PSY ch 2
3 different types of neurons and their functions
(1) Interneuron: a neuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives information from the sensory neurons and sends commands to the muscles through the motor neurons, they also make up the bulk of the neurons in the brain. Neuroplasticity: the ability to constantly change both the structure and function of cells in response to experience or trauma (2) Sensory neuron: a neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system. Also called an afferent neuron (3) Motor neuron: a neuron that carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body. Also called an efferent neuron
Limbic System
A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.
Thalamus
A forebrain structure that processes sensory information for all senses, except smell, and relays it to the cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus
A tiny part of the brain, located below the thalamus, that maintains homeostasis and produces and regulates vital behavior Its functions: Maintain homeostasis Produces and regulates behavior that is critical to the basic survival of the species. Keeps things in balance (temperature, heart rate, hormones)
nervous system
Brain and spinal cord An extensive network of specialized cells that carry information to and from all parts of the body
What components make up the Central Nervous System? What is the function for each component of the Central Nervous System?
Brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord sends messages up and down and throughout the body from the brain
Name the 4 major sub-components of the Central Nervous System
Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System
Cerabellum
Cerebellum: part of the lower brain located behind the pons Controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement
Cerebral hemispheres
Cerebral hemispheres: the two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain Corpus callosum: the thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres
Neurotransmitter and its function
Chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiver neuron
Cingular cortex
Cingulate cortex: the limbic structure actually found in the cortex Plays important roles in cognitive and emotional processing
Parietal lobes
Contains the centers for touch, pressure, taste, pain receptors, temperature sensations and body balance and position Responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, body position, and possibly taste Somatosensory cortex is located in this lobe and is essential to the processing of the body's senses. Damage to the parietal lobe can result in problems with verbal memory, impaired ability to control eye gaze & movement and problems with language.
Hindbrain
Contains: Medulla Pons Reticular formation (R F) Cerebellum
Serotonin (function, too much and too little)
Controls mood, appetite and emotions such as anger. Also involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms (sleep/wake cycle), body temperature, blood pressure, digestion, hormone release. Low levels result in psychological disorders such as anxiety or depression. low levels come from hormone imbalance or substance abuse
Neuroscience
Deals with the structure and function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue Relationship to behavior and learning
Neuron structure (3 parts) and their functions
Dendrites: branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons Soma: the cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining the life of the cell Axon: long, tube-like structure that carries the neural message to other cells
Identify three psychological conditions or disorders that are related to an imbalance of neurotransmitter chemicals
Depression, Parkinsons, ADD/ADHD, Bipolar disorder, Schizophrenia
Hemispheric lateralization
Dominance of one half or hemisphere of the brain over the other half in brain and body function
What neurotransmitter is most associated with risky (risk taking) behavior?
Dopamine
What are the "Big 4" neurotransmitter that are most important to understanding human behavior because they have a significant impact on behavior?
Dopamine Serotonin Endorphin Norepinephrine
What are the major components of the endocrine system and what is the function of each component ?
Endocrine glands: secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream Pituitary gland: major component of the endocrine system; secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system (master gland) Thyroid gland- regulates metabolism Pancreas- regulates the levels of blood sugar
two different types of neuron behavior that is involved in the communication process between neurons
Excitatory neurotransmitter: neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to fire Inhibitory neurotransmitter: neurotransmitter that causes the receiving cell to stop firing
Frontal lobes
Frontal - Executive function &emotional control center, personality, motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, initiation, judgment, impulse control and social and sexual behavior. Most common area for TBI & vascular damage from stroke Frontotemporal dementia Spontaneity lacking in expression, memory issues, speech (Broca's Aphasia) Center for judgment, decision making & behavior
What happens when the neurotransmitter chemicals in the brain become out of balance?
Imbalances in neurotransmitter chemicals are contributing factors to psychological & nervous system disorders
Occiptal lobes
Interprets visual stimuli and information Damage can lead to inability to read, recognize color, objects and words Primary visual cortex: processes visual information from the eyes Visual association cortex: identifies and makes sense of visual information
Temporal lobes
Location of the primary auditory cortex, and functions with interpreting sounds and the language we hear. Contains the neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech Primary auditory cortex: processes auditory information from the ears Auditory association cortex: identifies and makes sense of auditory information The hippocampus is also located in the temporal lobe, which is why this portion of the brain is also heavily associated with the formation of memories - particularly STM. Often first part of brain affected by Alzheimers, dementia , disease, infection & injury Damage to the temporal lobe can lead to problems with memory, speech perception, and language skills.
