PSY Final

cognitive map

A learned mental image of a spatial environment. The way in which humans and other animals explore their environment and integrate what they perceive into an internal representation of that environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

A measurement of intelligence derived by dividing an individual's mental age by their chronological age, then multiplying by 100. Mental Age/Chronological age X 100. Thus, a child whose mental and chronological ages are the same, has an IQ of 100.

humanistic therapy

A method of therapy based upon personal growth through self-awareness and self-acceptance.

cognitive therapy

A method of therapy in which the therapist guides the client to identify negative and distorted thoughts and replacing with more rational and positive thoughts.

group / family therapy

A method of therapy which views a relationship as a system. The therapist guides the clients to improve communication among people in their life

bipolar disorder

A mood disorder characterized by alternating episodes of depression and the overexcited, highly energized state of mania.

major depressive disorder

A mood disorder characterized by deep and persistent depression.

action potential

A neural impulse generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane. A brief electrical charge that flows along the surface of the axon to the terminal buttons, initiating the release of neurotransmitters. See also resting potential, graded potential.

psychological disorder

A pattern of behavior that is deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional and fits a known pattern identified and labeled by psychologists and psychiatrists. Example: schizophrenia.

proximity

A perceptual grouping principle in which, all else being equal, we tend to organize perceptions by grouping elements that are the nearest to each other.

incentive

A positive or negative external stimulus that motivates behavior even when no internal drive state exists. When there is both a need and an incentive, we feel strongly driven.

hypothesis

A prediction, often implied by a theory, which can be empirically tested.

operant conditioning

A process of learning in which behavior changes as a function of what follows it - for example, behavior that is followed by reinforcement is likely to be repeated. An organism learns to associate its own behavior with consequences.

psychotherapy

A professional relationship consisting of interactions between a trained therapist using psychological techniques and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.

dissociative identity disorder

A rare psychological disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities.

learning

A relatively enduring change in potential behavior that results from experience

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experiment controls other relevant factors.

cross-sectional study

A research method in which representative samples of people of different ages are compared with one another. Compare to longitudinal study

longitudinal study

A research method in which the same people are restudied and retested at different times over many years. Compare to cross-sectional study.

case study

A research technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

introspection

A research technique that involves careful observation of one's own reactions to a stimulus. Historically associated with Structuralism.

emotion

A response of the whole organism, both physiological and behavioral, consisting of (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) consciously experienced thoughts and feelings.

delusion

A rigidly held belief, often of a persecution or grandeur nature, that is a misrepresentation of reality

conditioned reinforcer

A stimulus that takes on reinforcing properties after being associated with a primary reinforcer

classical conditioning

A type of learning by temporal association in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with another stimulus, called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), that naturally elicits a certain response, called the unconditioned response (UCR). After repeated pairings the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and evokes the same or similar response, now called the conditioned response (CR)

third variable problem

A weakness in correlational studies caused by the fact that a correlation between any two variables may be caused by an unknown third variable.

teratogens

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

population

All the cases in a group from which samples may be drawn for study. (Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population).

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

An anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, flashbacks, and/or insomnia following a traumatic experience.

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD

An anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)

generalized anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.

phobia

An anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear of and avoidance of a specific object or situation.

flashbulb memory

An apparent vivid recall for an event associated with extreme emotion or uniqueness, such as the assassination of a president or the destruction of the World Trade Center.

shape constancy

An element of perceptual constancy. We perceive objects as maintaining the same shape even though their retinal images change when we view them from different angles

double-blind procedure

An experiment procedure in which both the research subjects and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about which subjects have received the treatment or a placebo.

subjective well-being

An explanation for why some people are happier than others, focusing on self-perceived satisfaction with life. Used along with objective measures such as physical and economic indicators.

hypothetical construct

An explanatory variable which is not directly observable, rather it is inferred from measurable behaviors. For example, the concepts of intelligence and motivation are used to explain phenomena in psychology, but neither is directly observable.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation resulting in a long-lasting enhancement of synaptic transmission. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

personality

An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

punishment

An unpleasant consequence of a particular behavior (e.g. something you don't want is forced upon you, OR something you want is taken away) that decreases the strength or probability of that behavior occurring again.

dendrites

Branchlike extensions from a neuron with the specialized function of receiving messages from surrounding neurons and conducting impulses toward the cell body.

neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmits an impulse across the synaptic gap from one neuron to another.

schemas

Conceptual frameworks that individuals use to make sense out of stored information. In Piaget's theory, the mental structures we form to assimilate and organize processed information.

independent variable

Condition or factor that the experimenter manipulates in an experiment in order to determine whether changes in behavior will result. See also dependent variable.

attitude

Feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in consistently favorable or unfavorable ways to certain objects, people, ideas, or situations.

social psychology

Field of specialization concerned with understanding the impact of social environments and social processes on individuals. Includes how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

environmental psychology

Field of specialization in psychology concerned with assessing the effects on behavior of environmental factors such as noise, pollution, or overcrowding.

engineering psychology

Field of specialization in psychology concerned with creating optimal relationships among people, the machines they operate, and the environments they work in. Sometimes called human factors psychology.

school psychology

Field of specialization in psychology concerned with evaluating and resolving learning and emotional problems

educational psychology

Field of specialization in psychology concerned with the study and application of learning and teaching methods, focusing on areas such as improving educational curricula and training teachers.

industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology

Field of specialization in psychology concerned with using psychological concepts to make the workplace a more satisfying environment for employees and management.

experimental psychology

Field of specialization in psychology in which the primary activity is conducting research.

clinical psychology

Field of specialization in psychology involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychology disorders and behavioral problems.

forensic psychology

Field of specialization in psychology that works with the legal, court, and correctional systems to develop personality profiles of criminals, make decisions about disposition of convicted offenders, and help law enforcers understand behavioral problems.

sensory memory

First system in the three-system model of memory, in which quick impressions from any of the senses are stored very briefly, disappearing within a few seconds if they are not transferred to short-term memory.

compliance

Form of social influence in which people alter their behavior in response to direct requests from others, which usually involve a degree of coercion.

formal operational stage

Fourth and final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (ages 12+), during which individuals acquire the ability to think logically about abstract concepts and solve problems by systematically testing hypotheses.

structuralism

Historical approach to psychology that attempted to break down experience into its basic elements or structures, using a technique called introspection, in which subjects report their perceptual experiences.

functionalism

Historically approach to psychology that emphasized the functional, practical nature of the mind. Influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection, functionalists attempted to learn how mental processes, such as learning, thinking, perceiving, helped the organism to adapt, survive and flourish.

anal stage

In Freud's theory of psychosexual development, the period between about 18 -36 months, during which the pleasure zone shifts from the mouth to bladder and bowel elimination; coping with demands for control.

mental age

In IQ testing, the chronological age of children who on the average receive a test score similar to that of the subject. For example, any child (regardless of chronological age) whose composite score is equivalent to that of an 8-year-old has a mental age of 8.

discrimination

In classical and operant conditioning, the process by which responses are restricted to specific stimuli (opposite to generalization). The tendency to respond to some stimuli while not responding to other similar stimuli

acquisition

In classical conditioning the initial process of learning to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, the process of learning to associate responses with their consequences (either reinforcing or punishing).

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a natural (unlearned) response or reflex.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

unconditioned response (UCR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned response or reflex caused by a stimulus.

mean

In descriptive statistics, a measure of central tendency: The arithmetic average obtained by adding scores and dividing by the number of scores.

standard deviation

In descriptive statistics, a measure of variability that indicates the average extent to which all the scores in a distribution vary from the mean.

reinforcer

In operant conditioning, any response contingent event that leads to an increase in the probability, or strength, of the response.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

Intelligence test developed by David Wechsler with verbal and performance sub-tests grouped by aptitude rather than age level.

attachment

Intense emotional tie between two individuals, shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid, beginning at the base with physiological concerns that must first be satisfied before higherlevel safety and then psychological needs become active.

statistics

Mathematical methods for organizing, summarizing, describing and interpreting data.

acronym

Meaningful arrangement of letters that provides a cue for recalling information; a mnemonic device.

mnemonics (mnemonic device)

Memory aids (such as vivid imagery) or organizational devices (such as chunking or acrostics) that organize material in a meaningful way and provide us with handy retrieval cues.

variable interval (VI) schedule

Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where opportunities for reinforcement occur at variable time intervals. (unpredictable time)

fixed interval (Fl) schedule

Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where opportunities for reinforcement occur only after a specified time has elapsed. (predictable time)

fixed ratio (FR) schedule

Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of responses occur

variable ratio (VR) schedule

Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses occur.

object permanence

Realization that objects continue to exist even when they are not in view. In Piaget's theory, this awareness is considered a key achievement in the latter part of the sensorimotor stage of development.

explicit (declarative) memory

Recall of specific facts (such as information read in a book) and experiences. Contrast with implicit memory.

