PSY 233 EXAM 3 (Ch. 9, 10, 11, 12)
What are the differences between primary drives and secondary drives?
-A drive may be primary, in that it is directly related to survival- for example, hunger, thirst, pain, sex, and elimination -Or it may be secondary, or learned, such as fear, anxiety, or the need to be successful or attractive (culturally determined)
Walden Two
-A fictitious community of 1,000 people. A few of the community's characteristics follow: no private homes exist, rather, the inhabitants live in apartment complexes; children do not live with their parents; no living quarters have cooking facilities; education is individualized; no prisons, taverns, unemployment, narcotics, mental institutions, wars, or crime. -Is this an ideal society? -Skinner believed that using these ideas may actually solve several of our major problems
What were Skinner's methods and emphases?
-Abnormal behavior is learned just like normal behavior is -Contingency contracting: bring distant to present -Token economies: work like money (generalized reinforcer) -Walden two (cultural engineering)
Displacement (describe how they experimentally demonstrated displaced aggression in the lab with rats)
-Act of substituting one goal for another when the primary goal is not available or feared -Two rats were fighting took out one rat and one started fighting with the doll (substitution)
What implications can you derive from media (ex. movies and video games)
-Aggressive behavior can be learned from observational models, including models observed on TV -People who saw high levels of violence when they were 6 to 10: turned out to be more aggressive in early adulthood and even when the researchers statistically controlled for factors other than media exposure (ex. socioeconomic status)
Cognitive social learning theory
-Although Bandura and Mischel have not collaborated on major books, as did Dollard and Miller, their viewpoints are so similar that we consider them together. --It is the social portions of the terminology acknowledges that social origins of much human thought and action; the cognitive portion recognizes the influential casual contribution of thought processes to human motivation, affect, and action. -Views the interaction between the person and the environment as highly complex and individualistic. -Emphasis on people as active agents, social origins of behavior, cognitive (thought) processes, and learning complex behavior in the absence of reinforcement --interaction between social and cognitive
Reinforcement
-Any stimulus that causes drive reduction -Equated with drive reduction
Drive (ex)
-Any strong stimulus that impels an organism to action and whose elimination or reduction is reinforcing (It is a motivational concept in Miller and Dollard's theory; it is the energizer of personality. The stronger the stimulus, the stronger the drive and the greater the motivation) --May be internal, such as hunger or thirst, or they may be external, such as loud noise or intense heat or cold.
Response
-Are elicited by the drive and cues present and are aimed at reducing or eliminating the drive. -In other words, the hungry (drive) person seeing a restaurant (cue) must go into the restaurant (response) before the hunger drive can be reduced.
Operant Behavior
-Behavior that cannot be linked to any known stimulus and therefore appears to be emitted rather than elicited (behavior that is emitted and that produces consequences) --ex)Complex behaviors like driving a car and playing musical instruments
What is superstitious behavior according to Skinner? Why is this an example of non-contingent reinforcement?
-Behavior that develops under noncontingent reinforcement in which the organism seems to believe that a relationship exists between its actions and reinforcement, when in fact no such relationship exists. (an accidental connection between a reinforcer and a behavior- a reinforcer follows a response but it does not depend on that response) --ex) Make a connection with someone when you are wearing a red shirt; every time you want to make a connection you wear a red shirt -Noncontingent reinforcement: a reinforcement that occurs regardless of what the organism is doing -Superstitious behavior results from noncontingent reinforcement
Respondent Behavior
-Behavior that is elicited by a known stimulus (the stimulus precedes (comes before) the stimulus --ex)All reflexes and conditioned emotional reactions (phobias)
Token economies
-Certain behaviors are deemed desirable, and other behaviors are deemed undesirable. -When participants in the economy act in desirable ways, they are given tokens. -Because the tokens can subsequently be exchanged for items such as candy or cigarettes, they are secondary reinforcers. -More specifically, the tokens are generalized reinforcers because they are paired with several primary reinforcers.
