PSY 100 - Ch. 2
Endorphins
"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
What five theories propose explanations for why we dream?
(1) Freud's wish fulfillment (dreams as a psychic safety valve) (2) information processing (dreams sort the day's events and form memories) (3) physiological function (dreams pave neural pathways) (4) making sense of neural static (REM sleep triggers random neural activity that the mind weaves into stories) (5) cognitive development (dreams reflect the dreamer's developmental stage).
What are five proposed reasons for our need for sleep?
(1) Sleep has survival value. (2) Sleep helps restore the immune system and repair brain tissue. (3) During sleep we strengthen memories. (4) Sleep fuels creativity. (5) Sleep plays a role in the growth process.
What are the three key structures of the limbic system, and what functions do they serve?
(1) The amygdala is involved in aggression and fear responses. (2) The hypothalamus is involved in bodily maintenance, pleasurable rewards, and control of the hormonal systems. (3) The hippocampus processes memory of facts and events.
Try moving your right hand in a circular motion, as if cleaning a table. Then start your right foot doing the same motion, synchronized with your hand. Now reverse the right foot's motion, but not the hand's. Finally, try moving the left foot opposite to the right hand. 1. Why is reversing the right foot's motion so hard? 2. Why is it easier to move the left foot opposite to the right hand?
(1) The right limbs' opposed activities interfere with each other because both are controlled by the same (left) side of your brain. (2) Opposite sides of your brain control your left and right limbs, so the reversed motion causes less interference.
Refractory period
(1) in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state. (2) in human sexuality, a resting pause that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm.
Marcie is driving Adam to the airport. Adam is telling Marcie about some financial difficulties he is having. Periodically, he asks Marcie for her opinion. According to the textbook, attending to the conversation may decrease activity in the areas of Marcie's brain critical for safe driving by nearly _____ percent.
40
If you gently wake someone who is in the REM stage of sleep, there is about a(n) _____ percent chance the person will report being in the middle of a dream. Please type the correct answer in the following input field, and then select the submit answer button or press the enter key when finished.
80
An advertisement for a new drug therapy catches Stephie's eye. The advertisement claims that the drug will counteract the symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. Which neurotransmitter does the drug probably influence?
Acetylcholine
Why are association areas important?
Association areas are involved in higher mental functions—interpreting, integrating, and acting on information processed in other areas.
This part of the peripheral nervous system controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands.
Autonomic
How are the nervous system and endocrine system alike, and how do they differ?
Both of these communication systems produce chemical molecules that act on the body's receptors to influence our behavior and emotions. The endocrine system, which secretes hormones into the bloodstream, delivers its messages much more slowly than the speedy nervous system, and the effects of the endocrine system's messages tend to linger much longer than those of the nervous system.
Brent is taking part in an experiment in a cognitive neuroscience lab. Silently, he reads rapid sequences of words flashed on a computer screen. The electrical activity of his brain is simultaneously recorded through skull electrodes. The technique used in this study is: Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
EEG
To monitor the electrical activity in the brain that is triggered by hearing one's own name, researchers would make use of a(n):
EEG
The distinction between manifest content and latent content is central to _____ theory of dreams.
Freud's wish-fulfillment
If a 2-year-old boy's pituitary gland is NOT functioning correctly, what might be the consequences?
His physical growth might be affected.
What happens in the synaptic gap?
Neurons send neurotransmitters (chemical messengers) across this tiny space between one neuron's terminal branch and the next neuron's dendrite or cell body.
Dr. Spanos is interested in studying how the approximately 400 trillion synapses of an adult brain are organized into an information-processing system. Which topic should he consider for his study?
Neutral networks
Explain two attentional principles that magicians may use to fool us.
Our selective attention allows us to focus on only a limited portion of our surroundings. Inattentional blindness explains why we don't perceive some things when we are distracted. Change blindness, for example, happens when we fail to notice a relatively unimportant change in our environment. These principles help magicians fool us, as they direct our attention elsewhere to perform their tricks.
The _____ gland is located in the brain and is the endocrine system's "master gland.
Pituitary
Mohammed is a taxi driver in London, UK. As he navigates the city's thousands of streets and intersections, the part of his brain devoted to spatial memory increases in size. This BEST illustrates:
Plasticity
What are the four sleep stages, and in what order do we normally travel through those stages?
REM (R), NREM-1 (N1), NREM-2 (N2), NREM-3 (N3); normally we move through N1, then N2, then N3, then back up through N2 before we experience REM sleep.
Why is the pituitary gland called the "master gland"?
Responding to signals from the hypothalamus, the pituitary releases hormones that trigger other endocrine glands to secrete hormones, which in turn influence brain and behavior.
Leiko is paralyzed below the waist following an accident. Although her genitals do not respond to erotic images, she does experience an increase in vaginal lubrication in response to genital stimulation. Leiko has MOST clearly suffered damage to her:
Spinal cord
How does our nervous system allow us to experience the difference between a slap and a tap on the back?