Broca's area

Region of the left frontal lobe that is the primary brain center for controlling speech

auditory cortex

Region of the temporal lobe located just below the lateral fissure that is involved in responding to auditory signals, particularly the sound of human speech

survey

Research method in which a representative sample of people are questioned about their behaviors or attitudes. The survey provides descriptive information. See also Sample.

random assignment

Researchers randomly assign research participants to the experimental and control conditions of experiments in order to minimize any pre-existing differences between the groups.

implicit memory

Retention independent of conscious recollection, such as bicycle riding or swimming. Contrast with explicit memory.

sample

Selected segment of a larger population that is being studied in psychological research. Two kinds of samples are the representative sample and the random sample.

random sample

Selected segment of a larger population that is selected by randomization procedures. A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

acrostics

Sentences whose first letters serve as cues for recalling specific information; a mnemonic device.

gender role

Set of behaviors that is considered normal and appropriate for males and for females in a society.

obedience

Social influence in which we alter our behavior in response to commands or orders from people perceived as having power or authority.

normative social influence

Social influence in which we conform not because of an actual change in our beliefs, but because we think we will benefit in some way (such as gaining approval or avoiding disapproval). See also Informational social influence.

observer bias

Tendency of an observer to read more into a situation than is actually there or to see what he or she expects to see. Observer bias is a potential limitation of the observational method.

conformity

Tendency to modify behaviors so that they are consistent with those of other people

statistical significance

Term used to describe research results in which changes in the dependent variable can be associated (with a high level of confidence) to changes in the independent variable. Chance is ruled out as the explanation.

cerebellum

The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance.

naturalistic observation

The research method of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations, such as a subject's home or school environment, without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

standardization

(1) Uniform and consistent procedures for administering and scoring tests (such as IQ or personality tests) and (2) defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested "standardization group."

selective perception

A form of perceptual set. The tendency to perceive stimuli that are consistent with expectations and to ignore those that are inconsistent

general intelligence (g-factor)

A general intelligence factor that, according to Charles Spearman, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

anxiety disorders

A group of psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.

schizophrenia

A group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions.

intelligence

A hypothetical construct which is operationally defined as what intelligence tests measure. The construct is commonly understood to include the abilities to (1) think rationally, (2) think abstractly, (3) act purposefully, and (4) deal effectively with the environment. Myers' definition: A mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Big Five Factors

A set of 5 personality dimensions (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion) that is currently considered an accurate conceptualization of basic, universal personality traits.

role

A set of explanations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

reflex

A simple, automatic, inborn response to a specific stimulus. An example is the rooting reflex: when something touches their cheek, babies turn toward that touch, open their mouth, find a nipple, and begin sucking

correlation coefficient

A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other.

theory

A tentative logical framework to explain the facts scientists have observed regarding certain phenomena

reciprocal determinism

According to Albert Bandura, the principle that individual behaviors and thus personalities are shaped by the interaction between cognitive factors and environmental factors.

basic trust

According to Erik Erikson's 8-stage theory of psychosocial development, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

psychosexual stages/ psychosexual

According to Freud's perspective, stages of development in which the focus of sexual gratification shifts from one body site to another.

motivation

Any condition, such as a need or desire, which energizes and directs behavior.

Gestalt psychology

Approach to psychology based on the concept that the whole of an experience is different from (greater than) the sum of its parts.

humanistic psychology

Approach to psychology that emphasizes the role of free choice and our ability to make conscious rational decisions about how we live our lives.

evolutionary psychology

Approach to psychology which attempts to understand the origins of behavior using the principles of natural selection.

health psychology

Area of specialization in psychology concerned with the interaction between behavioral factors and physical health

false consensus bias

Attribution bias caused by the assumption that most people share our own attitudes and behaviors.

abnormal behavior

Behavior that is atypical, maladaptive, dysfunctional, socially unacceptable, and produces emotional distress.

terminal buttons

Bulb-like structure on the end of a neuron's axon that releases neurotransmitters.

scientific method

Careful observation of events in the world, the formation of predictions based on these observations, and the testing of these predictions by manipulation of variables and/or systematic observation.

phenotype

Characteristics that result from the expression of various genotypes (for instance, brown eyes or blond hair).

hormones

Chemical messengers that are produced in one gland and circulate through the bloodstream to their target tissues in other glands. Some (such as epinephrine) are chemically identical to neurotransmitters

operational definition

Definition specifying the characteristics that are used to measure or observe a variable. Precise statements of the procedures (operations) used to define independent and dependent variables, such as a definition of aggression specifying how many fights a person has in a particular period of time

visual cliff

Device that produces the illusion of depth, allowing researchers to test the ability of humans and animals to perceive and respond to depth cues.

sensory adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. For example, after constant, unchanging exposure to a sound or smell, we are less likely to notice it.

effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

genital stage

Fifth and final stage in Freud's theory of psychosexual development, beginning with puberty, during which sexual feelings that were dormant during the latency stage reemerge; maturation of sexual interests.

latency period

Fourth stage of psychosexual development in Freud's theory, extending from about age 6 to puberty, during which sexual drives remain unexpressed or latent.

psychoanalytic theory

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. Based upon three forces of personality, the id, ego, and superego; the importance of defense mechanisms; and the importance of dreams as the "royal road" to the unconscious.

defense mechanisms

In Freud's psychoanalytic theory, an unconscious process that shields the ego from anxiety by denying or distorting reality.

id

In Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the biological component of personality consisting of life instincts and death instincts. See also ego, superego, libido, and pleasure principle.

ego

In Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the component of personality that acts as an intermediary between the instinctual demands of the id and the reality of the real world. See also id, superego, and reality principle.

fixation

In Freud's theory of psychosexual development, arrested development that results from exposure to either too little or too much gratification.

Oedipus complex

In Freud's theory of psychosexual development, the attraction a male child feels toward his mother (and jealousy toward his father) during the phallic stage.

sensorimotor stage

In Piaget's theory, the period of development between birth and about age two during which infants learn about their worlds primarily by grasping and sucking easily available objects

egocentrism

In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's inability to take another person's point of view.

assimilation

In Piaget's theory, the process of absorbing new information into existing schemas.

accommodation

In Piaget's theory, the process of changing existing schemas or developing new ones to better fit with new information.

theory of mind

In children, their ability to take the perspective of another person which allows them to correctly predict their behavior. Typically develops during the preoperational stage.

conditioned response (CR)

In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.

extinction

In classical conditioning, the process by which a conditioned response is eliminated through repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, the process of eliminating a response by discontinuing reinforcement.

spontaneous recovery

In classical conditioning, the spontaneous reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction has taken place.

normal distribution (normal curve)

In descriptive statistics, a distribution in which scores are distributed similarly on both sides of the middle value, so that they form a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve when graphed. The areas under each side of the normal curve are 34%, 14%, 2%

mode

In descriptive statistics, a measure of central tendency: The score that occurs most frequently in a distribution of numbers.

range

In descriptive statistics, a measure of variability that indicates the difference between the highest and lowest scores.

measure of variability

In descriptive statistics, a measure that reflects the amount of diversity in a distribution of scores. For example, the difference between the highest and lowest score (range), or the average amount scores deviate (vary) from the mean.

measure of central tendency

In descriptive statistics, a value that reflects the middle or central point of a distribution of scores. The three measures of central tendency are the mean, the median, and the mode.

skewed distribution

In descriptive statistics, the term describes an unbalanced distribution of scores.

retroactive interference

In memory, the phenomenon that occurs when new information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier. Contrasts with proactive interference.

proactive interference

In memory, the phenomenon that occurs when something you learned earlier disrupts memory for later learning. Contrasts with retroactive interference.

encoding

In memory, the process of perceiving information, then categorizing or organizing it in a meaningful way so that it can be more easily stored and recalled.

positive reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a satisfying consequence of behavior that increases the probability of that response occurring again. Compare to negative reinforcement.

negative reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a satisfying consequence of behavior that involves the removal of or escape from an unpleasant event following a particular response. For example, when a rat pressing a lever (operant behavior) results in stopping an electrical shock or when fastening your seatbelt turns off beeping. Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a schedule that reinforces behavior only part of the time -- for example, a ratio or interval schedule. Behaviors that are acquired on partial instead of continuous reinforcement schedules tend to be established more slowly, but are much more resistant to extinction.

primary reinforcer

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that satisfies a biologically based drive or need (such as hunger, thirst, or sleep)

shaping

In operant conditioning, a technique (also called successive approximation) in which responses that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior are reinforced, step by step, until the desired behavior occurs.

continuous reinforcement

In operant conditioning, the presentation of a reinforcer for each occurrence of a specific behavior. Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

similarity

In perception, the principle that we tend to group elements that are similar to each other. In social psychology, similarity of beliefs, interests, and values is recognized as a factor attracting people to one another.

trait

In personality theory, a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in a particular way.

humanistic perspective

In personality theory, the study of healthy people (in contrast to Freud who studied people with psychological disorders), emphasizing human potential, growth through self-determination, and seeing the world through each person's eyes.

repression

In psychoanalytic theory, the primary defense mechanism by which ideas, feelings, or memories that are too painful to deal with on a conscious level are ejected to the unconscious.

validity

In testing, the extent to which a test measures or predicts accurately what it is supposed to.

reliability

In testing. the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting.

misinformation effect

Incorporating incorrect information into one's memory of an event.

frontal lobe

Largest, foremost lobe in the cerebral cortex of the brain lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.

associative learning

Learning by making a connection or association between two events, through either classical conditioning or operant conditioning

observational learning

Learning by observing others. Also referred to as social learning or modeling.

modeling

Learning process wherein an individual acquires a behavior by observing someone else performing that behavior. Also known as observational learning.

latent learning

Learning that is not demonstrated by an immediately observable change in behavior.

sleep

Natural, periodically occurring altered state of consciousness, characterized by reduced activity, lessened responsiveness to stimuli, and distinctive brain-wave patterns.

critical periods

Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place.

mood-congruent memory

Phenomenon wherein recall of particular events, experiences, or information is aided by the subject being in the same context or physiological state in which the information was first encoded. The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Portion of the nervous system that transmits messages to and from the central nervous system. Consists of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

visual cortex

Portion of the occipital lobe that integrates sensory information received from the eyes into electrical patterns that the brain translates into vision

imprinting

Process by which certain infant animals, such as ducklings, learn to follow or approach the first moving object they see. See also critical periods.

generalization, stimulus

Process by which, once a response has been conditioned, an organism responds in the same way to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

chunking

Process of grouping items into familiar, meaningful units (chunks) to make them easier to remember. For example, phone numbers are grouped from 10 digits into XXX-XXX-XXXX units

basic research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

occipital lobe

Region of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head that consists primarily of the visual cortex.

motor cortex

Region of the cerebral cortex at the rear of the frontal lobes that transmits messages to muscles; controls virtually all voluntary body movements.

temporal lobe

Region of the cerebral cortex located below the lateral fissure that contains the auditory cortex and whose primary function is hearing.

parietal lobe

Region of the cerebral cortex located just behind the central fissure and above the lateral fissure. The parietal lobe contains the somatosensory cortex as well as association areas that process sensory information received by the somatosensory cortex

applied research

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

medical model

The concept that assumes that psychological disorders are mental illnesses and have physical causes, much like medical illnesses.

control condition

The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effects of the treatment.

extrasensory perception (ESP)

The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

sympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

parasympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that functions to conserve energy, returning the body to normal from emergency responses set in motion by the sympathetic nervous system

culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

dependent variable

The experimental factor (in psychology, the behavior or mental process) that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

axon

The extension of a neuron through which nerve impulses travel from the cell body to the terminal buttons on the tip of the neuron

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Consists of the sympathetic nervous system (which arouses the body) and the parasympathetic nervous system (which calms the body).

percentile

The percent of scores in a distribution which fall at or below a particular score.

memory

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

dual processing

The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

sensation

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from the environment.

selective attention

The process of focusing on a particular stimulus while ignoring others. Sometimes referred to as the "cocktail party effect."

retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

perception

The process of organizing and interpreting our sensations, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

perceptual constancy

The process of perceiving an object as unchanging even though the stimuli we receive from it change. Accounts for our ability to recognize a familiar object without being deceived by changes in its size, shape, brightness, or color.

personality

The relatively enduring, distinctive patterns of behavior, emotions, and thoughts that characterize an individual's adaptations to his or her life.

storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

psychology

The scientific study of the overt behavior and internal mental process of humans and other animals.

short-term memory (STM)

The second memory system in the three-system model of memory consisting of immediate recollection of stimuli that have just been perceived. Unless it is transferred to long-term memory, information in this memory system is usually retained only momentarily. Also referred to as "working memory."

behavior genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

bystander effect

The tendency for any given person to be less likely to give aid if other people are present. Also known as the diffusion of responsibility effect.

spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

The tendency for people who first agree to a relatively minor request to comply later with a more major request.

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-itall-along phenomenon.)

perceptual grouping

The tendency to organize patterns of stimuli into larger units according to proximity, similarity, and continuation.

serial position effect

The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle.

two-factor theory

The theory of how we experience emotion that states that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively interpret and label the arousal.

James-Lange theory

The theory that our experience of emotion (such as fear) is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus. Your feeling of fear follows your body's response. See also Cannon-Bard theory.

social exchange theory

The theory that our social behavior is a cost-benefit process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

cognitive dissonance theory

The theory that people experience psychological tension when two related attitudes or behaviors are inconsistent, and we are thus motivated to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) by making them consistent. Specifically, when our attitudes are inconsistent with our actions, we reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

attribution theory

The theory that we attempt to make sense out of other people's behavior by attributing it to either dispositional (internal) causes or situational (external) causes.

psychoanalysis

The therapeutic technique developed by Sigmund Freud in which the primary aim is to bring unconscious conflicts into conscious awareness through historical reconstruction of childhood experiences.

long-term memory (LTM)

The third memory system in the three-system model of memory, which is the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

conservation

The understanding that changing the form of an object does not necessarily change its essential character. A key achievement in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. See also concrete operational stage.

empiricism

The view that (1) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (2) science flourishes through observation and experimentation

behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to metal processes

law of effect

Theory originally proposed by Edward Thorndike that is the foundation of the operant conditioning theory: Behavior followed by reinforcement will be strengthened while behavior followed by punishment will be weakened.

behavior therapy

Therapy based on the assumption that maladaptive behavior has been learned and can therefore be unlearned. Applies learning principles such as counter-conditioning and exposure therapy to eliminate unwanted behavior.

cerebral cortex

Thin outer layer that covers the cerebral hemispheres that is the body's ultimate control and informationprocessing center.

critical thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

phallic stage

Third stage in Freud's theory of psychosexual development, spanning age 3 - 6, during which the pleasure zone is the genitals

concrete operations stage

Third stage of cognitive development in Piaget's theory (ages 7 through 12), during which children first develop the ability to think logically about events, mastering the concepts of conservation and reversibility, though abstract thinking is not yet present

automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

graded potential

Voltage change in a neuron's dendrites that is produced by receiving an impulse from another neuron or neurons. See also resting potential, action potential.

fundamental attribution error

When analyzing another person's behavior, the tendency to overestimate dispositional (internal personality) causes and to underestimate situational (external) causes of their behavior.

developmental psychology

A branch of psychology concerned with physical, cognitive, and social factors that influence growth and shape behavior throughout the life cycle, from conception to childhood, through old age

cognitive psychology

A branch of psychology focusing on mental processes such as thinking, memory, language, problem solving, and creativity.

instinct

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is innate (unlearned).

regression

A defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, such as the oral comfort of thumb-sucking

denial

A defense mechanism in which an individual reduces anxiety by refusing to acknowledge the existence or severity of unpleasant external realities or internal thoughts and feelings.

retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

psychiatry

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders, practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medication as well as psychological therapy.

projection

A defense mechanism in which an individual reduces anxiety created by unacceptable impulses by attributing those impulses to someone else.

self-actualization

According to Abraham Maslow's study of healthy people, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met; the motivation to fulfill one's potential.

unconscious

According to Freud, a reservoir of (mostly unacceptable) thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories that are repressed and unavailable to conscious awareness.

oral stage

According to Freud, the first stage of psychosexual development spanning birth through 18 months, during which the lips and mouth are the primary pleasure areas; focus on sucking, biting, chewing.

superego

According to Freud, the third system of personality that consists of an individual's conscience as well as the ego-ideal (the 'shoulds' of behavior). See also id, ego.

preoperational stage

According to Piaget, the second major stage of cognitive development (ages 7 to 12) during which children begin using language and pretend play, but the child lacks operations and the concept of conservation. Thinking is egocentric and animistic and the child is unable to evaluate simultaneously more than one physical dimension. See also egocentrism.

Wernicke's area

Area of the left temporal lobe that is the brain's primary area for understanding speech

sensory cortex

Area of the parietal lobe, directly across from the motor cortex in the frontal lobe, which receives sensory information about touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body position

Weber's law

Our thresholds for detecting differences are a constant proportion of the size of the original stimulus.

Stage 4 sleep

Deepest level of sleep following Stage 3, during which the brain emits large, slow delta waves.

binocular cues

Distance (depth) cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes.

monocular cues

Distance cues, such as linear perspective and overlap, available to either eye alone.

Stage 1 sleep

Light sleep that occurs just after dozing off.

sensory neuron

Neuron or nerve cell that carries messages to the CNS from receptors in the skin, ears, nose, eyes, and other receptor organs. Also known as afferent neuron

motor neurons

Neurons that transmits messages from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

informational social influence

One basis of conformity, in which we accept a group's beliefs or behaviors as providing accurate information about reality. See also normative social influence.

size constancy

One form of perceptual constancy. Although the retinal image of an object becomes smaller as the object recedes into the distance (or larger as it approaches), the viewer adjusts for this change and perceives the object to be constant in size.

arousal theory

One of the theories of motivation that states that we need certain levels of stimulation, and we are driven by curiosity to explore our environment to satisfy the need for sensory stimulation.

closure

One of the ways in which the brain orders sensory information into wholes: we fill in gaps in incomplete figures to create a complete, whole object.

self-esteem

One's feelings of high or low self-like and self-worth. People who are down on themselves tend to be down on other things and people.

maturation

Orderly unfolding of certain patterns of behavior, such as language acquisition or walking, in accordance with genetic blueprints.

consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

perceptual set

Our mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. Includes our assumptions, biases, and expectations.

Stage 2 sleep

Stage of sleep that typically follows Stage 1 sleep, characterized by brief bursts of brain activity called sleep spindles.

Stage 3 sleep

Stage of sleep that typically follows Stage 2 sleep, during which there are virtually no eye movements.

NREM sleep (Non-rapid eye movement sleep)

Stages of sleep (e.g. 3 and 4) during which rapid eye movements typically do not occur. Dreaming occurs far less frequently during NREM sleep than during REM sleep.

norm

Standard that reflects the normal or average performance of a particular group of people on a measure such as an IQ test.

resting potential

State in which a neuron is not transmitting a nerve impulse. A neuron in this state has a net negative charge relative to its outside environment, and this state of potential energy prepares it to be activated by an impulse from an adjacent neuron. See also graded potential, action potential.

hypnosis

State of altered consciousness characterized by a deep relaxation and detachment as well as heightened suggestibility to the hypnotist's directives.

REM sleep

State of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and often associated with dreaming. The muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active.

split-brain research

Surgical cutting of the corpus callosum to study the effects of disconnecting the right and left brain hemispheres - specifically, the independent functioning of the two hemispheres.

depth perception

The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

genotype

The assortment of genes that each individual inherits at conception.

endocrine system

The body's chemical communication system (compare with nervous system). A set of glands (such as adrenal gland, pituitary gland) that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

plasticity

The brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development.

experimental condition

The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable. Contrast with control condition.

rehearsal

The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage.

person-situation interaction

The finding that, while most personality traits persist over time, they do not always persist across situations. For example, your score on an extraversion test will not always predict how sociable you actually will be on any given occasion.

drive-reduction theory

The idea that a physiological need, such as hunger or thirst, creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. Includes the synaptic gap and a portion of the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes that are involved in transmitting a signal between neurons. See also synaptic gap.

corpus callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

cell body (soma)

The largest part of a neuron, containing the nucleus as well as structures that handle metabolic functions.

association areas / association cortex

The largest portion of the cerebral cortex (about 75 percent), involved in integrating sensory and motor messages as well as processing higher functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

threshold (all-or none law)

The level of stimulation that must be exceeded in order for a neuron to fire, or generate an electrical impulse. An action potential will be passed through a neuron's axon as long as the sum of graded potentials reaches a threshold. The neuron either fires or it doesn't fire; the strength of the electrical impulse does not vary according to the degree of stimulation. See also, graded potential.

nature-nurture issue

The longstanding question of the relative contributions of genetic endowment (nature) and experience (nurture) to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

difference threshold

The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference. Also called "just noticeable difference" or JND.

absolute threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

synaptic gap

The miniscule space between neurons, approximately five-millionths of an inch across.

figure-ground

The organization of the visual field into objects ("figures") that stand out from their surroundings ("ground").

central nervous system (CNS)

The part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

Cannon-Bard theory

The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion. See also James-Lange theory.

neuron

Type of cell that is the basic unit of the nervous system. A neuron typically consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. Neurons transmit messages to other neurons and to glands and muscles throughout the body.