PSY 212 Exam 1 Study Guide
measured variable
variable whose are observed & recorded
mediator of relation between variables
focuses on a variable that explains the relation between two other variables
convenience sampling bias
Do those who are easiest to reach differ systematically from the target population?
self-selection sampling bias
Do those who volunteer to participate differ systematically form the target population?
quota sampling
A nonprobability sampling technique in which researchers divide the population into groups and then arbitrarily choose participants from each group
simple random sampling
Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected/Time consuming, sometimes impossible/probability sampling
present/present bias
The tendency to rely only on evidence that is present (e.g., instances in which both a treatment and a desired outcome are present) and ignore evidence that is absent (e.g., instances in which a treatment is absent or the desired outcome is absent) when evaluating the support for a conclusion.
experimental research
X= IV os manipulated Y= DV is measured
Hypothesis
a testable, falsifiable prediction based on theory
experimental
aims to establish a casual relation/ A causes B
frequency claims
describe a particulate rate or degree of a single variable(descriptive research)
non-experimental research
describe, explain, & predict X= predictor variable is measured Y= outcome variable is measured
Theory
describes general principles for how variables relate to each other
interrater reliability
independent observers come up with consistent finding/most relevant for observational measures (ex:operationalize aggression on a 1-10 scale)
probability sampling
every member of the target population is known & their selection your sample is through a random process/they have an equal chance of being selected for the sample
the relation between variables
focuses on a positive or negative relation between two variables (correlation; positive/negative)
ratio
interval with an absolute zero
stratified random sampling
multistage technique/individuals are randomly selected from predetermined categories (e.g., race, gender)/probability sampling
descriptive research
observe and describe naturally occurring phenomena or behaviors
internal reliability
only relevant for measures that combine multiple items that measure the same construct/people should respond consistently across items
random assignment
placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable
cluster sampling
randomly selecting from pre-exisiting cluster example: randomly select 3 high schoolers and include all students from those schools
systematic sampling
sample based on two randomly selected numbers example: start with7th person, select every 3rd person
casual claims
terms: cause, increase, decrease, influence, affect, change
test-retest reliability
the consistency in the pattern of scores/most relevant for constructs that are theoretically stable (ex:personality, intelligence)
Difference between IV/DV and predictor/outcome?
the experimenter manipulates the IV IV/DV is used in experimental research & predictor/outcome is used in non-experimental research
external validity
the extent to which we can generalize results of research beyond specific instances in the study (who is the population? who participated in the study?)
internal validity
the extent to which we can identify a single, trustworthy explanation of results (aspects of the study that limit interpretation of its findings=threats to internal validity)
validity
the operationalization measuring what is supposed to measure
Validity
the operationalization measuring what it is supposed to measure
operational definition
the specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study; focuses on the observable or measurable construct (How will I measure happiness?)
Concenience sampling
using a sample of people who are easy to construct & readily available to participate/Easy access, not resource intensive
manipulated variable
variable whose values a researcher conducts variable based on research type
nominal variable
variable whose values are names; sometimes referred to as categorical variable ex: types of drinks
association claims
when one variable changes, the other variable changes too (terms: predict, covary, related, associated, correlated)
statistical validity
How well do the data support the conclusions? & Statistics
What are the three criteria for experimental research?
1. the variables are related 2. the casual variable came before the outcome variable temporally 3. no other explanations exist for the relationship
Which type of measure operationalizes a variable by recording the answers of a participant using a questionnaire? A. physiological measure B.self-report measure C. observational measure D. conceptual measure
B.self-report measure
RESEARCH STUDY: Dr. Kang, a cognitive psychologist, conducts an experiment examining the effect of emotion on memory. He provides lists of 15 words to two groups of participants at his university. He puts the names of all the participants in a hat. The first 20 names he assigns to Group A and the last 20 he assigns to Group B. Group A is given a list of words that are very emotional in content (e.g., passion, murder). Group B is given a list of words that are neutral in content (e.g., houseplant, desk). He then measures how many words each group is able to remember after being distracted for 5 minutes by watching a video about the history of the university. He finds that Group A remembers 15% more words than Group B. Which of the following makes Dr. Kang's study an experiment? A. The study included a manipulated variable and a measured variable. B. The study included a distractor task. C. The study was conducted at a university by a psychologist. D. The study investigated a theory of emotion on memory.
