PSY101 - Module 3 - Week 2 - Memory

For many in the baby-boom generation, the Kennedy assassination represents a ________, an exceptionally clear recollection of an important event.

flashbulb memory

Long-term memories you have to consciously think about are

explicit memories

Long-term memories you have to consciously think about are The question has been evaluated. Your choice is correct. Multiple Choice Questionsensory memories

explicit memories

The recall of false autobiographical memories is known as

false memory syndrome

An exceptionally clear recollection of an important event is a (an) ________.

flashbulb memory

An exceptionally clear recollection of an important event, such as 9/11, is a ________.

flashbulb memory

The processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over time is known as

memory

Pan finds it difficult to learn the alphabet, until he hears the alphabet song. Then he can easily remember it. This is an example of ________ encoding.

Acoustic

The ________ says that memories are processed the same way that a computer processes information.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Model

Who developed the idea that short-term memories get "filed away" in three different areas of the brain: a visuo-spatial area, a phonological loop for auditory memories, and an episodic buffer for multi-modal memories with storylines?

Baddeley and Hitch

Describe the three stages of memory storage.

ENCODING: We get information into our brains through a process called encoding, which is the input of information into the memory system. Once we receive sensory information from the environment, our brains label or code it. We organize the information with other similar information and connect new concepts to existing concepts. Encoding information occurs through automatic processing and effortful processing. If someone asks you what you ate for lunch today, more than likely you could recall this information quite easily. This is known as automatic processing, or the encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Automatic processing is usually done without any conscious awareness. Recalling the last time you studied for a test is another example of automatic processing. But what about the actual test material you studied? It probably required a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information. This is known as effortful processing (Figure 2). STORAGE: In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to pass through three distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally Long-Term Memory. These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968). Their model of human memory (Figure 1), called Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S), is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way that a computer processes information. In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment are processed first in sensory memory: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It is very brief storage—up to a couple of seconds. We are constantly bombarded with sensory information. We cannot absorb all of it, or even most of it. And most of it has no impact on our lives. For example, what was your professor wearing the last class period? As long as the professor was dressed appropriately, it does not really matter what she was wearing. Sensory information about sights, sounds, smells, and even textures, which we do not view as valuable information, we discard. If we view something as valuable, the information will move into our short-term memory system. Short-term memory (STM) is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory; sometimes it is called working memory. Short-term memory takes information from sensory memory and sometimes connects that memory to something already in long-term memory. Short-term memory storage lasts about 20 seconds. George Miller (1956), in his research on the capacity of memory, found that most people can retain about 7 items in STM. Some remember 5, some 9, so he called the capacity of STM 7 plus or minus 2. Think of short-term memory as the information you have displayed on your computer screen—a document, a spreadsheet, or a web page. Then, information in short-term memory goes to long-term memory (you save it to your hard drive), or it is discarded (you delete a document or close a web browser). This step of rehearsal, the conscious repetition of information to be remembered, to move STM into long-term memory is called memory consolidation. Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, the storage capacity of LTM has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that happened days, weeks, and years ago. In keeping with the computer analogy, the information in your LTM would be like the information you have saved on the hard drive. It isn't there on your desktop (your short-term memory), but you can pull up this information when you want it, at least most of the time. Not all long-term memories are strong memories. Some memories can only be recalled through prompts. For example, you might easily recall a fact— "What is the capital of the United States?"—or a procedure—"How do you ride a bike?"—but you might struggle to recall the name of the restaurant you had dinner when you were on vacation in France last summer. A prompt, such as that the restaurant was named after its owner, who spoke to you about your shared interest in soccer, may help you recall the name of the restaurant. Long-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and implicit (Figure 4). Understanding the different types is important because a person's age or particular types of brain trauma or disorders can leave certain types of LTM intact while having disastrous consequences for other types. Explicit memories are those we consciously try to remember and recall. For example, if you are studying for your chemistry exam, the material you are learning will be part of your explicit memory. (Note: Sometimes, but not always, the terms explicit memory and declarative memory are used interchangeably.) Implicit memories are memories that are not part of our consciousness. They are memories formed from behaviors. Implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory.

acoustic encoding: input of sounds, words, and music automatic processing: encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words effortful processing: encoding of information that takes effort and attention encoding: input of information into the memory system memory: system or process that stores what we learn for future use semantic encoding: input of words and their meaning visual encoding: input of images

Glossary

chunking: organizing information into manageable bits or chunkselaborative rehearsal: thinking about the meaning of the new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memorylevels of processing: information that is thought of more deeply becomes more meaningful and thus better committed to memorymemory-enhancing strategy: technique to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memorymnemonic device: memory aids that help organize information for encoding

Glossary

Which of the following is a good example of anterograde amnesia?

John Doe is in a car accident. Every day he wakes up with no memory of what he did the day before, feeling as though no time has passed because he is unable to form new memories.

Explain the brain functions involved in memory; recognize the role of the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum in memory.

Many scientists believe that the entire brain is involved with memory. However, since Lashley's research, other scientists have been able to look more closely at the brain and memory. They have argued that memory is located in specific parts of the brain, and specific neurons can be recognized for their involvement in forming memories. The main parts of the brain involved with memory are the amygdala, the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex (Figure 1). First, let's look at the role of the amygdala in memory formation. The main job of the amygdala is to regulate emotions, such as fear and aggression. The amygdala plays a part in how memories are stored because storage is influenced by stress hormones. Because of its role in processing emotional information, the amygdala is also involved in memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory. The amygdala seems to facilitate encoding memories at a deeper level when the event is emotionally arousing. They concluded that the hippocampus is involved in memory, specifically normal recognition memory as well as spatial memory (when the memory tasks are like recall tests) (Clark, Zola, & Squire, 2000). Another job of the hippocampus is to project information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect them with other connected memories. It also plays a part in memory consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long-term memory. Although the hippocampus seems to be more of a processing area for explicit memories, you could still lose it and be able to create implicit memories (procedural memory, motor learning, and classical conditioning), thanks to your cerebellum. According to PET scans, there was much more activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex in the semantic task. In another study, encoding was associated with left frontal activity, while retrieval of information was associated with the right frontal region (Craik et al., 1999). There also appear to be specific neurotransmitters involved with the process of memory, such as epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and acetylcholine (Myhrer, 2003). There continues to be discussion and debate among researchers as to which neurotransmitter plays which specific role (Blockland, 1996). Although we don't yet know which role each neurotransmitter plays in memory, we do know that communication among neurons via neurotransmitters is critical for developing new memories. Repeated activity by neurons leads to increased neurotransmitters in the synapses and more efficient and more synaptic connections. This is how memory consolidation occurs. It is also believed that strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories; this is called arousal theory (Christianson, 1992). For example, strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory; therefore, our memory for an emotional event is usually better than our memory for a non-emotional event. When humans and animals are stressed, the brain secretes more of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which helps them remember the stressful event (McGaugh, 2003). This is clearly evidenced by what is known as the flashbulb memory phenomenon.

According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, ________.

Memories are processed the same way that a computer processes information.

In a study, researchers asked one group of participants to watch a video about two friends in an unpleasant argument. They asked another group of participants to watch the same video, but told participants that it was a video of two friends enjoying a lively discussion. Afterwards, the researchers notice that participants who were told the discussion was an argument were more likely to falsely report that the people in the video were yelling, frowning, and getting angry. This is an example of

Misinformation effect.

Which of the following is a way police have changed their interrogation techniques to lower the risk of false memory syndrome? Police have ________. You were correct. Multiple Choice Questionmodified the way witnesses are questioneddecided to only prosecute cases with DNA evidencerequired new officers to study psychology and learn about false memory syndrome

Modify the way witnesses are questioned.

Compare and contrast implicit and explicit memory.

My answer: Both are part of the long term memory. Implicit relates to things you've learned to do, practiced, and no longer require thought to do (such as drive, swim, ride a bike). Explicit memory relates to things we experienced personally such as learning a language or recalling facts about things we've done the day before. Content answer: Both are types of long-term memory. Explicit memories are memories we consciously try to remember and recall. Explicit memory is also called declarative memory and is subdivided into episodic memory (life events) and semantic memory (words, ideas, and concepts). Implicit memories are memories that are not part of our consciousness; they are memories formed from behaviors. Implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory and includes procedural memory as well as things learned through classical conditioning.

Compare and contrast the two processes we use to encode information.

My answer: Encoding - taking in the initial event. Recoding - adding details that may not have been part of the original event. Content answer: Information is encoded through automatic or effortful processing. Automatic processing refers to all information that enters long-term memory without conscious effort. This includes things such as time, space, and frequency—for example, your ability to remember what you ate for breakfast today or the fact that you remember that you ran into your best friend in the supermarket twice this week. Effortful processing refers to encoding information through conscious attention and effort. Material that you study for a test requires effortful processing.

According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, name and describe the three stages of memory.

My answer: First there is the sensory memory, lasting just a few seconds. If we deem it important, we shift this to short term memory. If again we deem important, we rehearse or practice this info until it gets shifted into our long term memory. Content answer: According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, memory is processed in three stages. The first is sensory memory; this is very brief: 1-2 seconds. Anything not attended to is ignored. The stimuli we pay attention to then move into our short-term memory. Short-term memory can hold approximately 7 bits of information for around 20 seconds. Information here is either forgotten, or it is encoded into long-term memory through the process of rehearsal. Long-term memory is the permanent storage of information—its capacity is basically unlimited.

You and your roommate spent all of last night studying for your psychology test. You think you know the material; however, you suggest that you study again the next morning an hour prior to the test. Your roommate asks you to explain why you think this is a good idea. What do you tell her?

My answer: Overlearning helps to make connections to help with retrieval - as well as studying right before a test helps to keep the material freshest in your mind for recall. Content answer: You remind her about Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve: the information you learn drops off rapidly with time. Even if you think you know the material, you should study it again right before test time to increase the likelihood the information will remain in your memory. Overlearning can help prevent storage decay.

Compare and contrast the two types of interference.

My answer: Retroactive - when something we learned recently hinders the recall of older information. Proactive - when learning something new is hindered by something we've already learned - like a new address but keep writing old one. Content answer: There are two types of interference: retroactive and proactive. Both are types of forgetting caused by a failure to retrieve information. With retroactive interference, new information hinders the ability to recall older information. With proactive interference, it's the opposite: old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.

What is the self-reference effect, and how can it help you study more effectively?

My answer: When you make the information personal, such as cross referencing notes to how it applies to you personally or in other classes, it helps promote deeper learning and is more likely to make it to long-term memory. Content answer: The self-reference effect is the tendency an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself than information that is not personally relevant. You can use the self-reference effect to relate the material to something you have already learned for another class, or think how you can apply the concepts to your life. When you do this, you are building a web of retrieval cues that will help you access the material when you want to remember it.

What might happen to your memory system if you sustained damage to your hippocampus?

My answer: You would be unable to form new explicit memories (such as remembering your spouse or how long it had been since you ate). You would still recall implicit memories such as how to wake up and dress, or brush your teeth. Content answer: Because your hippocampus seems to be more of a processing area for your explicit memories, injury to this area could leave you unable to process new declarative (explicit) memories; however, even with this loss, you would be able to create implicit memories (procedural memory, motor learning and classical conditioning).

Compare and contrast the two types of amnesia.

My answer: anterograde is when you cannot remember anything going forward beyond procedural learning. Retrograde is not remembering anything prior to an event. Content answer: There are two types of amnesia: retrograde and anterograde. Both involve the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma. With anterograde amnesia, you cannot remember new information; however, you can remember information and events that happened prior to your injury. Retrograde amnesia is the exact opposite: you experience loss of memory for events that occurred before the trauma.

Explain the process of memory.

Our memory has three basic functions: encoding, storing, and retrieving information. Encoding is the act of getting information into our memory system through automatic or effortful processing. Storage is retention of the information, and retrieval is the act of getting information out of storage and into conscious awareness through recall, recognition, and relearning. There are various models that aim to explain how we utilize our memory. In this section, you'll learn about some of these models as well as the importance of recall, recognition, and relearning.

Students were asked about the speed of cars involved in an accident. When the verb was changed from "contacted" to "smashed", ________.

Participants estimated the speed of the vehicle involved in the crash to be higher.

Which of the following is an effective method to help you remember the names of all 50 states?

Sing the names of the fifty states to the tune of "Happy Birthday".

Caroline met a new friend named Wendy. Wendy was wearing a green shirt, which reminded Caroline of Peter Pan, so Caroline plans to remember Peter Pan when she thinks about her new friend's name. This is an example of

a mnemonic device

According to a study by Yogo and Fujihara (2008), if you want to improve your short-term memory, you should spend time writing about ________.

a traumatic life experience

Shaquallah suffered a head injury in a soccer game and can remember everything from her past, but can no longer make new memories. What type of amnesia does she have?

anterograde

Doug cannot find his keys, but cannot remember where. This is an example of

absentmindedness

When you are learning how to play the piano, the statement "Every good boy does fine" can help you remember the notes E, G, B, D, and F for the lines of the treble clef. This is an example of a (an) ________.

acrostic

When rats had their ________ removed, they no longer experienced their fear memory.

amygdala

In the movie "50 First Dates," the main character wakes up each day not remembering the day before or having met her new boyfriend. She suffers from ________ amnesia.

anterograde

The type of memory processing that is done without conscious awareness is known as

automatic

Zahara asks Blake how many times he ate pizza in the last week, and he's quickly able to respond with "twice." This is an example of

automatic processing

When questioning a victim about the perpetrator of a crime, the police should

be intentionally vague and provide opportunities for the victim to provide information

Forgetting anything good that happened on your trip to France because you just broke up with your French fiancée and now can't bear the thought of anything French is a good example of ________: Memories are distorted by your current belief system.

bias

If your memory of the home run you hit in the softball game becomes exaggerated to enhance your own performance, then you have fallen prey to a common memory tendency to distort your memories to fit your feelings about the world. This is called

bias

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is also known as ________.

blocking

Cillian can remember a great deal of numbers because he groups them all in sets of 3 and thinks of them as batting averages. He is using the technique of ________.

chunking

The formulation of new memories is sometimes called ________, and the process of bringing up old memories is called ________.

construction, reconstruction

________ is when our recollections of the past are done in a self-enhancing manner.

egocentric bias

Holly was sitting on her bed when she remembered she needed to call her mom about what to do for her grandma's birthday. She got up and did a few dishes before calling her mom, but then she forgot why she had needed to call. She retraced her steps back to her bed, then suddenly rememberd the purpose of the call. This can be explained by the You were correct.

encoding specificity principle

The fact that Elon can remember more words on his German test while taking the exam inside his classroom (instead of the testing center) can be explained by the

encoding specificity principle

The three functions of memory are ________.

encoding, storage, and retrieval

This physical trace of memory is known as the ________.

engram

The storage capacity of long-term memory is ________.

essentially limitless

Episodic memories and semantic memories are both examples of ________ memory.

explicit

Hearing a French speaker and later noticing French food more often wherever you go:

explicit

Knowing the capital of Texas:

explicit

Knowing the word for "flower" in Japanese:

explicit

Remembering the time you fell out of a tree when you were five:

explicit

Remembering what present you bought for your aunt:

explicit

Solving a geometry problem:

explicit

Atkinson-Shiffrin model (A-S): memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory automatic processing: encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words declarative memory: type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience effortful processing: encoding of information that takes effort and attention episodic memory: type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory explicit memory: memories we consciously try to remember and recall implicit memory: memories that are not part of our consciousness memory: system or process that stores what we learn for future use memory consolidation: active rehearsal to move information from short-term memory into long-term memory procedural memory: type of long-term memory for making skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, and how to swim retrieval: act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness self-reference effect: tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance semantic encoding: input of words and their meaning semantic memory: type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts sensory memory: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes short-term memory (STM): (also, working memory) holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used storage: creation of a permanent record of information

glossary

absentmindedness: lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else bias: how feelings and view of the world distort memory of past events forgetting: loss of information from long-term memory misattribution: memory error in which you confuse the source of your information persistence: failure of the memory system that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones proactive interference: old information hinders the recall of newly learned information reconstruction: process of bringing up old memories that might be distorted by new information retroactive interference: information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information transience: memory error in which unused memories fade with the passage of time

glossary

amnesia: loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma anterograde amnesia: loss of memory for events that occur after the brain trauma retrograde amnesia: loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma

glossary

arousal theory: strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories engram: physical trace of memory equipotentiality hypothesis: some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories flashbulb memory: exceptionally clear recollection of an important event

glossary

encoding specificity principle: the hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram or memory trace. long-term memory (LTM): continuous storage of information recall: accessing information without cues recognition: identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue relearning: learning information that was previously learned retrieval: act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness storage: creation of a permanent record of information

glossary

false memory syndrome: recall of false autobiographical memories memory construction: formulation of new memories misattribution: memory error in which you confuse the source of your information misinformation effect paradigm: after exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event reconstruction: process of bringing up old memories that might be distorted by new information suggestibility: effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories

glossary

Climbing a tree:

implicit

For each of the following cases, determine if you would need implicit or explicit memory.Speaking your native language:

implicit

Opening a present:

implicit

Writing using pen and paper:

implicit

Which idea says that if you want to remember a piece of information, you should think about it more deeply and link it to other information?

levels of processing theory

The self-referencing effect refers to ________.

making the material you are trying to memorize personally meaningful to you

If you need to remember the names of all 50 states, the most recommended technique would be for you to

memorize five states at a time - group the information into a more manageable size

Jazmin tells her best friend, Ella, about a time in middle school when she went to the mall and spilled an entire bottle of ketchup onto her lap. Ella is surprised at the story and says, "No, that didn't happen to you---that happened to me! We were there together, remember?" This is an example of when the source of the memory is confused. This is known as

misattributio

Confusing the source of information is called

misattribution

When the source of a memory is confused, like you think the storyline of a t.v. show you watched actually happened to you in real life, it is called

misattribution

Memory aids that help organize information for encoding are ________.

mnemonic devices

Which of the seven sins of memory occurs when you simply cannot forget a traumatic event?

persistance

Arianna was an accomplished gymnast in her youth but hasn't been to the gym for nearly 10 years. Despite this, with some prompting from her old coach, she's able to do almost her entire uneven bar routine. This is an example of

procedural memory

When you take a multiple-choice test, you are relying on ________, a means of retrieving information out of your long-term memory storage system that helps you choose the correct answer.

recognition

Which type of memory is tested on a multiple choice test?

recognition

A multiple choice quiz question will test ________ while an open-ended question will test ________.

recognition, recall

Gabe was essentially fluent in French in elementary school when he lived in Canada, but then moved away until he got a job offer to work in Paris during his 20s. He picks it up again surprisingly fast. This is an example of ________, a means of retrieving information out of your long-term memory storage system.

relearning

Demarcus suffered a concussion in his first lacrosse match, causing him to forget everything that happened prior to the match. He has ________ amnesia.

retrograde

Bryson remembers nothing before his concussion happened, meaning he has ________ amnesia. If he were unable to learn new things, he would have ________ amnesia.

retrograde; anterograde

Samantha needs to remember a string of numbers, and does so by associating each set of numbers with the jersey numbers worn by her favorite football players. This is an example of ________ encoding.

semantic

Memory of brief events, like the smell of french fries you pass on the way to the corner store, are stored in ________ memory.

sensory

What kind of memory involves storage of brief events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes?

sensory

Which of the seven sins of memory occurs if an investigator asks a child leading questions, causing them to make up a memory?

suggestibility

If co-witnesses of a crime are permitted to talk to each other, they are prone to contaminate each other's memories. This is an example of

the misinformation effect

Mekayla loved her second grade teacher and remembers it being her favorite year of elementary school. When her niece asks her about her favorite part of second grade, Mekayla has a hard time remembering anything that actually happened during that year. This is an example of

transience

When a memory fades over time, it is called

transience

True or False: Ebbinghaus found that memory for information drops off rapidly and then levels off at about 20% of what you learned after 30 days. He called this the forgetting curve and his research demonstrated that 80% of what you learn is lost in the first 30 days after learning.

true

What is procedural memory?

type of implicit memory that stores information about how to do things

When H.M. had his hippocampus removed, he was

unable to form new semantic memories

Malik is memorizing some lines for his school play and struggles with, "Tut, I have lost myself; I am not here; This is not Romeo, he's some other where." To practice, he writes it out emphasizing words with capital letters: "Tut, I have lost myself; I AM NOT HERE; This is not Romeo, he's some OTHER WHERE." He is utilizing principles of ________ encoding.

visual

________ is another name for short-term memory.

working memory