PSY 2150 Final Exam

lexical

(two procedures for reading aloud) Using stored information about words

phonetic

(two procedures for reading aloud) sounding out

Frontal

Broca's aphasia occurs due to damage to what left lateral lobe?

reading

During what does dyslexia affect brain activation?

nightmares, night terrors

(A Comparison of Night Terrors and Nightmares) • (night terrors/nightmares) • Within four hours of bedtime • Disoriented, confused • Unaware of presence, not consolable • None, unless fully awakened • Usually rapid, unless fully awakened • Partial arousal from deep NREM sleep • (night terrors/nightmares) • Late in sleep cycle • Upset, scared • Comforted • Vivid recall of dream • Often delayed by fear • REM sleep

left, motor

(Apraxia) • The _____ hemisphere is dominant for language in 92% of right-handed individuals and 69% of left-handed individuals • The left hemisphere is also dominant for fine ______ control

blockage, artery, premotor

(Broca's Area) 1. Damage to this region leads to a diminished ability to express language. Such damage usually results from ________ or hemorrhage of the middle cerebral _____, tumors, or traumatic brain injury. Note the proximity of Broca's area to the ________ cortex 2. The preserved brains of Broca's patients: Leborgne (upper) & Lelong (lower)

speak, comprehend

(Developmental milestones for language) • (a) The ages at which children typically are able to make sounds or _____ (ex: cooing then babbling then clear vocalization of several syllables then two syllables with repetition of first: ma-ma, da-da then says first word then says 50 or more words then uses two words in combination then uses first pronoun, phrase, sentence) • (b) A similar timeline for when children typically ________ languange (ex: responds and attends to speaking voice then discriminates between friendly and angry talking then understands a prohibition then responds to a simple commands then can identify named body parts by pointing then understands simple question then can point to named objects then understands two prepositions: "in", "under")

ventromedial

(Disorders of Empathy) Damage to the __________ prefrontal cortex affects cognitive empathy

ventrolateral

(Disorders of Empathy) Damage to the ___________ prefrontal cortex affects emotional empathy.

autism spectrum disorder

(Disorders of Empathy) Individuals with what disorder have difficulty with both emotional and cognitive empathy? They often show abnormalities in the brain areas involved with social cognition.

Emotional empathy

(Disorders of Empathy) What is the ability to respond emotionally to other people?

Cognitive empathy

(Disorders of Empathy) What is the ability to understand the feelings of others?

schizophrenia

(Disorders of Theory of the Mind) • Disorders of theory of the mind are also evident in _________ • Individuals with this disorder have reduced gray matter in... • Medial prefrontal cortex • Posterior cingulate gyrus • Superior temporal lobes • Anterior Insula • Thalamus • This network overlaps with the networks for social cue perception and theory of mind.

temporal, weaker

(Disorders of Theory of the Mind) • In individuals with autism, there are abnormalities in brain regions associated with theory of mind. • Superior ________ sulcus has less gray matter and abnormal patterns of activation during social cognition tasks • There is a _______ functional connectivity between the anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex

independent, autism spectrum disorder

(Disorders of Theory of the Mind) • The theory of the mind network is largely _________ of general intelligence • Individuals with _____ _____ ____ have social and communication impairments and repetitive behaviors

Surface dyslexia

(Dyslexia) lexical procedure lost, can't recognize words; orthographic level - how does the word look

Deep dyslexia

(Dyslexia) problem with phonetic procedure, can't sound out unfamiliar words. This is also known as dysphonetic dyslexics

small

(Effects of Sleep Deprivation) • Effect of ____ amount of sleep deprivation • Logical deduction, critical thinking • Physical strength and motor performance

recuperation

(Effects of Sleep Deprivation) • ________ theories predict... • Long periods of wakefulness will result in disturbances • Disturbances will get worse as deprivation continues • After deprivation, much of the missed sleep will be regained

greater

(Effects of Sleep Deprivation) • Effect of ______ amount of sleep deprivation: executive function (prefrontal cortex) • Assimilating changing information • Updating plans and strategies • Innovative, lateral, insightful thinking

cognitive

(Effects of Sleep Deprivation) Sleep deprivation affects many ________ processes, as well as many other body processes.

