PSY 230 Chapter 3 Terms
Amniocentesis
-1 of 2 valuable techniques to use when a genetic disorder is suspected -A needle is inserted through the mother's abdomen to obtain a sample of the amniotic fluid that surrounds the fetus -Provides a sample of fetal cells that can be analyzed -Typically performed at approximately 16 weeks after conception -Results are returned in about 2 weeks -About 200 different genetic disorders can be detected -Procedure is virtually error free, but miscarriages are slightly more likely
Alert Inactivity
-1 out of 4 states that a newborn spends most of their day alternating between -The baby is calm, with eyes open and attentive -The baby looks as if he is deliberately inspecting his environment
Postpartum Depression
-10 to 15% of new mothers -Irritability continues for months after their child is born -Often accompanied by feelings of low self-worth, disturbed sleep, poor appetite, and apathy -Does not strike randomly: biology and experience contribute ~for biology, change in hormonal levels following birth place some women at risk ~for experience, women are more likely to experience PPD when they are single, were depressed before pregnancy, are coping with other life stresses, did not plan to become pregnant, or lack other adults to support their adjustment to motherhood -When PPD persists over years, children's development is affected
Waking Activity
-2 out of 4 states that a newborn spends most of their day alternating between -The baby's eyes are open, but they seem unfocused -The baby moves her arms or legs in bursts of uncoordinated motion -Babies eat 8 to 12 times per day
Age of Viability
-22 to 28 weeks during the period of the fetus -The age range that allows a fetus to have a change of survival because most of their systems function well enough -Babies born this early have trouble breathing because their lungs are not yet mature, and they cannot regulate their body temperature very well because they lack the insulting layer of fat that appears in the eighth month
Crying
-3 out of 4 states that a newborn spends most of their day alternating between -The baby cries vigorously, usually accompanying this with agitated but uncoordinated motion -Spends 2 to 3 hours per day crying or on the verge of crying -There are three distinct types of crystal: basic, mad, and pain
Folic Acid
-A B vitamin -Important for the nervous system to develop properly -When mothers do not consume adequate amounts of folic acid, their babies are at risk for spina bifida
Moro Reflex
-A baby throws its arms out and then inward (as if embracing) in response to a loud noise or when its head falls -Significance is that it may help a baby cling to its mother
Babinski reflex
-A baby's toes fan out when the sole of the foot is stroked from heel to toe -Significance is unknown
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
-A healthy baby dies suddenly, for no apparent reason -About 1 to 3 of every 1,000 US babies die from SIDS; most of them between 2 and 4 months old -Babies are more vulnerable if they were born prematurely or with low birth weight, if their parents smoke; when a baby sleeps on its stomach as opposed to back; more likely during the winter when babies can become overheated from too many blankets or too much sleepwear -SIDS infants are less able to withstand physiological stresses and imbalances that are brought on by cigarette smoke, breathing that is temporarily interrupted, or overheating
Mad Cry
-A more intense version of a basic cry
Social Influence
-One of the two mechanisms that is believed to create teenage motherhood leading to harmful consequences -Refers to events set in motion when a teenage girl gives birth -Events that make it harder to her to provide a positive environment for her child's development -For example: she may drop out of school, limiting her employment opportunities
Umbilical Cord
-One of the two structures that links the embryo to the mother -Houses blood vessels that join the embryo to the placenta
Basic Cry
-Starts softly, then gradually becomes more intense -Usually occurs when a baby is hungry or tired
Implantation
-The blastocyst burrows into the uterine wall and establishes connections with the mother's blood vessels -Takes about a week to complete and triggers hormonal changes that prevent menstruation
Prenatal Development
-The changes that transform a fertilized egg into a newborn human -Takes an average of 38 weeks, which are divided into three stages: the period of the zygotes, the period of the embryo, and the period of the fetus
Period of the Fetus (weeks 9-32)
-The final and longest phase of prenatal development; lasts until birth -The baby-to-be becomes much larger and its bodily systems begin to work -During the last 5 months of pregnancy, the fetus gains an average of an additional 7 or 8 pounds before birth -The nervous, respiratory, and digestive systems begin to work -All regions of the brain grow and the brain has distinct structures and has begun to regulate body functions -Penis or vagina develops -During the fifth and sixth months after conception, eyebrows, eyelashes, and scalp hair emerge -By about 6 months, fetuses differ in their usual heart rates and in how much their heart rate changes in response to physiological stress -By the age of viability, the fetus has a distinctly baby-like look -Fetus begins to behave: this is marked by the fetus beginning to move, their senses beginning to work
Sleeping
-The fourth out of 4 states that a newborn spends most of their day alternating between -The baby's eyes are closed and the baby drifts back and forth from periods of regular breathing and stillness to periods of irregular breathing and gentle arm and leg motion -Sleep 16 to 18 hours per day -Most babies begin to sleep through the night when they are 3 or 4 months old