A. The study included a manipulated variable and a measured variable.
Why are techniques like cluster sampling and systematic sampling just as externally valid as simple random sampling? A. They all contain elements of random selection. B. They all measure every member of the population of interest. C. They all use lists of all population members. D. They all rely on large samples.
A. They all contain elements of random selection.
Which of the following is a problem presented by the availability heuristic? A. We do not examine all of the evidence, only what we can quickly think of. B. We rely on the opinions of others rather than on our own opinions. C. We do not carefully examine our own experience. D. We will never be right in our conclusions.
A. We do not examine all of the evidence, only what we can quickly think of.
Sasha believes that she is a nice person. To confirm this, she asks all her friends whether she is a nice person; they all agree that she is. Sasha concludes that she is a nice person and says she has evidence of it. Sasha would likely draw a different conclusion if she did which of the following? A. asked her enemies if she was a nice person B. counted up all the times she was nice in the past C. asked all her friends the same question again in another six months D. considered all the times she was nice to her enemies
A. asked her enemies if she was a nice person
After reading the chapter, Cyril says to himself, "I am sure other people might engage in faulty thinking, but I never would." What is Cyril experiencing? A. bias blind spot B. confirmation bias C. faulty intuition D. motivated thinking
A. bias blind spot
In the theory-data cycle, theories first lead to A. questions. B. answers. C. data. D. research.
A. questions.
A correlation coefficient and a scatterplot both provide which of the following pieces of information? A. the strength and direction of the relationship between two measurements B. the path and significance of the relationship between two measurements C. the validity and reliability of two measurements D. the outliers present in the two measurements
A. the strength and direction of the relationship between two measurements
If a sample is biased, then it is ________ the population of interest. A. unrepresentative of B. unrelated to C. incorrectly compared to D. unfairly applied to
A. unrepresentative of
RESEARCH STUDY: Dr. Sheffield is a clinical psychologist who specializes in treating pathological gambling. Pathological gambling is defined as being unable to resist impulses to gamble. Bothered by not having a good measure that he can give to clients to determine whether they are suffering from this condition, he creates a new measure of pathological gambling. The measure has 15 questions, and it takes 20 minutes to complete. If Dr. Sheffield's measure does not actually measure pathological gambling, his measure is said to lack which of the following? A. validity B. Reliability C. conceptualization D. operationalization
A. validity
Salma conducts a study and finds that her data do not completely support her theory. Which of the following statements should she avoid saying? A. "My data are inconsistent with my theory." B. "My data disprove my theory." C. "My theory needs amending." D. "My data partially prove my theory."
B. "My data disprove my theory."
In order to use the known groups paradigm to establish criterion validity, which of the following is necessary? A. At least three groups must be used. B. After testing, the groups should have significantly different scores on the measure. C. Prior to testing, similarity between the groups must be demonstrated. D. The groups must be composed of experts in the field of psychology.