Empathy

(Emotional Theory of Mind) What involves generating an appropriate response to the emotional state of another?

Emotional contagion

(Emotional Theory of Mind) What is the tendency of emotional states to evoke similar emotions in others?

7, genetics, circadian

(Entrainment of the Circadian Rhythm by Light Cues) • Most people need 6.5-_ hours of sleep per night • How much sleep you need is in part influenced by ______ • The ______ rhythm lasts about 24 hours and influences the sleep-wake cycle

right, left, planum temporale, temporal

(Hemispheric differences) • The (left/right) hemisphere has greater spatial abilities than the (left/right) hemisphere • It is also better at perceiving and understanding emotion • Language is already lateralized for babies at two months of age • The _______ _________ is larger in the left hemisphere and may be associated with language fluency. This is reversed in individuals with dyslexia. It is located in the ______ lobe.

Iatrogenic

(Insomnia) • physician created • Consequence of sleep pill use • Alternative treatment

Melanopsin

(Suprachiasmatic Nucleus) A photopigment present in ganglion cells in the retina whose axons transmit information to the SCN, and the thalamus

daytime, early

(symptoms of insomnia) _________ tiredness, waking in middle of the night, trouble falling back asleep, trouble initially falling asleep, waking too _____

Auditory, visual, Broca's, response, motor

(Larger picture of Language-Specific Regions; Wernicke-Geschwind model) o ________ inputs (spoken words) move from the auditory cortex to Wernicke's area o _______ inputs (written words) move from the occipital cortex through the angular gyrus to Wernicke's area o After an analysis of the input, language information moves to _______ area via the arcuate fasciculus o Broca's area is necessary to create the production of a _________ to the input o Finally, Broca's area outputs the articulation of a response through the ______ cortex, which then passes the signal to the muscles needed to produce the response (e.g., speech sounds, writing, or other languages)

statistical learning, sounds, 1

(Learning Language from Experience) • Language is instinctively learned by babies • Children learn language by ________ _______, or observing the patterns in what they hear • The slower articulation of parentese makes it easier for a baby to analyze language • By nine months of age, babies prefer the ______ of their own language • Babies lose the ability to hear sounds that are not part of their native language by about _ year

REM

(NREM/REM) • Makes up about 20% of sleep • One stage • Heart rate and breathing speed up • Dreams are story-like • Muscles of the body are paralyzed

NREM

(NREM/REM) • Makes up about 80% of sleep • Multistages • Heart rate and breathing slow • No coherent dreams

Sally-Anne task

(Name it) After viewing the picture story of Sally and Anne, subjects are asked where Sally should look for the hidden toy. Those who lack a theory of mind think that Sally will look in the box, where Anne hid it. They do not understand that Sally holds the false belief that the toy is still in the basket.

larger, large, larger, larger

(Neural mechanism of emotional contagion) (a) researchers manipulated the apparent pupil size of a persona in a photograph, and they found that the subject appeared to be sadder when the pupils were (smaller/larger). The numbers underneath each face describe how (small/large) the pupils were compared with the original image. (b) when subjects viewed sad faces with (smaller/larger) pupils, their own pupils also became (smaller/larger). The neural pathways driving this emotional contagion included the superior temporal sulcus and anterior cingulate cortex, which can influence the amygdala. The amygdala in turn can drive activity in a midbrain nucleus - The edinger westphal nucleus - which controls pupil size

Motivational

(Other species) What type of theory of mind is perceiving desires and intentions?

Perceptual

(Other species) What type of theory of mind is perceiving social cues that predict intentions? Animals can infer predatory intentions.

