be more empathetic than upper class in several ways. 1. Better judges at strangers' emotions 2. Better judges at friends' emotions 3. More accurate at inferring emotions from photographs 4. Responds with greater empathic concern and compassion-related physiology to the suffering of others Lower class people are overall more altruistic than upper class people.
What are most threatening for males and females?
Males - sexual infidelity Females - emotional infidelity
What are the differences between males and females?
Males prefer multiple partners (promiscuity) that are young and attractive Females prefer fewer partners (faithfulness) that are older and stable with resources
What idea is evolutionary psychology based on?
Natural selection
In regards to the descriptive and prescriptive norms, what can be done to increase compliance?
Never set the place the norms in conflict with each other
What are norm-based approaches? What do they aim at?
Norm-based approaches 1. Effective norm-based appeal 2. Descriptive norms 3. Prescriptive norms Aim Heart and head
What are the three reason-based approaches? What do they aim at?
Reason-based approaches 1. Norm of reciprocity 2. Reciprocal concessions technique 3. Foot-in-the-door technique Aim Head
How can one improve the chances of receiving assistance? What is the effect of this?
Steps 1. Make their needs clear (ex. "I've twisted my ankle and I can't walk. I need your help") 2. Select a specific person (ex. "You there, may you please help me?" Effects Eliminate 1. pluralistic ignorance and 2. diffusion of responsibility
What is ideomotor action?
The phenomenon whereby merely thinking about a behavior makes performing it more likely
What is the relationship between informational and normative social influence?
There is a direct relationship. As either one intensifies, so does the other
How do minority groups influence majority opinion?
They have influence primarily through social informational social influence rather than through normative social influence
How does genetic relatedness affect kin selection?
Those who are closer in terms of kin receive more help than those who are not as close or not at all.
What are the three variables that influence conformity pressure?
Variables 1. Characteristics of a group 2. Surrounding context 3. Task or issue at hand
What is the difference between volunteerism and bystander intervention?
Volunteerism is the regular act of providing help with no expectation for compensation, whereas bystander intervention is providing help when someone appears to need it.
Social rewards are _____.
a benefit, such as a praise, positive attention, something tangible, or gratitude, that may be gained from helping others and thus serves as a motive for altruistic behavior Essentially... a benefit gained from helping others
What is the investment model of commitment?
a model of interpersonal relationships maintaining that three determinants make partners more committed to each other: relationship satisfaction, few alternative partners, and investments in the relationship
Personal distress is _____.
a motive for helping others in distress that may arise from a need to reduce one's own distress Essentially... Help someone so you feel better
Altruism is _____.
a prosocial behavior that benefits others without regard consequences for oneself
What is companionate love?
a relationship based on intimacy and commitment; no passion CIC
What is fatuous love?
a relationship based on passion and commitment; no intimacy
What is romantic love?
a relationship based on passion and intimacy; no commitment RIP
What is an exchange relationship? Give an example where it would be seen.
a relationship in which the participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in their interactions. Typically seen in short-term relationships Example: Exchange relationships would be seen among salespeople and bureaucrats or with workers and supervisors in a business organization.
What is empty love?
a relationship that is based only on commitment EC
What is liking?
a relationship that is based only on intimacy
What is attachment theory?
a theory that states that the formation of a strong bond with at least one primary caregiver in childhood is necessary for an individual to feel secure enough to be successful in life Essentially... early attachment can shape relationships for a person's whole life
What is jealousy?
an emotional response to someone else wanting something that you have, and the resulting fear of loss
Jealousy is _____.
an emotional response to someone wanting something that you have, and the resulting fear is loss; afraid to lose what we have
What is consummate love?
an ideal relationship encompassing all of the aspects of Steinberg's triangle: passion, intimacy, and commitment
Obedience is _____.
an unequal power relationship, submitting to the demands of the in authority
Inclusive fitness _____.
are behaviors that are selected to increase the likelihood of survival for the group (presumably genetically related)
Volunteerism is _____.