How did he distinguish learning from performance? (explain the results of the second phase of Bandura's study)
-Children who observed the model punished (vicarious punishment) performed fewer acts than children in the model rewarded (vicarious reinforcement) or no consequences (control) groups (first phase) -This difference disappeared when children were offered incentives to reproduce the model's behavior -Consequences to the model affected children's performance of aggressive acts, but not their learning of how to behave aggressively; in other words, behavior-outcome expectancies translate what has been learned into behavior (performance); thus, humans learn what they attend to and learning may take place vicariously- without requiring direct reinforcement. --what is observed is learned
Components of neurosis and symptom formation
-Conflict is at the heart of neurotic behavior, and that this conflict is unconscious and usually learned in childhood; usually taught by parents are learned by children -An intense emotional conflict is the necessary basis for neurotic behavior --Neurotic is miserable, unwise about certain aspects of his or her own experience, and often develops physical symptoms that are manifestations of a repressed conflict. -Often develop symptoms such as phobias, inhibitions, avoidances, compulsions, and physical disorders such as paralysis or nervous tics. -They are manifestations of repressed conflicts (Neurotic symptoms are learned because they reduce anxiety; such symptoms do not solve the basic problem any more than repression does but they make life temporarily more bearable) -Psychotherapy provides a way to unlearn maladaptive behaviors and guidance
Learning dilemma (ex)
-Contention that for learning to occur, both innate responses and previously learned responses must be ineffective in solving a problem. Therefore, learning is said to depend on failure.
Skinner's argument for cultural engineering
-Cultural engineering: use of contingency management in designing a culture
Continuous reinforcement schedule
-Every time the desired response occurs, it get reinforced 100% of the time
Criticisms of Skinner's theory
-Excessive generalization from animals to humans -Radical environmentalism (studying empty universe) -Who controls the controllers?
How does fitness differ from inclusive fitness?
-Fitness: the ability to produce visible offspring -Inclusive fitness: evolutionary fitness can be increased by reproducing, by contributing to the fitness of those with whom we share genes, or both
Differences between fixed interval schedules, variable interval schedules, fixed ratio schedules, and variable ratio schedules
-Fixed Interval Schedule: the organism is reinforced for a response that is made following a specific period of time --ex) Individuals working for a fixed weekly or monthly salary; students preparing for a term paper will wait until last minute -Fixed Ratio Schedule: the organism mist make x number of responses before it is reinforced --ex) Working on commission -Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule: the organism is reinforced at the end of variable time intervals (Rather than reinforcing the organism after a fixed interval of, say, 10 secs, it is reinforced, on average, every 10 secs) --ex) Pop quizzes, hunting, fishing -Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedules: the organism is reinforced on the basis of an average number of responses --ex) Slot machines, getting pregnant) -All interval schedules are based on time intervals -All ratio schedules are based on number of responses
What was Mischel's conclusion regarding the consistency of human behavior?
-He found that people are better predictors of their own behavior than the best available personality tests. -The weakness of the coefficient was not due to problems in measuring such characteristics as traits or behaviors but, rather, to the fact that human behavior is simply not very consistent.
Resultant hierarchy of responses
-Hierarchy of responses elicited by a cue after learning has taken place
Innate hierarchy of responses
-Hierarchy of responses elicited by a cue before new learning occurs (prior to learning) --ex)blinking & crying (genetically determined)
Self-regulatory systems and plans
-How do we attain out goals? -Cognitive social learning person variable that determines the circumstances under which an individual experiences self-reinforcement and self-punishment. This variable also determines the setting of future goals and the formulation of plans (strategies) used in attaining those goals.
Mischel's research findings concerning delay of gratification
-Increased with age, intelligence, and with shorter intervals of delay. -Experiment: children were given the choice between a small reward now or a larger reward given after a delay. The findings were the children waited the longest when no rewards were visible. It turned out that when rewards were visible it caused the children to think about them, and thinking about them reduced their ability to delay gratification. It was also found that children who could delay the longest employed a number of self-distraction strategies in order to make the aversive delay period more pleasant.
Describe Skinner's version of behavior therapy
-Involves clearly specifying the desirable behaviors to be reinforced, and arranging reinforcement contingencies so they are responsive to the desirable behaviors but not to the undesirable behaviors. -Has been unsuccessful in treating a wide range of behavior disorders such as alcoholism, drug addiction, mental retardation, autism, juvenile delinquency, phobias, speech disorders, obesity, sexual desires, and various neuroses and psychoses.
Cue (ex)
-Is a stimulus that indicates the appropriate direction an activity should take. -Guide behaviors --ex)When the clock says 12:15; time to leave
How does psychotherapy work according to Dollard and Miller?
-It provides a situation in which neurosis can be unlearned by: teaching behavioral coping (getting closer to the goal), teaching discrimination of cues, and teaching relaxation (drive reduction). -It also provides guidance as to how best to adjust
How did Bandura study learning by observation?