arcuate fasciculus

(Oversimplification of language network) • Major components include Broca's area, Wernicke's area, and the _______ _________, which connects them

cingulate, cerebellum

(Pain networks) Brain regions including the anterior ________ cortex, the anterior insula, and the _________ become more active both when a subject is experiencing pain and when the subject's loved one experiences pain

short, longer, chronic

(Sleep Deprivation) • ______-term sleep deprivation include irritability and difficulty maintaining attention • ______-term sleep deprivation results in microsleeps • ______ sleep deprivation may affect health, stress levels, and heart disease

non-verbally, face, fusiform, amygdala

(Social Perception; What's In a Face?) • Faces are special, they provide us with a way to communicate (verbally/non-verbally) • Babies can distinguish between faces by 8 months of age • There is a network of brain regions that contribute to our ability to process faces, and not only features of individual faces that allow us to tell people apart, but also to respond to facial expressions/ social emotional cues. • There is a significant amount of non-verbal information communicated by the ____ • As we gain more social experience with the person we acquire greater details, semantic information such as name, job, personality features such as confidence - these social properties help us navigate relationships • The ________ area and the ventral visual stream are important for recognizing faces • The _________ and insula are important for quickly recognizing emotional cues on faces

temporal pole

(Social knowledge) What is located at the anterior end of the temporal lobe, and lesions to this area are associated with forgetting information about famous people ?

frontal, prefrontal, insula

(Some of the areas in face-processing network) Areas involved in face processing include the fusiform face area, ______ eye fields, ventrolateral _______ cortex, anterior ______, temporal lobe, supplementary eye field, and amygdala.

Content word

(Speech Production) o A noun, verb, adjective, or verb adverb that conveys meaning. Note: persons with Broca's Aphasia have an easier time producing these words

Agrammatism

(Speech Production) o One of the usual symptoms of Broca's aphasia; a difficulty in comprehending or properly employing grammatical devices, such as verb endings and word order

Function word

(Speech Production) o A preposition article, or other word that conveys little of the meaning of a sentence but is important in specifying its grammatical structure

Anomia

(Speech Production) o Difficulty finding (remembering) the appropriate word to describe an object, action, or attribute; one of the symptoms of aphasia Example: patient may substitute cow for milk

3, microsleeps

(Studies of Sleep Deprivation in Humans) • _-4 hours of deprivation in one night • Increased sleepiness • Disturbances displayed on written tests of mood • Poor performance on tests of vigilance • 2-3 days of continuous deprivation • Experience ___________, naps of 2-3 seconds

lesions, light-dark, optic

(Suprachiasmatic Nucleus) • _____ don't reduce sleep time, but they abolish its circadian periodicity • Exhibits electrical, metabolic, and biochemical activity that can be entrained by the light-dark cycle • Mechanisms of entrainment of SCN cells to _____-___ cycle • Rare retinal ganglion cells with no rods or cones • Retinohypothalamic tracts branch off from ____ nerves before the optic chiasm

Wada test

(Tests for Dominance) • Used to establish hemispheric dominance for language before surgery • In this test, sodium amytal is injected into carotid artery to anesthetize half of the brain. This helps clinicians find out if language functions are on the right or left half of a person's brain.

barbiturate

(Tests for Dominance) What is injected into one hemisphere to interrupt speech?

fMRI-based tests

(Tests for Dominance) What type of tests are less invasive and are increasingly utilized to determine dominance?

1/3, cognitive, active

(The Brain Is Active During Sleep) • We spend about __ of our lives asleep • Without sleep, we suffer significant ________ impairment • A network of brain areas is involved in both sleep and maintaining wakefulness • Even during sleep, neurons are very (active/passive)

regular, 90, 5

(The Brain is Active during Sleep) • Sleep follows a ______ cycle each night • Each cycle lasts __-100 minutes • There are 4-_ cycles per night • Rapid eye movement (REM) alternates with non-REM (NREM) sleep

23.5, larks

(The Circadian Rhythm is Not Fixed) • The circadian rhythm can be shortened to __._ hours or lengthened to 24.65 hours using false light cues • Some people (owls) tend to be more alert at night while other (____) tend to be more alert in the morning

ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPA),

(The Neural Networks of Sleep) • The _______ _________ ____ (___) in the hypothalamus is important for promoting sleep

inhibitory

(The Neural Networks of Sleep) These networks are mutually _______

Arousal network

(The Neural Networks of Sleep) What is this? • Locus coeruleus • Raphe nucleus • Tuberomammillary nucleus

linguistic, analytic-synthetic theory, motor theory

(Thinking more about Cerebral Asymmetry) • It may be more efficient to localize ______ functions in one hemisphere • According to the ______-____ ____, the left hemisphere is better at analysis and the right is better at synthesis • According to the ______ ______, the left hemisphere is better at fine motor control, of which speech is one example