Endoderm
-The inner germ layer of the embryo -Will form the digestive system and the lungs -In the period of the embryo
Mesoderm
-The middle germ layer of the embryo -Will form muscles, bones, and the circulatory system -In the period of the embryo
Ectoderm
-The outer germ layer of the embryo -Will become hair, the outer layer of skin, and the nervous system -In the period of the embryo
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
-The second of 2 valuable techniques to use when a genetic disorder is suspected -a sample of tissue is obtained from the chorion (a part of the placenta) and analyzed -provides a sample of fetal cells that can be analyzed -Often preferred over amniocentesis because: ~it can be done at about 9 to 12 weeks after conception, nearly 4 to 6 weeks earlier than amniocentesis ~results are returned from the lab in about 7 to 10 days -About 200 different genetic disorders can be detected -Procedure is virtually error free, but miscarriages are slightly more likely
Social Selection
-The second of the two mechanisms that is believed to create teenage motherhood leading to harmful consequences -Some teenage girls are more likely than others to become pregnant, and those same factors that cause girls to become pregnant may put their children at risk -The mother's age at birth is not really critical; these girls would have difficulty parenting effectively even if they delayed motherhood into their 20s or 30s
Villi
-The second of the two structures that links the embryo to the mother -Blood flows through villi -Finger-like projections from the umbilical blood vessels -Lies close to the mother's blood vessels and allows nutrients, oxygen, vitamins, and waste products to be exchanged between mother and embryo
Breech Presentation
-The small percentage of babies who come out feet or bottom first (as opposed to head first like normal babies) during the second stage of labor
Stress
-A person's physical and psychological responses to threatening or challenging situations -Increased stress (chronic stress) can harm prenatal development in several ways: ~mother's body secretes hormones that reduce the flow of oxygen to the fetus while increasing its hear rate and activity level ~stress can weaken a pregnancy woman's immune system, making her more susceptible to illness, which can damage fetal development ~pregnant women under stress are more likely to smoke or drink alcohol and less likely to rest, exercise, and eat properly ~stress may produce epigenetic changes in which genes that help children to regulate their behavior are made less effective
Genetic Engineering
-A potential approach (in fetal medicine) to treating prenatal problems -Replacing defective genes with synthetic normal genes
Germ disc
-A small cluster of cells near the center of the blastocyst -Eventually develops into the baby -The other cells are destined to become structures that support, nourish, and protect the developing organism
Ultrasound
-A standard part of prenatal care in North America -A procedure that uses sound waves to generate a picture of the fetus -Can be used as early as 4 or 5 weeks after conception -Useful for determining the date of conception, due date, position of the fetus in the uterus, physical deformities, and multiple births -Beginning at about 20 weeks, they can reveal the child's sex
Thalidomide
-A teratogen -A drug to help people sleep -Pregnant women who took this gave birth to babies with deformed arms, legs, hands, or fingers
Swaddling
-A useful technique to stop a baby from crying -An infant is wrapped tightly in a blanket -Provides warmth and tactile stimulation that usually works well to soothe a baby
Birth Defects
-Abnormality in structure, function, or metabolism present at birth that results in physical or mental disability, or is fatal -About 6% of children have major structural birth defects that is identified by age 5
Embryo
-After the blastocyst is completely embedded in the uterine wall, it is called an embryo
Teratogens
-An agent that causes abnormal prenatal development -Three primary types of teratogens: diseases, drugs, and environmental hazards -Diseases: some diseases pass from the mother through the placenta to attack the embryo or fetus directly; other diseases attack at birth in that the virus is present in the lining of the birth canal ~the only way to guarantee that diseases do not harm prenatal development is for a woman to not tract the disease before or during her pregnancy ~doesn't refer to common colds, etc. -Drugs: smoking, secondhand smoke, alcohol ~the nicotine in smoke constricts blood vessels and thus reduces the oxygen and nutrients that can reach the fetus through the placenta; thus, miscarriage is more likely; children are more likely to show signs of impaired cognitive skills, reduced academic achievements, and behavioral problems ~secondhand smoke babies tend to be smaller and birth and are born early ~fetal alcohol syndrome ~moderate drinking is not safe; their children are often afflicted with partial fetal alcohol syndrome -Environmental hazards: as a by-product of life in an industrialized world, people are often exposed to toxins in food they eat, fluids they drink, and air they breathe ~PCBs (chemicals) were used in electrical transformers and paints and contaminated fish through water ways, so when women ate a lot of these fish, their children's cognitive skills (memory) and reading achievements (verbal) were impaired ~in developed nations, the most common teratogen is polluted air: associated with greater risk for premature births and lower birth rate ~lead: developmental disabilities ~mercury: retarded growth, developmental disabilities, cerebral palsy ~x-rays: retarded growth, leukemia, developmental disabilities
Rapid Eye-Movement Sleep (REM Sleep)
-Babies move their arms and legs -They may grimace, and their eyes may dart beneath their eyelids -Brain waves register fast activity, the heart beats more rapidly, and breathing is more rapid -Newborns spend equal amounts of time in REM and non-REM sleep -Becomes less frequent as an infant grows
Pain Cry
-Begins with a sudden, long burst of crying, followed by a long pause and gasping
Premature Infants
-Born at 35 weeks after conception or earlier; 3 or more weeks prior to full term -Some, but not all, are small-for-date -If the baby born after 7 months weighs less than the average, it is both premature and small-for-date -Less serious than small-for-date -Infants often lag behind full-term infants in many facets of development, but by age 2 to 3 years, differences vanish and most premature infants develop normally thereafter
Non-REM Sleep
-Breathing, heart rate, and brain activity are steady -Babies lie quietly without the twitching associated with REM sleep -Newborns spend equal amounts of time in REM and non-REM sleep
Hypoxia
-Caused by the disrupted blood flow through the umbilical cord from a prolapsed umbilical cord -Infants do not receive enough oxygen -Common birth complication -Sometimes occurs during labor and delivery because the umbilici cord is pinched or squeezed shut, cutting off the flow of blood -Can lead to developmental disabilities or death -To guard against hypoxia, fetal heart rate is monitored during labor, either by ultrasound or with a tiny electrode that is passed through the vagina and attached to the scalp of the fetus
Fetal Alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
-Children whose mother regularly consumed quantities of alcoholic beverages when they were pregnant -The most extreme form is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): most likely among pregnant women who are heavy drinkers ~children usually grow more slowly, have misshapen faces, small head, thin upper lip, a short nose, and widely spaces eyes ~leading cause of developmental disabilities in the US: children have serious cognitive, attentional, and behavioral problems -Partial Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (p-FAS): when women drink moderately throughout pregnancy ~refers to children whose physical growth is normal but who have some facial abnormalities and impaired cognitive skills
Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
-Comprehensive evaluation of the newborn's well-being -Used with newborns to 2 months old -Provides a detailed portrait of the baby's behavioral repertoire -Includes 28 behavioral items and 18 items that test reflexes -The baby's performance is used to evaluate functioning of four systems: autonomic (ability to control body functions), motor, state (ability to maintain a state like alertness), and social (ability to interact with people) -Based on the view that newborns are remarkably competent individuals who are well prepared to interact with the environment
Amniotic Fluid
-Cushions the embryo and maintains a constant temperature
Differentiation
-During period of the zygote -the process by which cells specialize and begin to take different on roles
Vernix
-During the 5th and 6th months after conception, so during the period of the fetus -The thick, greasy substance that covers the fetus' thickened skin -Protects the fetus during its long bath in amniotic fluid
Fetal Medicine
-Field of medicine concerned with treating prenatal problems before birth -One approach is to treat disorders medically, by administering drugs or hormones to the fetus -Another way is fetal surgery -Another approach is genetic engineering
Placenta
-Formed from the layer of cells closest to the uterus; a mass of tissues -A structure for exchanging nutrients and wastes between the mother and the developing organism -Blood vessels from the umbilical cord run close to the mother's blood vessels but aren't actually connected to them -Supplies oxygen
Cerebral Cortex
-Grows during the period of the fetus -The wrinkled surface of the brain that regulates many important human behaviors
Blastocyst
-Hollow ball of about 100 cells -4 days into the period of the zygote -An implanted blastocyst is less than a millimeter in diameter, yet its cells have already begun to differentiate -Trophoblast and embryoblast
Labor
-Involves intense, prolonged physical effort -Divided into three stages
Spina Bifida
-More likely to occur when mothers do not consume adequate amounts of folic acid -A disorder in which the embryo's neural tube does not close properly during the first month of pregnancy -When the neural tube doesn't close properly, the result is permanent damage to the spinal cord and the nervous system -Many children with this disorder use crutches, wheelchair, or braces
Period of the embryo (weeks 3-8)
-Typically begins the third week after conception -Body structures and internal organs develop -At the beginning of the period, three layers from in the embryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm -3 week embryo is about 2 millimeters long; cell specialization is under way, but the organism looks more like a salamander than a human being -But growth and specialization proceed so rapidly that the 8 week old embryo looks distinctively human with eyes, arms, and legs -The brain and the nervous system are also developing rapidly -The heart has been beating for nearly a month -Most of the organs found in a mature human are in place, in some form (with the sex organs as an exception) -Body structures and internal organs in place
Reflexes