B. After testing, the groups should have significantly different scores on the measure.
________ validity tends to be higher in experiments than in other types of studies. A. Content B. Internal C. External D. Statistical
B. Internal
Dr. Gonzalez is a peer reviewer for a manuscript submitted to a journal. He is likely to provide comments on which of the following? A. how well the general public will understand the study B. how well the research was conducted C. the prestige/reputation of the author D. previous studies from the same research group
B. how well the research was conducted
RESEARCH STUDY: Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: "Men Should Avoid Rock Music When Playing Board Games." (This headline is based on a study conducted by Fancourt, Burton, & Williamon, 2016.) In the study, men and women played the game "Operation" when listening to different types of music. Male participants performed worse when listening to AC/DC than when listening to Mozart, but female participants' performance did not differ based on music. How many measured variables are included in this study? A. one B. two C. three D. four
B. two
James is asked about the best way to study for an exam. He responds that the best way to study is by making flashcards. He easily thinks of all the times he used flashcards and got an A. However, he fails to take into consideration all the times he got an A and did not use flashcards and the times he used flashcards and did not do well. His faulty thinking is an example of A. cherry-picking evidence. B. the availability heuristic. C. a present/present bias. D. asking biased questions.
C. a present/present bias.
Another word for hypothesis is a(n) A. theory. B. observation. C. prediction. D. outcome.
C. prediction.
Professor Adeyemi is examining well-being after retirement in a city, and it is important to have excellent external validity. Professor Adeyemi selects two random numbers, 4 and 6, and gets a list of all of the retired people in the city. If Professor Adeyemi obtains the sample by starting with the 4th person on the list and selecting every 6th person, which of the following sampling techniques is most likely being used? A. cluster sampling B. stratified random sampling C. systematic sampling D. quota sampling
C. systematic sampling
Which of the following may lead to a biased sample? A. using people who accept compensation (e.g., money) to participate B. using people who agree to participate C. using people who are readily available to the researcher D. using people who have participated in other research studies
C. using people who are readily available to the researcher
Dr. Hoda measures job satisfaction and number of years of education. In examining her scatterplot, she sees the cloud of points has no slope. This indicates which type of relationship? A. negative association B. positive association C. zero association D. causal association
C. zero association
Why do studies that use probability samples have excellent external validity? A. They also ensure excellent internal validity. B. They study every member of the population of interest. C. They use a larger number of measures. D. All members of the population are equally likely to be represented in the sample.
D. All members of the population are equally likely to be represented in the sample.
Stefan wants to make a causal claim in his dissertation. Which of the following is necessary? A. He must make a frequency claim first. B. He must manipulate all of his variables. C. He must measure all of his variables. D. He must conduct an experiment.
D. He must conduct an experiment.
Tim tells you that the best way to make friends is by opening the conversation with a joke. He can easily recall all the friends he met by telling a joke and also the times he opened with chitchat and didn't befriend the person. If you were concerned that Tim was making the present/present bias, what would you ask him? A. How many people have you met and befriended? B. Do you think the times you made friends by telling jokes might come more easily to mind? C. Did you go into conversations where you opened with jokes thinking that you would make friends? D. What about the times you opened with a joke and didn't become friends with the person?
D. What about the times you opened with a joke and didn't become friends with the person?
Which of the following is the correct ordering of the sections of an empirical journal article? A. introduction, abstract, results, discussion, method, references B. introduction, discussion, method, results, abstract, references C. abstract, introduction, results, method, discussion, references D. abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references
D. abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references
Which types of reliability can be analyzed with scatterplots? A. all types of reliability B. internal reliability and test-retest reliability C. internal reliability and interrater reliability D. interrater reliability and test-retest reliability
D. interrater reliability and test-retest reliability
If Jamal wanted to test the consistency of participants' responses on a survey at two different times, what would he use? A. internal reliability B. interrater reliability C. criterion validity D. test-retest reliability
D. test-retest reliability
Dr. Hadden wants to conduct a study that will allow him to make claims that apply to all college students. Which of the following validities is he prioritizing? A. the statistical validity of the study B. the internal validity of the study C. the construct validity of the study D. the external validity of the study