-Knowing vs. doing -Through the Bobo Doll Experiment
What does research show is the most effective method to address dysfunctional problems such as phobias? (p. 348)
-Live modeling with participation was the most effective (condition in which a live model interacted in l threatening to extremely threatening situations) -followed by symbolic modeling (modeling involving something other than a live human, like a film, tv, instructions, reading material or a demonstration) and then desensitization (imagine interactions from low-anxiety-producing interactions to those producing high anxiety)
What are men's preferences for long-term mating and for short-term?
-Long-term: men look for a mate with reproductive value (ex. youth and health), who shows signs of fidelity and commitment -Short-term: men play fast, loose, and are undiscriminating (they lower their standards)
Major goal of psychotherapy
-MAJOR GOAL: to change the client's perceived self-efficacy; the assumption is that if a person's perceived self-efficacy becomes more realistic, behavior will become more adaptive. -participant modeling (live model with participation) -symbolic modeling -systemic desensitization (muscle-relaxation techniques and imagining a series of interrelated anxiety-provoking scenes until they no longer cause anxiety)
What is our biggest problem? How does Skinner suggest we deal with our biggest problem?
-Man's biggest problem is that his behavior is more easily influenced by small, but immediate and definite reinforcers than it is by large, but distant and uncertain reinforcers -This explains why many people remain smokers when they "know" they should not and overeaters when they "know" that in the long run it will be harmful. The prospect of a long, healthy life is no contest for a small amount of nicotine or the immediate taste of food in one's mouth
Criticism of Bandura's and Mischel's theory
-Mental events cannot cause behavior -Important aspects of personality neglected -lack of unification (many mini-theories without integration)
Frustration-aggression hypothesis (current conclusion)
-Originally the contention that frustration always leads to aggression and aggression results only from frustration. Later modified to state that aggression is only one of several possible reactions to frustration.
Partial reinforcement effect
-Partial reinforcement: a response is sometimes followed by a reinforcer and sometimes not followed by a reinforcer -Fact that a partially or intermittently reinforced response will take longer to extinguish than a response on a continuous or 100 percent schedule of reinforcement (a response that is sometimes followed by a reinforcer and sometimes not followed by a reinforcer)
Difference between positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment
-Positive reinforcement: presents the organism with something it "wants" (a positive reinforcer is presented (added) following a desired behavior and the likelihood of behavior increases) -Negative reinforcement: removes something the organism does not want (a negative reinforcer is removed (subtracted) following a desired behavior and the likelihood of behavior increases (escape) --ex)Drying wet hands -Positive punishment: a negative reinforcer is presented (added) following an undesired behavior and the likelihood of behavior decreases -Negative punishment: a positive reinforcer is removed (subtracted) following an undesired behavior and the likelihood of behavior decreases --ex) Time out
Difference between primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers
-Primary: related to survival and include food, water, oxygen, elimination, and sexual activity. Are not biologically neutral because if an organism goes long without any of them, it will not survive (unconditioned). -Secondary: stimuli that are originally biologically neutral and thus not reinforcing but acquire their reinforcing properties through their association with a primary reinforcer (conditioned). --ex)academic grades, medals, awards, gifts, privileges
What is Skinner's approach?
-Radical Behaviorist -Refused to consider inner causes of behavior -Skinner advocated a psychology that concentrates only on the relationship between environmental events and overt behavior. For this reason, Skinner's approach has been characterized as the "empty organism" approach. Skinner believed that no information is lost by making a functional analysis between measurable environmental events and measurable behavior and leaving out the intervening activities.
Distinguish reasoning from planning
-Reasoning: attempted solution of an immediate problem through the use of cue-producing responses (thinking) rather than through overt trial and error -Planning: use of cue-producing responses (thinking) in attempting to solve some future problems.
Processes influencing observational learning (cite and explain- motivational processes operate)
-Reinforcement is thought to influence what is attended to, and thus learned and, more importantly, it is thought to determine which aspect of what has been learned is translated into behavior. -Observational learning may create potentially effective behavior-outcome expectations, but unless the person believes that behavior will yield something valued, no behavior will occur.
Contributions of Skinner's theory
-Scientifically rigorous -Applied value
What is perceived self-efficacy?
-Self-efficacy: Refers to what a person is actually capable of doing. -Perceived self-efficacy: which a person believes he or she is capable of doing; influenced by several factors- personal achievement and failures, seeing models perceived as similar to oneself succeed or fail at various tasks, and verbal persuasion.