Electromyogram (EMG)

(Three Physiological Measures of Sleep) Detects loss of activity in neck muscles during some sleep stages

Electrooculogram (EOG)

(Three Physiological Measures of Sleep) records eye movements seen during rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

(Three Physiological Measures of Sleep) reveals "brain waves"

obstructive

(Two types of sleep apnea) • obstruction of respiratory passages by muscle spasms of atonia • Central - CNS fails to initiate breaths • Most commonly seen in males, the overweight, and the elderly

Broca's aphasia

(Type of aphasia) o Caused by lesions to the left lateral frontal lobe o Known as expressive aphasia because patients have difficulty expressing language o Writing is equally impaired

Wernicke's aphasia

(Type of aphasia) o Involves damage to the left superior temporal gyrus o Known as receptive aphasia because patients have difficulty comprehending language o Speech flows fluently (as opposed to labored and halted), but is nonsensical and contains many filler words

Receptive, posterior

(Wernicke's area) Wernicke's Area Damage to this region leads to ________ aphasias. Wernicke's aphasia result most commonly from damage to the _________ branches of the middle cerebral artery, whether by blockage of the artery or by hemorrhage and sometimes from tumors or from traumatic brain injury to the region

frontal

(Wernicke-Geschwind model) • Areas in the left ______ lobe and the left temporal-parietal area are activated only during language tasks

Nouns and verbs

(Wernicke-Geschwind model) what is located in a different area of the brain?

familiar, unfamiliar

(What's in a Face?) It is easier to notice and remember differences between members of a (familiar/unfamiliar) group than it is for members of a (familiar/unfamiliar) group. (a) How different do the human faces appear to you? (b) How different do the baboon faces appear? Most people find it easy to identify differences between the human faces, but they fail to notice any significant differences between baboon faces.

Rehearsal

(Why Do Brains Sleep) • Performance on visual discrimination tasks improves following REM sleep • A nap is as effective as full night's sleep for improving performance • Reactivation of memories during sleep may aid long-term encoding • The information replayed during sleep may influence what we later remember • Learning repetitive tasks relies on REM sleep to improve performance • Slow wave sleep is important for rehearsal and learning • The amount of REM increases during the sleep period following learning, and REM deprivation after learning reduces retention • There is increasing evidence from both animal and human studies that non-REM sleep is also important for learning • A study indicated that consolidation is a multi-step process requiring a combination of REM and slow wave sleep

restorative, survival, simulates, learning

(Why Do Brains Sleep?; Four Theories of Sleeping: Survival, Restoration, Learning, Simulation) • Sleep is _________ • Sleep helps the body recover from the activity of the day • High levels of neural activity during sleep makes this complicated • Sleep is a ______ advantage • Sleep protects organisms with poor night vision from predators • We could just evolve night vision • Sleep _______ rare situations • REM sleep enables us to test our activities before using them in the real world • Sleep helps with information processing • Sleep is necessary for _______ and memory • This theory is the best supported

pineal, melatonin

(anatomy and circadian rhythm of sleep) (a) the location of the ______ gland along the midline of the brain (b) blood levels of _______ change as a function of time

circadian rhythm

(one word) physiological changes tied to the ________ ______. The ________ ______ runs on an approximately 2-hour cycle and controls sleep-wake cycles. It also influences other physiological and cognitive processes, including temperature, alertness, blood pressure, and hormone levels.

beliefs, actions

A common network of regions is involved in theory of mind functions. These functions require the brain to represent the _______, thoughts, and intentions of others. The theory of mind network has some overlap with the mirror system, which is active when observing, performing, or imitating _____.