assistance a person regularly provides to another person or group with no expectation of compensation
Bystander intervention is _____.
assistance given by a witness to someone in need
Conformity is _____.
changing one's beliefs and behaviors in response to explicit or implicit pressure (real or imagined) from others
Why are relationships important?
fulfill our needs for intimacy, social integration, nurturance, assistance, and affirmation
Empathic concern is _____.
identifying with someone in need, including feeling and understanding what that person is experiencing, accompanied by the intention to help the person Essentially... empathize and connect with someone in need
Internalization _____.
is the private acceptance of a proposition, orientation, or ideology
What is hindsight bias?
look back to see how do we get to a decision we are at now people's tendency to be overconfident about whether they could have predicted a given outcome
The most subtle form of conformity is _____.
our tendency to mindlessly imitate other people's behavior and movements
Altruistic acts arise _____.
out of feelings of compassion that lead us to behave in ways that benefit others who are suffering, often at the cost of ourselves
The spotlight effect is when _____.
people believe that others focus on them and pay attention to them more than others really do
What is the matching phenomenon?
people tend to match up with other people who are roughly similar in attractiveness
Illusion of transparency is _____.
people think that they are very clear in transmitting their thoughts and emotions to others
What is anxiety dimension of attachment?
refers to the amount of fear a person feels about rejection and abandonment within a close relationship to a degree
What is avoidance dimension of attachment?
refers to whether a person is comfortable with intimacy and dependence, or finds it aversive, in primary adult relationships to a degree
What is infatuation?
relationship that is based only on passion IP
What is a communal relationship? Give an example where it would be seen.
relationships in which people's primary concern is being responsive to the other person's needs. Typically seen in a long-term relationship Example: Communal relationships would be seen between family members and close friends.
What is the mere exposure effect?
repeated exposure to a stimulus increases a greater liking of the stimulus
Compliance is _____.
responding favorably to an explicit request by another person
What is reproductive fitness?
the capacity to pass one's genes on to subsequent generations
What is the halo effect?
the common belief that attractive individuals possess a host of positive qualities beyond their physical appearance Essentially... attractive people inherit positive qualities
Negative state relief hypothesis is _____.
the idea people engage in certain actions, such as agreeing to a request, to relieve their negative feelings and feel better about themselves Essentially... we often help others to help ourselves
What is the equity theory?
the idea that people are happiest with relationships in which the rewards and costs experienced by both parties are roughly equal
Reactance theory is _____.
the idea that people reassert their prerogatives in response to the unpleasant state of arousal they experience when they believe freedoms are threatened
What is functional distance?
the influence of an architectural layout to encourage or inhibit certain activities, including contact between people Essentially... architectural layout influences activities, such as contact with people. Mere exposure effect stems from this
Normative social influence is _____.
the influence of other people that comes from the desire to avoid their disapproval and other social sanctions (ridicule, barbs, ostracism)
Informational social influence is _____.
the influence of other people that results from taking their comments or actions as a source of information about what is correct, proper, or effective
Social influence is _____.
the many ways people affect one another, including changes in attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and behavior resulting from the comments, actions, or even the more presence of others
Autokinetic illusion is _____.
the sense that a stationary point of light in a completely dark environment is moving
What is the illusions of control?
the tendency for people to believe that they have more control over things than they really do
What does complementary mean?
the tendency for people to seek out others with characteristics that are different from, and complement, their own Essentially... it is the tendency to seek others with different characteristics that complement our own; the idea that opposites attract
What is the social exchange theory? What is the effect if costs exceed rewards?
the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs Essentially... people expect to receive a reward for their interactions. Preferably, the rewards exceed the costs. If it is the other way around, people will minimize the costs as much as possible. Less effort will be exerted in maintaining the relationship if costs begin to exceed rewards.
Evolutionary psychology is _____.
the theory that makes testable questions, but is answered for developing quality explanations
Envy is _____. What effect can this have?
when something that someone has is attainable, but we do not have it; we want something that someone else has It can be motivating