-Unlearned responses that are triggered by a specific form of stimulation -Some reflexes pave way for newborns to get the nutrients they need to grow: rooting and sucking, for example -Other reflexes protect the newborn from danger in the environment: blinking and withdrawn reflexes, for example -Yet other reflexes serve as the foundation for larger, voluntary patterns of motor activity: stepping, for example, is a precursor to walking -Indicate whether the newborn's nervous system is working properly
Apgar Score
-Used to evaluate the newborn baby's condition -Conducted 1 and 5 minutes after birth -Health professionals look for five vital signs, including breathing, heartbeat, muscle tone, presence of reflexes, and skin tone -Five vital signs receives a score of 0, 1, or 2, with 2 being optimal -A score of 7 or more indicates a baby is in good physical condition -A score of 4 to 6 means that the newborn will need special attention and care -A score of 3 or less signals a life-threatening situation that requires emergency medical care
Rooting Reflex
-When a baby's cheek is stroked, it turns its head toward the stroking and opens its mouth -Significance is that it helps a baby find the nipple
Cesarean Section (C-section)
-When a fetus is in distress or when the fetus is in an irregular position or is too large to pass through the birth canal, a physician may decide to remove it from the mother's uterus surgically -An incision is made in the abdomen to remove the baby from the uterus -Riskier than vaginal deliveries for the mother because of increased bleeding and greater danger of infection -Poses little risk for babies -Mother-infant interactions are much the same
Crowning
-When the top of the baby's head appears during the second stage of labor
Anxiety
-When women who report greater anxiety during pregnancy more often give birth early or have babies who weigh less than average -When women who report greater anxiety during pregnancy birth children who are less able to pay attention and more prone to behavioral problems as preschoolers
Amniotic Sac
-Where the embryo lies in the period of the embryo; the embryo's environment -Filled with amniotic fluid
Period of the Zygote (weeks 1-2)
-Zygote: fertilized egg -The first period of prenatal development -Cell replication -Begins with fertilization and ends when the fertilized egg implants itself in the wall of the uterus -During these 2 weeks, the zygote grows rapidly through cell division and travels down the Fallopian tube toward the uterus -Within hours, the zygote divides for the first time; then division occurs every 12 hours -After about 4 days, the zygote consists of about 100 cells, resembles a hollow ball, and is called a blastocyst -By the end of the first week, the zygote reaches the uterus; the next step is implantation -Implantation and differentiation of cells mark the end of the period of the zygote
Small-for-date Infants
-birth weight is lower than the 10th percentile for the number of weeks of pregnancy -Substantially smaller than would be expected based on the length of time since conception -Some, but not all, are premature -If the baby born after 7 months weighs less than the average, it is both premature and small-for-date -Infants most often are born to women who smoke or drink alcohol frequently during pregnancy or who do not eat enough nutritious food -Babies who weigh less than 1,500 grams (3.3 pounds) at birth often do not survive; when they do, their cognitive and motor development are usually delayed ~normal babies weigh 5.5 lbs+; low birth weight 3.3 to 5.5 lbs; very low birth weight 3.3 lbs or less -Isolate infants in sealed beds that deprive them from environmental stimulation
Three Stages of Labor
1. Dilation (12-24 hours): begins when the muscles of the uterus start to contract ~these contractions force amniotic fluid up against the cervix, the opening at the bottom of the uterus that is the entryway to the birth canal ~the wavelike motion of the amniotic fluid with each contraction causes the cervix to enlarge gradually ~at the end of stage one, the transition phase, contractions are intense and sometimes occur without interruption; by the end of this phase, the cervix is about 10 cm in diameter 2. Expulsion (1 hours): occurs when the cervix is fully enlarged ~most women feel a strong urge to push the baby out, using their abdominal muscles ~this pushing, along with uterine contractions, propels the baby down the birth canal ~then the baby crowns ~in about an hour for first births (and less for 2+ births), the baby passes through the birth canal and emerges from the mother's body ~the baby's birth marks the end of the second stage 3. Placenta (10-15 minutes): the placenta is expelled from the uterus
Newborn Procedure
1. Nose and mouth are cleared 2. Umbilical cord is cut 3. Preventative medical treatments are conducted
How teratogens impact prenatal development
1. The impact of a teratogen depends on the genotype of the organism -a substance may be harmful to one species but not to another -heredity makes some individuals more susceptible than others to a teratogen 2. The impact of a teratogens changes over the course of prenatal development -the timing of exposure to a teratogen is critical -during the period of the zygote, exposure to teratogens usually causes the fertilized egg to be aborted spontaneously -during the embryonic period, exposure produces major defects in body structure; most vulnerable stage -during the fetal period, exposure to teratogens either produces minor defects in body structure or causes body systems to function improperly -even within different periods, developing body parts and systems are more vulnerable at certain times 3. Each teratogen affects a specific aspect (or aspects) of prenatal development -teratogens don't harm all body systems; instead, damage is selective 4. The impact of teratogens depends on the dose 5.Damage from teratogens is not always evident at birth, but may appear later in life