Communication

Ability to convey meaning to another person, regardless of the media

Language

Ability to translate our ideas in signals for another person

Forgetting

Besides rehearsal and four theories of sleeping, why do brains sleep?

ventral striatum

Brain activation for social and monetary rewards. Both monetary and social rewards (such as praise) activate the _______ ________ bilaterally. However, the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex activates only for social rewards, and it is less active for monetary rewards

six

How many regions of the brain have language-related activity? Not as active during nonlinguistic activities • Left superior frontal gyrus • Left middle frontal gyrus • Left angular gyrus • Left inferior frontal gyrus • Left anterior temporal lobe • Left posterior temporal lobe

social anxiety disorder

In _____ ______ ______, there is increased connectivity between the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and the amygdala when the individual is criticized

Agraphia

Inability to write

antisocial, psychopathic

Individuals diagnosed as having ________ personality traits often have reduced gray matter volume in the ventromedial and orbitofrontal regions of the prefrontal cortex. Those who also have _________ traits have additional reductions in gray matter in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and temporal pole.​

informational

No other species have __________ theory of mind, which is what is tested in the Sally-Anne task (appreciation of false beliefs etc)

10, rehearsing

Patterns of cellular activity during REM sleep resemble patterns in the same cells when learning the tasks. Rats were trained to explore a circular maze to search for a food reward. While they were doing that, researchers recorded the pattern of activity of __ place cells within the hippocampus (RUN). Later, the rats were allowed to sleep and the recordings continued (REM). The recordings closely resembled those made while the rats were awake, suggesting the rats were ________ what they learned while awake.

Speech

Sound output meant to convey meaning

60, 90

Taking a nap improves learning. Researchers found that taking a __- to __-minute nap significantly decreased the time needed to find a target among distractors.

pineal

The _____ gland produces melatonin, which promotes sleep

network

The ______ of brain areas important for theory of mind include: • Medial prefrontal cortex • Precuneus - in the parietal lobe (medial parietal) • Posterior cingulate cortex • Temporoparietal junction • Superior temporal sulcus

suprachiasmatic nucleus

The __________ _____ is part of the medial hypothalamus and is located just above the optic chiasm- important for maintaining the circadian. It contains a biological clock responsible for organizing many of the body's circadian rhythms.

general

The brain regions associated with _______ intelligence (green) and the theory of mind (red) do not share a high degree of overlap

external

The circadian rhythm is generated internally, but it is reset by (internal/external) stimuli, known as zeitgebers

striatum

The medial prefrontal cortex and the dorsal ______ are active when subjects consider how others think of them

zeitgeber

The strongest ________ is sunlight, which influences the suprachiasmatic nucleus via the retinohypothalamic tract

temporal gyrus

Wernicke's aphasia occurs due to damage of left superior what?

benzodiazepines

What are agonists to the GABA-A receptor, allowing more chloride ions to enter the cell, resulting in hyperpolarization?

Social intentions

What are communicated by gaze direction, posture, and vocalizations?

lateral premotor cortex

What is active when performing or observing an action? Likewise, the anterior insula is active when experiencing pain or observing a person in pain

Pupil size

What is affected by emotional states? This of an observer mimics this of the person they observing. Small changes in this are associated with change in activity in the amygdala, superior temporal sulcus, insula, and anterior cingulate.

Intentionality

What is represented in the superior temporal sulcus?

superior temporal sulcus (STS)

What is sensitive to gaze direction in others? It is also active for other social cues such as posture, facial movements, and contagious yawning. It is active when recognizing a voice. It is important for detecting and interpreting social cues. Areas in this activate more for voice than for non-voice sounds, and more for witnessing purposeful rather than purposeless actions

Theory of Mind

What is the ability to perceive and understand the mental states of others, and to recognize that they differ from our own?

Emotional

What type of theory of mind? • This is the ability to infer the emotional state of another person

social reputation

When considering your own reputation. When considering your own reputation (how others might think of you), activity increases in the striatum and also in the medial prefrontal cortex - an area that is important for theory.