Medulla
Medulla- (Lowermost part of the brain) critical body functions. Responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate. Part of autnonomic Nervous system functions
What function does the peripheral nervous system serve?
Peripheral nervous system (P N S): all nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord, but that run through the body itself Divided into the: somatic nervous system autonomic nervous system
What two components does the Peripheral Nervous contain? What are the subdivisions of the Autonomic Nervous System? What function does each part play?
Peripheral nervous system divides into the somatic and autonomic nervous system. Sympathetic division (fight or flight system): part of the A N S that is responsible for reacting to stressful events and bodily arousal Parasympathetic division: part of the A N S that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible for the day to day functioning of the organs and glands
Pons
Pons- (connects top of brain to bottom) Plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left-right body coordination, and arousal
Norepinephrine (function, too much, too little)
Produces states of sensory and cognitive arousal & attention Deficiency imbalance linked to depression, some types of ADD Excess imbalance linked to anxiety disorders, panic attacks, obsessive compulsive disorder, phobias, nervousness, ticks, explosive anger episodes, severe stress
Reticular Formation
Reticular formation (R F): area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond Responsible for selective attention
What function does the somatic nervous system serve?
Soma = "body" Somatic nervous system: (associated with muscle movement) & motor neurons Peripheral nervous system carry information from sensory organs to voluntary muscles of body
Neuron
The basic cell that makes up the nervous system and receives and sends messages within that system
Forebrain
The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum.
Define reuptake. Why is this function important to maintaining appropriate brain health? What happens when reuptake does not occur?
The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal button of neuron. Must be reabsorbed for efficient functioning of brain. Inefficient reuptake of neurotransmitter chemicals is involved in some psychological conditions such as ADD and ADHD
Synapse of a neuron and its function
The space between two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages
Amygdala
brain structure located near the hippocampus Responsible for fear responses and the memory of fear & other emotions such as empathy, anger, sadness, happiness.
Define endocrine system
chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream
How is the use of stimulant and depressive drugs related to clinical depression?
creates an imbalance of neurotransmitters
Hippocampus
curved structure located within each temporal lobe Responsible for the formation of long-term memories and the storage of memory for location of objects
What conditions relate to the function of the endocrine system in adults during middle age?
depression, anxiety, sleep disorders, migraines, sexual dysfunction, memory deficit, and contribute to interpersonal relationship difficulties as we age. Hormone supplements may also contribute to psychological disorders & behavior issues (steroids, estrogen, thyroid, progesterone)
Endorphin (function, too much, too little)
function in suppression of pain, stimulation of pleasurable feelings, & euphoria, sometimes cause the "placebo effect" Deficiency imbalance linked to depression, physical aches and pains, irritability, anxiety Excessive imbalance linked to extreme euphoria, excessive focus on pleasure, risk taking behavior, lack of judgment & impulse control (manic phase of bipolar disorder)
Dopamine (function, too much, too little)
linked with the brain's system of controlling motivation and reward, attention and muscle movement. The release of dopamine into the brain elicits a sense of reward and pleasure & aids in the control of muscle movements. TOO LITTLE: Parkinson's, ADHD and a predisposition to addiction are linked to a deficiency of dopamine in the brain. (low level imbalance). Deficiencies of dopamine can produce uncoordinated muscle movements and a lack of muscle control. TOO MUCH: Excess levels of dopamine demonstrate a relationship to Schizophrenia & psychosis . Elevated dopamine levels are associated with addictions, OCD, auditory & tactile hallucinations, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, delusional thinking, cognitive impairments, muscle tremors and tics (uncontrollable movements such as shaking).
What effect on neurotransmitter uptake do stimulant drugs have? What kinds of behavioral effects are associated with use of stimulant drugs?
prevention or delayed reuptake of neurotransmitters. Neurons receive continual stimulation leading to psychological feelings of euphoria (positive), anxiety, paranoia (negative) and physiological effects as tremors, jitters, lack of appetite.
Neuroplasticity
the ability to constantly change both the structure and function of cells in response to experience or trauma