Morality acts as a regulator of performance, but there are 8 self-exonerating mechanisms that excuse violations of moral standards. (cite and explain) (ex)
-Self-exoneration mechanisms: cognitive mechanisms a person can employ to escape the self-contempt that ordinarily results when a person acts contrary to an internalized moral principle 1-Moral Justification: one's otherwise reprehensible behavior becomes a means to a higher purpose and therefore is justifiable, "I committed the crime so I could provide food for my family" 2-Euphemistic labeling: by calling an otherwise reprehensible act something other than what it really is, one can engage in an act without self-contempt --ex. nonaggressive individuals are far more likely to aggress toward another person when doing so is called a game 3-Advantegous comparison: by comparing one's self-deplored acts with even more heinous acts, it makes one's own reprehensible acts look trifling by comparison, "sure I did that, but look at what he did" 4-Displacement of Responsibility: some people can readily depart from their moral principle if they believe a recognized authority sanctions their behavior and takes responsibility for it; "I did it because I was ordered to do so" 5-Diffusion of Responsibility: a decision to act in an otherwise reprehensible manner that is made by a group is easier to live with than an individual decision; "I couldn't be the only one saying no" 6-Disregard or distortion of consequences: here people ignore of distort the harm caused by their conduct and therefore there is no need to experience self-concept; the tobacco and hun industries have long used this technique, denying their products harm others 7-Dehumanization: if some individuals are looked upon as subhuman, they can be treated inhumanly without experiencing self-concept; "Why not take their land, they are nothing but savages without souls" 8-Attribution of blame: one can always choose something that a victim said or did and claim that it caused one to act in a reprehensible way; rapist blames victim "she was asking for it"
Components of Bandura's self system
-Social-cognitive theory maintains the most human behavior is self-regulated. --Performance standards: they use to evaluate their own behavior; almost constantly, the person compares what he or she does in a situation with some performance standard -If perform ace meets or exceeds the standard, the person experiences intrinsic reinforcement. -If a performance falls short of a standard, the person experiences intrinsic punishment. -Goals and plans: through the development of cognitive standards, people are able to anticipate the future and reinforce or punish themselves for meeting chosen goals.
Differences between sociobiology and evolutionary psychology
-Sociobiology: a predecessor of evolutionary psychology, the systematic study of biological basis of social behavior, including that of humans -Evolutionary psychology: uses Darwinian and neo-Darwinian evolutionary principles to generate hypotheses and explanations of psychological phenomena
Distinguish suppression from repression
-Suppression: actively putting an anxiety-provoking thought out of one's mind. Suppression is reinforced by the escape from anxiety. -Repression: Learned response of "not thinking" an anxiety-provoking thought. The reinforcement for this response comes from the avoidance of anxiety.
Contributions of Dollard and Miller's theory
-Synthesis of Hull's and Freud's theory -Scientific Rigor -Clear description of therapeutic process
What is Mischel mean when he said that "self-control" is necessary to delay gratification?
-The fact that the ability to delay gratification can be taught to young children, and that ability is clearly advantageous later in life, suggests that such teaching be incorporated into early education and in childrearing practices. -In any case, it is vital that we understand the kind of self-control necessary to delay gratification because, according to Mischel, without it humans are as impulsive as nonhumans animals, and the goal-oriented behavior necessary for civilized living is impossible.
What are the shortcomings of punishment?
-The outcomes are unpredictable (ex. counterattack and aggression) -It may produce undesirable emotional responses (ex. apathy, withdrawal, frustration, fearfulness) -It indicates only what one should not do and doesn't give information of what one should do (no alternative) -It justifies inflicting pain on others
How does Skinner view personality?
-The phenomena that we might call "personality" include only overt behaviors, including language, that are emitted reliably in the presence of quantifiable stimuli. That is, personality is reduced to what people do under specific conditions. --Certain behaviors are acquired and expressed and by which other behaviors are eliminated.
Criticisms of Dollard and Miller's theory
-Unsuccessful synthesis of Hull's and Freud's theory -Overgeneralization from animals to humans -Overly simplistic approach -Research suggests that reinforcement often does not produce drive reduction
What is involved in the shaping of behaviors?
-We see that the shaping process has two components, differential reinforcement, which means that some responses are reinforced and some are not, and successive approximations, which means the responses that are reinforced are those that are increasingly close to the response ultimately desired. -Rat just touch level, receives treat= successive approximations -Rat presses level= shaped
Competencies
-What are we capable of doing? -Cognitive social person variable that describes what a person knows and what he or she is capable of doing.