Flip-flop

___-____circuit for sleep. The brain regions responsible for the sleep and awake states are mutually inhibitory, resulting in either sleep or wakefulness, but not both at the same time. • Medial septal nucleus • Nucleus Basalis (of Meynert) • Laterodorsal tegmental nucleus (LDT) • Pedunculopentine tegmental nucleus (PPT)

First order

_____ _____ theory of mind is the ability to predict the thoughts of another person

Double dissociation

_____ _________ between patients with impairments in theory of mind (cognitive index and emotional recognition (emotional index) - The MRI images show overlapping lesions for (a) patients who were impaired on the emotional recognition task and (b) on the theory of mind task. (c) The graph shows the double dissociation: the group with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions is impaired on the cognitive index, but not the emotional index, while the group with the inferior frontal gyrus lesions displayed the opposite pattern of impairments.​

Second order

_______ _____theory of mind is understanding what a third person would think about the second person's thoughts

cholinergic

_______ neurons involved in both arousal and REM sleep. The neurons projecting from the basal forebrain and the pons use the neurotransmitter acetylcholine

cataplexy

a symptom of narcolepsy in which all the muscles weaken suddenly, resulting in collapse

Reading

skill that requires identification of seeing subtle differences; for example "adobe vs abode" and hearing differences such as between sympathy and symphony

Sleep apnea

stop breating during the night leads to repeated awakenings.

Periodic limb movement disorder

twitching of the body, usually the legs, during sleep; most sufferers are not aware of why they don't feel rested and often treated with benzodiazepines

Restless legs

uneasiness in legs that prevent sleep and often treated with benzodiazepines

Adenosine

• Builds up during wakefulness • Gradually drops during sleep • Caffeine blocks adenosine receptors

conduction aphasia

• Damage to the arcuate fasciculus and the adjacent cortex results in what type of aphasia? These patients have trouble directly transferring speech sounds from Wernicke's area to Broca's area. These patients retain most of their abilities to produce and comprehend speech but have significant difficulties repeating sentences they hear.

Dyslexia

• Difficulty learning to read • Genetic component; aso related to asymmetry • Phonological awareness • Individuals with this have problems with the left hemisphere language areas • There is compensatory activity in the left anterior language areas and the right hemisphere • Compared with typical readers, people with this show little activation of the angular gyrus and Wernicke's area and increased activation of Broca's while reading

apraxia

• Difficulty performing fine movements out of context, such as blowing out a match, hammering a nail, or threading a needle

women, cingulate

• For _____ in romantic relationships • Researchers applied painful stimulation to her hand • This activated primary and secondary somatosensory cortex and the anterior insula and anterior _______ cortex • When she observed the stimulation applied to her partner's hand, this activated the anterior insula and anterior cingulate cortex

Hypersomnia

• Individuals have excessive sleepiness • Individuals are so tired they feel compelled to nap frequently • This is one of the main symptoms of narcolepsy • This can be treated with orexin (hypocretin), which promotes wakefulness

Psychopaths

• Individuals who are this perform normally on tests of theory of mind, and they recognize the emotions of others • They don't show emotional contagion or emotional empathy • They have less gray matter in the ventromedial, orbitofrontal, and frontopolar cortex

stuttering

• Individuals who stutter have increased activity in Broca's area, the supplementary motor area, the insular and cerebellum • They showed decreased activity in the auditory regions of the temporal lobe

Multilingualism

• More than half of the world's population is bilingual • A language learned at a younger age is retained better • Bilingualism seems to be associated with a number of positive outcomes o Children perform better on tests of executive control o Bilingualism is associated with a delay in the onset of age-related dementia

alexia

• Normal speech and comprehension • Unable to read or recognize letters

Melatonin

• Onset of dark cycle • Assist in inducing sleep

Insight

• Sleep isn't solely about consolidating information but also may allow for insight and problem solving • Otto Loewi discovered neurotransmission during a dream involving an experiment • A study on insight trained participants to pair a cue with a specific response. But there were hidden rules; those who had sleep between training and testing performed 50% better than those who remained awake between training and test.

Parasomnias

• The brain displays some signs of sleep and wakefulness simultaneously • These are divided into REM and NREM disorders • Sleep walking, sleep eating, and night terrors are examples of NREM disorders • NREM disorders are much more common in children

Insomnia

• This is the most common sleep problem • Involves not getting enough sleep to feel rested • Hypnotics can be prescribed as sleep aids • Benzodiazepines • These drugs affect the GABA receptor to increase inhibition in the nervous system

Social, striatal, ostracism

• _____ rewards tend to be very powerful • _______ reward circuitry responds to social rewards as well as primary rewards, such as food or drink • __________ and criticism are common negative reinforcement in many societies