D. the external validity of the study
RESEARCH STUDY: Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: "Men Should Avoid Rock Music When Playing Board Games." (This headline is based on a study conducted by Fancourt, Burton, & Williamon, 2016.) In the study, men and women played the game "Operation" when listening to different types of music. Male participants performed worse when listening to AC/DC than when listening to Mozart, but female participants' performance did not differ based on music. Which of the following is a variable in this study? A. the gender of the researcher B. the volume of the music C. the type of game D. the gender of the participant
D. the gender of the participant
RESEARCH STUDY: Anderson is reading his morning paper and sees the following headline: "Men Should Avoid Rock Music When Playing Board Games." (This headline is based on a study conducted by Fancourt, Burton, & Williamon, 2016.) In the study, men and women played the game "Operation" when listening to different types of music. Male participants performed worse when listening to AC/DC than when listening to Mozart, but female participants' performance did not differ based on music. In this study, the authors were interested in participants' board game performance. Which of the following would be a reasonable operational definition of performance? A. an earnest attempt to finish quickly B. which board game participants chose to play C. performance when playing a board game D. whether participants won against a partner
D. whether participants won against a partner
Kalei is studying the relationship between vitamin consumption and cognitive ability. Which of the following is a categorical way to operationalize vitamin consumption? A. the number of vitamins consumed in a day B. the number of milligrams of vitamin C consumed during the study C. the frequency of buying vitamins from the store D. whether the participant consumed vitamins in the 24 hours prior to the study
D. whether the participant consumed vitamins in the 24 hours prior to the study
random sampling
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
numeric variable
a variable whose values are numbers/ interval variable/ ordinal variable (rank ordered) ex: 10in to 20in
correlational research
aims to describe and predict phenomena pr behavior/ explain the relation between two or more variables
self-report measures
ask people to report their own thoughts, behaviors, & experiences
other-report measures
ask teachers, caregivers, or other observers to report about someone else
observational/behavioral measures
capture a variable through behavioral expression of it (quantify behavior; an aggression scale)
physiological measures
capture a variable through physiological indicators of it/ also biological
construct validity
captures how well a conceptual definition has been translated into an operational definition
describe a phenomenon or population
focuses on a single variable within a single population (percent, proportion, frequency, amount)
moderator of relation between variables
focuses on a variables that changed the relation between two other variables
Which of the following is true of the difference between basic and applied research? A. Basic and applied research have different goals. B. Applied research is more important than basic research. C. Basic research is more difficult to conduct than applied research. D. Applied research is done by consumers of research.
A. Basic and applied research have different goals.
criterion validity
the measure is associated with a concrete behavioral outcome it theoretically should be associated with/often relies on concrete behavioral outcomes
How are quota sampling and stratified random sampling similar? A. Both identify subgroups that need to be studied. B. Both randomly sample subgroups to be studied. C. Both result in nonrepresentative samples. D. Both result in representative samples.
A. Both identify subgroups that need to be studied.
Which of the following statements is true of random assignment and random sampling? A. Random assignment is necessary for internal validity, whereas random sampling is necessary for external validity. B. They both are necessary for frequency claims. C. They both mean the same thing. D. Random sampling is more important than random assignment.
A. Random assignment is necessary for internal validity, whereas random sampling is necessary for external validity.
Angel reads about a study in which smartphone use is associated with migraine headaches. He says, "Well, that study is not valid because I use a smartphone more than anyone I know, and I never get migraines." Based on his comment, Angel may be forgetting which of the following? A. Science is based on empiricism. B. The study has been replicated. C. The study did not properly define smartphone use. D. Science is probabilistic.
D. Science is probabilistic.
divergent/discriminant validity
Does the measure discriminate between constructs that are different?/Used for establishing boundaries of construct/Should be used in combination with convergent validity
convergent validity
Does the measure show a similar pattern to other related measures?
face validity
Is it a plausible operationalization of the construct?/Does it appear to measure what it says it's measuring?/Align well with conceptual definition
conceptual definitions
focuses on the abstract, theoretical construct (What is happiness?)
the difference between groups
focuses on the difference between two or more groups on a variable (observational & casual)
Reliability
how consistent the results of a measure are
reliability
how consistent the results of a measure are