Subjective values
-What is worth having or doing? -Cognitive social person variable that determines under what circumstance a person will translate what has been learned into behavior. Subjective values determine what is worth having or aspiring for, and what is not.
Expectancies
-What we think will happen -Cognitive social person variable that determines how individuals anticipate events in their life --behavior-outcome expectancies: IfI act in this way, it will have the following result --stimulus-outcome expectancy: we learn that if event 1 occurs, event 2 is likely to follow
Bandura's reciprocal determinism
-Which means person variables, situation variables, and behavior continuously interact with one another. -Behavioral, personal, and environmental factors constitute a system that manually influence one another over time.
Women's preferences for long-term mating and for short-term mating
-Women are choosy or discriminating because they have a much greater stake in any one reproductive act than men do. -Long-term: men with good resources and the ability to obtain them (wealthy, prestigious women show the greatest preference for men with resources and prestigious) -Short-term: women prefer quality over quantity by looking for men with "superior genes" who are more physically attractive than her current mate (ex. physical symmetrical)
Principles of operant (type R) conditioning
-aka: Operant behavior -Emphasizes the importance of responses -Skinner's work is primarily in the area of operant conditioning
Principles of classical (type S) conditioning
-aka: Pavlovian or classical conditioning or Respondent behavior -Stresses the importance of the stimulus
Encoding strategies
-cognitive social persona variable that determines which aspects of the environment are selected for attention and how those aspects are interpreted by the individual --how we see (categorize) experience
Contributions of Bandura's and Mischel's theory
-emphasis on human empirical research -applied value (importance of language and symbols) -social changes via media multitasking: literacy using mexican soap opera; HIV/AIDS prevention (radio soap operas in E. Africa)
Two major types of unconscious experience
1- Experiences that were never verbally labeled: learning that occurs before language is developed is not labeled or recorded in a way that allows it to be recalled, and therefore, such learning becomes part of the unconscious. 2- Experiences that have been repressed: some thoughts are uncomfortable because they cause anxiety --ex) thinking about an automobile accident in which a loved one was killed or injuried
What are the four critical training situations of childhood?
1- Feeding: satisfaction of basic need versus fear, loneliness, helplessness 2- Cleanliness: enjoyment of things pertaining to self versus fear, anger, guilt 3- Sexual Behavior: bodily pleasure versus fear, guild 4- Anger and Aggression: self-assertion versus disapproval, punishment, rejection
4 sources of information about self-efficacy(cite and explain)
1-Performance: prior success strengthens one's perceived self-efficacy- the reverse is also true (ex. If you have a 4.0, you will do great the next semester as well) 2-Vicarioius Experiences: if they can do it, so can I (ex. If everyone got an A, so can I) 3-Verbal Persuasion: encouragement from others (ex. teammates, coaches, fans) 4-Emotional Arousal: how fearful or calm we are in a given situation (ex. public speaking)
Four types of conflict (ex)
1. Approach-Approach: exists when two equally attractive people ask someone for a date on the same night or when one is both hungry and sleepy. Typically, this type of conflict is easily solved by attaining first one goal and then the other. -Easiest conflict; win-win situation; 2 desirable goals --ex)One could first eat and then go to bed 2.Avoidance-Avoidance: vicillation or indecision and escape (physically or mentally); here the person is both attracted to and repelled by the same goal. -Between 2 undesirable goals; damned if you do, damned if you don't" --ex)A job may be attractive because of the money it generates but be unattractive because it is boring, or because it keeps the person from engaging in more enjoyable activities. 3. Approach-Avoidance: the tendency to approach a goal is stronger the nearer the subject is to it (gradient of approach); the tendency to avoid a feared stimulus is stronger the nearer the subject is to it (gradient of avoidance); the strength of avoidance increases more rapidly with nearness than does that of approach (the gradient of avoidance is steeper than that of approach); the strength of tendencies to approach or avoid varies with the strength of the drives upon which they are based (an increase in drive raises the height of the entire gradient) -Mixed feelings; negative and positive qualities; attracted to some but has a jerky personality 4.Double Approach-Avoidance: the person has ambivalent feelings about two goal objects; comes from the female child's position relative to her parents in Freudian theory. She is attracted to her mother because the mother satisfies her biological needs but is repelled by the mother because she is thought responsible for denying the girl a penis. She is attracted to her father because he possesses the valued organ and yet is envious of him because he does. -Mixed feeling about both goals (positive and negative qualities for both goals) --ex)When neurotics begin to engage in activities or thoughts that will lead to the reduction of a strong drive such as sex, they are overwhelmed with anxiety. The closer they come to approaching a goal that will satisfy their need for sex, the stronger their anxiety will become, until eventually they retreat from the goal.
What motivates human behavior according to Bandura?
A person learns from observing the consequences of either his or her own behavior (direct reinforcement) or from observing the consequences of other people's behavior (vicarious reinforcement).
Describe Miller's experiment of how fear became an acquired drive
A rat was put into a cage that shocked it and it had to learn to jump over the wall. Later the rat was put into the same cage, without any shock and it had fear of the shock coming
Consistency paradox
According to Mischel, the persistent belief that human behavior is more consistent than is indicated by experimental evidence
Contingency contracting
Agreement between two people that when one acts in an appropriate way, the other one gives him or her something of value --ex) One plan is to make an agreement with another person in which you turn over $100 to that person with the stipulation that every week you go without smoking you will get back $10. If you have even one cigarette during the week, you will lose $10.
Struggle for existence
All species of living organisms are capable of producing more offspring than environmental resources can support.
Habit
Association between a stimulus and a response
Why are primary drives the building blocks of personality?
Because all acquired drives ultimately depend on them. -This concept is similar to Freud's position that many of the everyday behaviors we observe in people are indirect manifestations of basic instincts such as sex or aggression.
What are reinforcement schedules?
Either continuous or partial reinforcement schedules
What are the 5 cognitive social person variables
Encoding strategies, expectancies, subjective values, self-regulatory systems and plans, and competencies
Internal
Entailing the thinking, planning, and reasoning that will ultimately reduce a drive --cue-producing responses
Men are mostly jealous about
Imagining your partner enjoying passionate sexual intercourse with that other person
Coolidge effect
In most male mammals, a reduction or elimination of the post-ejaculatory refractory period when a novel female is introduced
Overt
It can be directly instrumental in reducing a drive
Mischel's personality coefficient
Mischel's quantification of the amount of consistency found in human behavior. He found that the correlation of behavior across time, across similar situations, and between personality questionnaires and behavior was about 0.30. This weak correlation suggested that human behavior was not nearly as consistent as it has been widely assumed to be.
Natural Selection
Only organisms that possess adaptive traits in a given environment survive and reproduce
Vicarious punishment
Punishment that comes from observing the negative consequences of another person's behavior
Survival of the fittest
Refers to the fact that only those members of a species who are best adapted to their environment survive and reproduce
Spontaneous Recovery
Refers to the reappearance of the conditioned response after a pause, which suggests that extinction is actually inhibition rather than elimination of a response -ex)Quit smoking; goes to bar and that inhibits you to smoke again
Vicarious reinforcement
Reinforcement that comes from observing the positive consequences of another person's behavior
What are the two types of behavior investigated by behaviorists?
Respondent and Operant
Generalized Reinforcers
Secondary reinforcers that are paired with more than one primary reinforcer (money)
Functional analysis
Skinner's approach to research that attempted to relate measurable environmental events to measurable behavior and bypass cognitive and physiological processes altogether.
Generalization
The tendency to extend a particular behavior pattern from the situation (cues) in which it was originally learned to other similar situations (learn a certain behavior) -ex) driving a car vs. driving a truck
Discrimination
The tendency to respond differently depending upon the situation (cues); that is, response that is made under one set of circumstances but not under others (learn to do something under a certain stimulus) -ex) When light is red, you stop
Radical Behaviorism
The version of behaviorism proposed by J.B. Watson by which only directly observable events, such as stimuli and responses, should constitute the subject matter of psychology. Reference to all internal events can be, and should be, avoided. Skinner accepted this version of behaviorism.
Adaptation
Traits necessary for existance- for survival- vary among members of a species, and only those members possessing traits allowing successful adjustment to the environment survive and reproduce
Sexual Selection
Typically females, but sometimes males, within a species will select mates with certain physical and behavioral characteristics, thereby perpetuating those characteristics into future generations
Explain how psychological problems result from dysfunctional expectancies
Usually based on real experiences, but they can be overgeneralized and when they are prevent the person from having the types of experiences that would disconfirm them -Difficult remedy
Extinction
Weakening of an operant response by removing the reinforcer that had been following the response during acquisition. When a response returns to its operant level, it has been extinguished (the withdrawal of reinforcement) -ex) rat pushing level stops when rewards stop