Stronger stimuli (the slap) cause more neurons to fire and to fire more frequently than happens with weaker stimuli (the tap)
How does learning a new skill affect the structure of our brain?
Thanks to it's plasticity, our brain changes in response to the experiences we have. Learning and practicing a new skill, like playing an instrument, can promote the development of new neutral pathways and cause lasting changes in brain organization.
cell body
The part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cells life-support center
How was the ANS involved in Hawaiian's terrified responses, and in calming their bodies once they realized it was a false alarm?
The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system would have directed arousal (accelerated heartbeat, inhibited digestion, and so forth), and the parasympathetic division would have directed calming.
Why would communal sleeping provide added protection for those whose safety depends upon vigilance, such as these refugees in Parie?
With each refugee cycling through the sleep stages independently, at any given time at least one likely will be in an easily awakened stage.
MEG (magnetoencephalography)
a brain-imaging technique that measures magnetic fields from the brain's natural electrical activity.
Split brains
a condition resulting from surgery that separates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.
EEG (electroencephalograph)
a device that uses electrodes placed on the scalp to record waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. (The record of those brain waves is an electroencephalogram.)
Corpus callosum
a large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.
Neurons
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
Action potentials
a nerve impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events
Hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
all-or-none response
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.
Reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron.
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN adjusts melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
Adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
Sleep
a periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
Narcolepsy
a sleep disorder in which a person has uncontrollable sleep attacks, sometimes lapsing directly into REM sleep
Sleep apnea
a sleep disorder in which a sleeping person repeatedly stops breathing until blood oxygen is so low the person awakens just long enough to draw a breath
fMRI (functional MRI)
a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy
Cerebral cortex
a thin layer of interconnected neurons covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
PET (positron emission tomography) scan
a view of brain activity showing where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
In what brain region would damage be most likely to (a) disrupt your ability to jump rope? (b) disrupt your ability to hear? (c) cut off the very breath and heartbeat of life?
a. cerebellum b. thalamus c. reticular formation d. medulla
(a) If we flash a red light to the right hemisphere of a person with a split brain, and flash a green light to the left hemisphere, will each observe its own color? (b) Will the person be aware that the colors differ? (c) What will the person verbally report seeing?
a. yes b. no c. green
Manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream
Latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream
A firefighter wakes in the middle of the night to the sound of an alarm. It is likely that her _____ gland(s) is/are releasing the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine.
adrenal
People who engage in extreme sports often do so to feel the rush of epinephrine and norepinephrine. This hormone rush comes from the _____ glands.
adrenal
A person who following a head injury has difficulty recognizing emotional responses in others MOST likely suffered damage to the _____.
amygdala
An example of the interaction of the nervous and endocrine systems can be seen in our response to danger. The _____ nervous system orders the adrenal glands to release the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine, which act to provide a surge of energy.
autonomic
Sympathetic nervous system
autonomic nervous system subdivision that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy
Parasympathetic nervous system
autonomic nervous system subdivision that calms the body, conserving its energy
Central Nervous System (CNS)
brain and spinal cord, body's decision maker
The _____ is a crossover point where nerves from the left side of the brain are mostly linked to the right side of the body, and vice versa.
brainstem
Nerves
bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
Glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory.
After suffering an accidental brain injury, Kira has difficulty walking in a smooth, coordinated manner. It is likely that she has suffered damage to her:
cerebellum
After suffering an accidental brain injury, Kylie has difficulty walking in a smooth, coordinated manner. It is likely that she has suffered damage to her _____. Please type the correct answer in the following input field, and then select the submit answer button or press the enter key when finished.
cerebellum
The _____ cortex covers the two hemispheres and serves as the body's information-processing center.
cerebral
Association areas
cerebral cortex areas involved primarily in higher mental functions, such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
When a neuron fires an action potential, the information travels through the axon, the dendrites, and the cell body, but not in that order. Place these three structures in the correct order.
dendrites, cell body, axon
The sympathetic nervous system _____ pupils and _____ digestion.
dilates; inhibits
Popular actor Michael J. Fox lives with Parkinson's disease. His symptoms include shaking and trembling, signs of a deficiency of the neurotransmitter:
dopamine
If a researcher is interested in measuring both the structure and function of the brain, which technique might one recommend?
fMRI
Change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness.
Inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
Selective attention
focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
Higher-level thinking is primarily the responsibility of the _____ lobes.
frontal
The _____ lobes are located behind the forehead.
frontal
Memory, language, and attention result from ______
functional connectivity
Active neurons require _____ the way a car requires fuel.
glucose
Match the scanning technique (i-iii) with the correct description (a-c) i. fMRI Scan ii. PET Scan iii. MRI Scan a. Tracks radioactive glucose to reveal brain activity b. Tracks successive images of the brain tissue to show brain function c. Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to show brain anatomy
i. b ii. a iii. c
Match the cognitive experience (a-c) with the sleep stage (i-iii). 1. N1 2. N3 3. REM a) story-like dream b) fleeting images c) minimal awareness
i. b ii. c iii. a
Match the type of neuron (i-iii) to its description (a-c). i. Motor Neurons ii. Sensory Neurons iii. Interneurons a. Carry incoming messages from sensory receptors to the CND b. Communicate within the CNS and process information between incoming and outgoing messages c. Carry outgoing messages from the CNS muscles and glands
i. c ii. a iii. b
Josie intently watched the live tennis match and did not realize that a bird had landed on the empty seat next to her. Her inability to notice the bird can be explained by:
inattentional blindness
José has trouble falling sleep. Even though he goes to bed at 11 each night, he's often still awake at 2 or 2:30 in the morning. José suffers from:
insomnia
Prefrontal cortex enables ____
judgment, planning, social interactions, and processing of new memories
A manufacturing company installs bright lights in a plant in which many employees work the 11 P.M. to 7 A.M. shift. The lights simulate morning sun, helping the suprachiasmatic nucleus to reduce the production of the sleep-inducing hormone called:
melatonin
Reticular formation
nerve network running through the brainstem and into the thalamus; plays an important role in controlling arousal.
Limbic system
neural system (including the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
Dendrite
neuron extensions that receive and integrate messages and conduct them toward the cell body.
Neurotransmitter
neuron-produced chemicals that cross the synaptic gap to carry messages to other neurons or to muscles and glands.
Sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord; carry messages from your body's tissues and sensory receptors inward to your spinal cord and brain for processing
Motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands; carry instructions from your central nervous system outward to your body's muscles and glands
Interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between sensory inputs and motor outputs; within your brain and spinal cord communicate with one another and process information between the sensory input and motor output.
Serotonin, dopamine, and endorphins are all chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters
Carmen is driving at night in an unfamiliar city. Because the neighborhood looks dangerous, Carmen feels extremely alert. The neurotransmitter _____ is helping her cope with the stressful situation.
norepinephrine
Opiate
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
Circadian rhythm
our internal biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
Consciousness
our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment
Ron is having trouble regulating the levels of sugar in his blood. He is diagnosed with Type II diabetes. There is MOST likely an abnormality with his:
pancreas
Arden's heart rate and respiration are slowing, and her digestion is facilitated. Her _____ nervous system has become active.
parasympathetic
Somatic nervous system
peripheral nervous system division that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.
Automonomic nervous system
peripheral nervous system division that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic subdivision arouses; its parasympathetic subdivision calms
Parallel processing
processing many aspects of a stimulus or problem at the same time
Sequential Processing
processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems
A well-rested person would be more likely to have _______ (trouble concentrating/quick reaction times) and a sleep-deprived person would more likely to _____ (gain weight/fight off a cold).
quick reaction times; gain weight.
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
Dendrite is to axon as _____ is to _____. Please choose the correct answer from the following choices, and then select the submit answer button.
receiving; sending
Insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Alpha waves
relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
The text cites research suggesting that deaf people who learned sign language before another language may have better-than-average motion detection (Bosworth & Dobkins, 1999; Shiell et al., 2014). According to the text, this advantage illustrates the process of ______ in the ____ lobe.
reorganization; temporal
The neural network that connects the spinal cord and the thalamus and helps control arousal is the:
reticular formation.
Jane is watching her favorite television program and sees a commercial for a new medication. It states that the medication can alleviate depression. "Since depression is a chemical imbalance, new Venlafaxine extended release can help with mood, sleep, arousal, and alertness by working on the two key neurotransmitters involved in depression." These two neurotransmitters are:
serotonin and norepinephrine.
Our brain's ______________ cortex registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. The ______________ cortex controls our voluntary movements.
somatosensory; motor
Hypnic sensations
spasm you might get before you fall asleep
The _____ lobes are located just above the ears.
temporal
Cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.
Medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
Endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the central and peripheral nervous systems.
Plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
Thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; directs sensory messages to the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
Somatosensory cortex
the cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes; registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
Motor cortex
the cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes; controls voluntary movements
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Synapses
the junction between the axon tip of a sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.
Delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
Threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
Pituitary gland
the most influential endocrine gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands
Axon
the neuron extension that sends messages to other neurons or to muscles and glands.
Brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions
Estrogen is a female sex hormone. Based on the textbook's discussion of the endocrine system, which gland releases estrogen?
the ovaries
Occipital lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
Parietal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.
Frontal lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.
Biological psychologists
the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons connecting the central nervous system to the rest of the body; gather information from other body parts and transmits CNS decisions to the rest of your body.
Electrical stimulation of a cat's amygdala provokes angry reactions, suggesting the amygdala's role in aggression. Which autonomic nervous systems division is activated by such stimulation?
the sympathetic nervous system
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
Clarissa's metabolism has been irregular. There is MOST likely an abnormality with her _____ gland.
thyroid
Amygdala
two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion