PSYC 102 - Ch 11

concept chart (extras)

- harlow's studies show that reinforcement is not the key to attachment - bowlby argued that attachment has a biological and evolutionary basis

patterns of attachment

Mary Ainsworth's strange situation procedure = infants are exposed to a series of eight separation and reunion episodes to assess the quality of their attachment. the child's reactions to the parent's departures and returns are carefully monitored to gauge attachment quality most infants develop secure attachment where they play and explore comfortably w their mother present, become upset when she leaves, and are quickly calmed by their return some develop an anxious-ambivalent attachment, where they appear anxious even when their mother's near and protest excessively when she leaves but aren't very comforted when she returns avoidant attachment = children seek little contact w their mother and are often not distressed when she leaves fourth category added years later, disorganized-disoriented attachment = children appear confused about whether they should approach or avoid their mother and are especially insecure maternal behaviours have considerable influence on the type of attachment that emerges between an infant and mother. sensitivity is mainly what's important in a mother. more attentive, sensitive mothers will likely produce a secure attachment, but babies' temperaments matter too, as a difficult infant will slow the process of attachment

the search for identity

James Marcia's four identity statuses marcia proposed that the presence or absence of a sense of commitment (to life goals and values) and a sense of crisis (active questioning and exploration) can combine to produce four different identity statuses in order of increasing maturity: identity diffusion = a state of rudderless apathy with no commitment to an ideology (absence of struggle for identity, w no obvious concern about it. crisis and commitment absent) identity foreclosure = premature commitment to visions, values and roles. associated w conformity and not being very open to new experiences (unquestioning adoption of parental or societal values. crisis absent, commitment present) identity moratorium = involves delaying commitment for a while to experiment w alternative ideologies and careers (active struggling for a sense of identity. crisis present, commitment absent) identity achievement = arriving at a sense of self and direction after some consideration of alternative possibilities. is associated w higher self esteem, conscientiousness, security, achievement motivation and capacity for intimacy (successful achievement of a sense of identity. crisis present, commitment present) DFMA

emerging adulthood as a new developmental stage

Jeffrey Arnett = emerging adulthood, years between 18 to 25 due to differences today like later marriage and longer education etc. also an age of possibilities. and it's a self focused time of life. also a period of identity formation

the development of moral reasoning

Lawrence Kohlberg's model morality involves the ability to discern right from wrong and to behave accordingly

environmental factors and prenatal development

Nutrition, drug use, and illness. what mother does affects baby teratogens - external agents, such as drugs or viruses, that can harm an embryo or fetus maternal drug use - babies born to narcotic drug users are going to be addicted to these drugs when they're born. this can cause birth defects, respiratory difficulties and problems associated w their addiction. prenatal exposure to cocaine is associated w increased risks of birth complications + cognitive deficits seen in childhood fetal alcohol syndrome disorder (FASD) is a collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy. 1/9 babies in canada are affected by FASD and approx. 300,000 Canadians currently living w its effects. typical problems include: microcephaly (small head), heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity, delayed mental/motor development, antisocial/delinquent behaviour, etc tobacco use = associated w slower than average cognitive development, attention deficits, hyperactivity, conduct problems, and newborns risk for sudden infant death syndrome + miscarriage, stillbirth, prematurity maternal nutrition - balanced diet is important for the fetus to avoid birth complications and neurological deficits. it's recommended to have 150g of cooked fish each week, taking multivitamins containing 0.4mg of folic acid each day and monitoring weight gain according to pre pregnancy BMI stress and emotion - elevated levels of prenatal stress are associated w increased stillbirths, impaired immune response, heightened vulnerability to infectious disease, slowed motor development, below average cognitive development and social deficits. stress is so harmful because it can disrupt the delicate hormonal balance that fosters healthy prenatal development maternal illness - measles, rubella, syphilis and chickenpox can be hazardous to the fetus. nature of damage depends partly on when the mother contracts the illness. up thru mid 1990s, about 20-30% of HIV-positive pregnant women passed the virus onto their babies but improved antiretroviral drugs have reduced this number significantly environmental toxins - air pollution linked to impairments in cognitive development at age 5, and increased obesity at age 7. exposure to flame retardant material correlates w slower mental and physical development up through age 6 fetal origins of adult disease - certain illnesses/aspects of prenatal development are linked to adulthood diseases ie obesity to certain types of cancer, depression, bipolar, low birth weight = heart disease later on, prenatal malnutrition = schizophrenia

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

aging and physiological changes

only about 2-5% of people go through a midlife crisis average life expectancy for men: 82 for women: 86 by 2036 we may have over 10 million seniors in canada baby boomers tend to have higher rates of suicide compared to other generations at the same age end of life options for seniors dramatically changed w the introduction of bill c-14 w legislation permitting doctor-assisted death in canada in specified situations often report feeling younger than they actually are key developmental changes occur in vision and hearing, sensitivity to colour and contrast also decline hearing sensitivity usually isn't noticeable until after age 50 and more so in men and w high frequency sounds menopause for women at around age 50 psychological factors have protective value in diminishing deleterious effects of aging health + longevity are associated w optimism and conscientiousness high self esteem and tendency to experience positive emotions also linked to successful aging also depends on behavioural habits ie diet, exercise, etc

jean piaget's stage theory

sensorimotor (birth to age 2), preoperational (2 - 7), concrete operational (7 - 11), formal operational (11 onwards) according to Piaget, children progress in their thinking through the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation. assimilation = interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures without changing them. in contrast, accommodation involves changing existing mental structures to explain new experiences stage 1. sensorimotor period: infants are developing their ability to coordinate their sensory input with their motor actions gradual appearance of symbolic thought. at the beginning of this stage, a child's behaviour is dominated by innate reflexes, but by the end of it, the child can use mental symbols to represent objects ie mental image of a favourite toy. the key to this transition is object permanence object permanence develops when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they're no longer visible. typically mastered at around 18 months old stage 2. preoperational period: children gradually improve in their use of mental images beaker problem - if B is poured into C and C looks taller than A, children in this period will still answer that C has more water despite it being the same as beaker B which was the same as A conservation = awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance centration = tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects irreversibility = inability to envision reversing an action egocentrism = characterized by a limited ability to share another person's viewpoint. includes animism = the belief that all things are living stage 3. concrete operational period: children can perform operations only on images of tangible objects and actual events reversibility = permits a child to mentally undo an action decentration = allows child to focus on more than one feature of a problem simultaneously ... leads to decline in egocentrism and gradual mastery of conservation mastery of conservation: age 6-7: conservation of number age 7-8: conservation of mass age 7-8: conservation of length age 8-9: conservation of area can handle hierarchical classification problems requiring focus on 2 levels of classification stage 4. formal operational period: begin to apply operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects after this, further developments in thinking change by degree rather than nature become more systematic in their problem-solving, ie use logic to reason abstract, systematic, logical and reflective ways of thinking criticisms: Piaget appears to have underestimated young children's cognitive development, children often display patterns of thinking that actually mix the stages, underestimated influence of cultural factors on cognitive development

culture and attachment

separation anxiety emerges at about 6-8 months and peaks at about 14-18 months in cultures around the world researchers found that 67% of infants in the US display secure attachment, 21% display avoidant, and 12% experience anxious-ambivalent secure attachment is most prominent around the world, though there are slight cultural variations in attachment patterns ie in Germany there are more avoidant children than in the US or Japan

development

sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death

understanding gender differences

sex = biologically based categories of female and male gender = culturally constructed distinctions between femininity and masculinity

physiological changes

adolescent growth spurt = typically starts at 9-10 in girls and 10-12 in boys secondary sex characteristics = physical features that distinguish one sex from another but aren't essential for reproduction ie facial hair and breast growth puberty = stage during which sexual functions reach maturity which marks the beginning of adolescence primary sex characteristics = structures necessary for reproduction. develop fully during puberty in females, puberty's signalled by menarche - the first occurrence of menstruation, usually at about 12-13 w further maturation occurring until about 16 boys typically experience spermarche - the first occurrence of ejaculation at 13-14 w further sexual maturation continuing until about 18 the pituitary gland sends signals to the adrenal glands and gonads which secrete hormones responsible for various physical changes generational changes = today's adolescents complete puberty at a younger age and more rapidly. this is likely due to improvements in nutrition and medical care + environmental pollutants serving as endocrine disruptors

early emotional development: attachment

attachment = close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers by about 6-8 months, rather than instantaneously, infants show a preference for mom and will protest when separated from her > separation anxiety = emotional distress seen in many infants when they're separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment. typically peaks at around 14-18 months and then begins to decline

overview of human development

stages of development

4 periods of life span

prenatal period, childhood, adolescence, adulthood

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

environmental origins of gender differences

- socialization is the acquisition of the norms and behaviours expected of people in a particular society - gender roles are expectations about what is appropriate behaviour for each sex - 3 key processes involved in the development of gender roles: - operant conditioning - observational learning - self-socialization 3 principle sources of gender role socialization: - families - school - media operant conditioning: - gender roles shaped by power of reward and punishment partly - others often reinforce gender appropriate behaviour. boys experience more pressure in this way observational learning: - children tend to imitate gender appropriate behaviour - most children tend to imitate same sex role models more than opposite sex role models self-socialization: - several cognitive theories - children learn to classify themselves as male/female and to recognize their sex as a permanent quality around 5-7 - this motivates them to value those characteristics and behaviours associated w their sex - strive to bring their behaviour in line with what's considered gender-appropriate in their culture sources of gender role socialization: families: - roughhousing play w boys more common, divisive household chores, scientific facts taught more to boys, play w different toys schools: - books can influence ideas about what's gender appropriate behaviour - teachers award sex appropriate behaviour, pay more attention to males - girls less encouraged to enrol in advanced science/math courses media: - women often portrayed as submissive, passive, emotional - men are portrayed more as independent, assertive and competent

Erikson's Stage Theory

Divides life span into 8-stages, each characterized by a psychosocial crisis involving transitions in important social relationships. personality is shaped by how we deal w these crises divided between 2 opposing tendencies such as trust vs mistrust determines balance between opposing polarities in personality. development is enhanced when a crisis is resolved in favour of the healthier alternative stage 1: trust vs mistrust "is my world predictable and supportive?" (first year). if an infant's needs are taken care of rather than not, it's bound to be more trusting of its surroundings stage 2: autonomy vs shame/doubt "can I do things myself or must I always rely on others?" (2-3 years). if personal responsibilities ie potty training, feeding, etc goes well, then the child will have some self-sufficiency. if not, there will consistently be parent-child conflicts which induce shame stage 3: initiative vs guilt "am I good or bad?" (4-6 years). children may take initiatives that conflict w their parents rules. over-controlling parents may begin to install feelings of guilt so parents need to support their children's emerging independence while maintaining appropriate control. hopefully children will learn to remain their sense of initiative while still respecting others stage 4: industry vs inferiority "am I competent or am I worthless?" (age 6 thru puberty). learning to function socially in the broader social realm ie neighbourhood and school. children able to function effectively learn to value achievement and take pride in accomplishment, resulting in a sense of competence stage 5: identity vs confusion "who am I and where am I going?" (adolescence) stage 6: intimacy vs isolation "shall I share my life with another or live alone?" (early adulthood) stage 7: generativity vs self-absorption "will i produce something of real value?" (middle adulthood) stage 8: integrity vs despair "have I lived a full life?" (late adulthood) theories of development can be continuous or discontinuous (stages) TAI III GI

time of turmoil?

G Stanley Hall proposed the adolescent years are characterized by convulsive instability and disturbing inner turmoil depression rates in adolescents can be as high as 20%, suicide is third leading cause of death among adolescents in US and second leading cause of death for Canadians between the ages of 15 and 19 but the highest is between 40 - 59 and attempted suicides are higher for girls but actual suicides are higher for boys First Nations Canadians most vulnerable to suicide rates, twice the sex-specific rates and three times the age-specific rates reported for the Canadian population .. up to 7x more compared to non aboriginal youth chandler and Lalonde = cultural continuity factors differentiate the settings where suicide rates are high and argue that a sense of personal and cultural continuity is necessary especially in times of change of identity 2 important sets of circumstances may combine to cause high suicide levels among First Nations teens - one is the set of changes that most adolescents experience. the other arises "whenever one's culture, out of which the particulars of one's identity are necessarily composed its also thrown into serious disarray" ... culture is important to one's sense of self

theories of attachment

Harry Harlow = studies of attachment in infant rhesus monkeys. he removed monkeys from their mothers at birth and raised them in the lab w 2 types of artificial substitute mothers. one type was made of Terry cloth, and another was made of wire. half of the monkeys were fed by a wire mother, the other half were fed by a cloth mother. when threatened w a frightening stimulus, the monkeys would go for the cloth mother even when not fed by her, showing the reinforcement through feeding was not key to attachment (contact comfort) an alternate explanation of attachment was proposed by John Bowlby. according to his view, infants are biologically programmed to emit behaviour ie smiling, cooing, that trigger an affectionate, protective response from adults. adults are programmed evolutionarily to be captivated by this behaviour and to respond w love, protection, etc. so Bowlby's theory focused on attachment in terms of its survival value for infants. contemporary evolutionary theorists emphasize how attachment contributes to parents and children's reproductive fitness

the expanse of adulthood - personality development (the question of stability)

Roger Gould concluded that the evolution of a personality continues through the fifth decade of life general consensus is that personality tends to be quite stable from 20 - 40 years old psychological test scores = relative measures that show how one scores relative to other people. raw scores are converted into percentile scores that indicate the precise degree to which one is above or below average on a particular trait which remain generally stable over time conscientiousness, agreeableness tend to increase over time variations among people in the extent to which they experience personality change, the biggest changes in raw scores tend to occur between 20 and 40, significant changes can even occur in old age, and the typical developmental trends represent positive changes that move people toward great social maturity .. so adulthood personality = stability AND change

fetal stage

The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months through birth. first 2 months - rapid bodily growth, muscles and bones begin to form so movement is possible 3rd month - sex organs begin to form last 3 months - rapid brain cell growth, layer of fat deposited under skin for insulation, respiratory/digestive systems mature from 22 - 26 weeks, the age of viability is reached by the fetus which means a baby can theoretically survive in the event of premature birth. between 23 - 25 weeks, the fetus reaches the threshold of viability, where they can survive in the event of a premature birth. at 23 weeks, there's a 20% chance but it climbs to 67% at 25 weeks. but developmental problems can still occur despite survival weeks since conception: 9 - formation of brain; differentiation of ovaries and testes 12 - can smile/frown, circulatory system working 16 - heartbeat is strong; mother feels movement 20 - hiccups begin; hair forms 24 - visual and auditory senses functional; eyes open 28 - body fat is added; brain specialization 32 - periods of sleep and wakefulness 36 - rapid increase in weight, gains immunity from mother 38 - birth

death and dying

avoidance = common strategy Elisabeth Kubler Ross research: 1. denial 2. anger 3. bargaining 4. depression 5. acceptance DABDA bereavement = when a friend, spouse or relative dies studies of bereaved spouses suggest grief reactions fall into 5 patterns: - absent grief or the resilient pattern is characterized by low levels of depression before and after the spouse's death - chronic grief is low pre-loss depression before spouse's death followed by sustained depression after the spouse's death - common grief is characterized by a spike in depression shortly after the spouse's death and a decline in depression over time - depressed-improved pattern is high pre-loss depression followed by a relatively quick and sustained decline in depression after the spouse's death - chronic depression describes those who experienced high levels of depression both before and after death absent grief/resilience is the most common pattern, exhibited by 1/2 of spouses

critical periods in development:

critical or sensitive periods for the development of some of our abilities/characteristics first popularized in 1930s/40s by Konrad Lorenz in his formulation of animal imprinting critical period = limited time span in the development of an organism when it is optimal for certain capacities to emerge because the organism is especially responsive to certain experiences. if not acquired here, it won't be possible to acquire it later sensitive period = optimal period for acquisition but doesn't obviate acquisition at a later point

aging and neural changes

brain tissue/brain weight decline gradually in late adulthood mostly after age 60 dementia is an abnormal condition marked by multiple cognitive deficits that include memory impairment Alzheimer's disease accounts for roughly 60-80% of all cases of dementia, widespread loss of neurons especially in the hippocampal region, typically progressively deteriorates over 8-10 years unstructured formats are worse for memory in text, showing difficulties in retrieval stage of memory chronic inflammation + genetics are factors in getting the disease stimulating cognitive activities good for decreasing vulnerability to it

the growth of thought: cognitive development

cognitive development refers to transitions in youngsters' patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering and problem solving mostly researched by Jean Piaget's Stage Theory

prenatal period

conception to birth (9 months) a lot of significant developmental changes occur here divided into 3 periods: germinal stage, embryonic stage, fetal stage

aging and cognitive changes

decreases in memory capabilities as aging occurs episodic memory appears to be more vulnerable than semantic memory to age related decline aging seems to take its toll on speed first, while mental speed declines with age, problem-solving ability remains largely unimpaired if given adequate time "use it or lose it" hypothesis bilingualism serves to buffer against cognitive decline

biological origins of gender differences

evolutionary explanations: - gender differences in behaviour are largely similar across divergent cultures suggesting biological factors are at work - males have to engage in more competition than females for mates so they're more aggressive - differences in spatial ability bc males do hunting while females do gathering ancestrally - evolutionary analyses can be very "flexible" ie can be used to explain almost anything which is a con role of hormones: - about half a dozen endocrine disorders can cause overproduction or underproduction of specific gonadal hormones during prenatal development - females exposed to abnormally high levels of androgens prenatally exhibit more male typical behaviour, likewise for males w lower androgen exposure. evidence is stronger for females differences in brain organization: - gender differences may be rooted in disparities in brain structure/organization between the genders - left hemisphere = actively involved in verbal processing - right hemisphere = actively involved in visual-spatial processing - males tend to exhibit more cerebral specialization than females - females tend to have a larger corpus callosum - hard to prove these though, many theorists remain convinced that gender differences are largely shaped by experience

theory of mind

examines development of children's understanding about the mind and mental states, and how children conceive of another person's thought processes, knowledge, beliefs and feelings most children under four don't yet appreciate that people can hold false beliefs that don't accurately reflect reality. this understanding of the mind begins to turn a corner between 3 -4 around age 2, children begin to distinguish between mental states and overt behaviour. the first mental states they understand are desire and emotions by 3, they talk about others' beliefs and thoughts + their desires by 4, children consistently make the connection between mental states and behaviour. so they understand how people's beliefs + thoughts and desires motivate their behaviour children suffering from autism may experience mind-blindness or a lack of theory of mind, according to Baron-Cohen

germinal stage

first 2 weeks of prenatal development, characterized by rapid cell division, blastocyst formation, and implantation in the wall of the uterus placenta develops here. the placenta is a structure that allows the nutrients and oxygen from the mother to pass into the fetus from the mother's bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother. but their bloodstreams are kept separate by thin membranes begins when a zygote is fertilized, within the first 36 hours, a lot of rapid cell division occurs so the zygote becomes a microscopic mass of multiplying cells. this zygote migrates along the Fallopian tube to the mother's uterine cavity (at about 7 days, implantation in the uterine cavity occurs) many pregnancies fail here because implantation is not an automatic process (1 in 5 fail)

personality development in childhood

first major theory of personality development was developed by Sigmund Freud in around 1900, who claimed the basic foundation of an individual's personality is laid down by 5 Erik Erikson (1963) also concluded that events in early childhood leave a permanent stamp on adult personality but also theorized that personality continues to evolve over the entire life span > devised a stage theory a stage is a developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behaviour are exhibited and certain capacities become established and assume that: 1. individuals must progress through specified stages in a specific order because each stage builds on the previous one 2. progress through these stages is strongly related to age 3. development is marked by major discontinuities that usher in dramatic transitions in behaviour

daycare and attachment

for the most part, evidence suggests that day-care doesn't have a harmful effect on children's attachment relationships decreases in attachment security are seen when mothers are relatively insensitive and their children also experience low quality daycare. difficult children are particularly vulnerable to the potential negative effects of low quality daycare

embryonic stage

from 2 weeks until the end of the second month most vital organs/bodily systems begin to form here ie heart, spine, brain as cell division becomes more specialized the embryo's only about 2.5 cm long at the end of this stage but is starting to look human because of its arms, legs, fingers, etc very vulnerable stage because if anything interferes w normal development, the effects can be devastating w many miscarriages occurring during this period

how do the sexes differ in behaviour?

gender differences = actual disparities between the sexes in typical behaviour or average ability there are differences but fewer/smaller than stereotypes suggest cognitive abilities: - females tend to exhibit slightly better verbal skills than males, though gaps are small - starting during high school, males show slight advantage in math ability - globally, advantages tend to favour males and are small - modest - about 3-4x as many males as females manifest exceptional math skills - males tend to score higher than females on most measures of visual-spatial ability starting in grade school social behaviour: - males tend to be much more physically aggressive, this disparity showing up early in childhood - females/males seem pretty similar in their level of verbal or relational aggression - differences in non-verbal communication, females are more sensitive to it + pay attention to interpersonal information more - males are more sexually active ie premarital sex, porn, etc

neural development: the teen brain

growth of white matter suggests that neurons are becoming more myelinated leading to enhanced connectivity in the brain, whereas the decrease in grey matter is thought to reflect synaptic pruning which plays a key role in the formation of neural networks these are both most pronounced in the prefrontal cortex so this appears to be the last area of the brain to fully mature and may not fully be complete till mid 20s prefrontal cortex = executive control centre that appears crucial to cognitive control and emotional regulation, slow development may explain why risky behaviour peaks during adolescence and then declines in adulthood elevated sensitivity to reward attributed to early maturation of the subcortical dopamine circuits that mediate the experience of pleasure elevated susceptibility to peer influence

are fathers essential to children's wellbeing?

in canada, 15.7% of the 8.4 million families in 2001 census were single parents, w 81% being female the basic argument: - proportion of children living without a father has more than doubled - fatherless children have a risk factor 2-3x higher than that of fathered children to have negative outcomes ie giving birth as teenager, becoming juvenile delinquents etc (popenoe) evaluating the argument: - fathers being essential for healthy development is correlational not causational - think about whether there are specific, alternative explanations for findings you might have doubts about. father absence much more common in low income families so poverty may be to blame for these negative outcomes too - ask if there's contradictory evidence - look for fallacies in reasoning (false dichotomy ie false either or, slippery slope, etc)

Erikson's view of adulthood

intimacy vs isolation = should promote empathy and openness generativity vs self-absorption = acquiring concern for welfare of future generations, through providing guidance and a legacy integrity vs despair = avoid tendency to dwell on mistakes

adjusting to parenthood

majority canadian women found the experience of birth and parenthood to be very positive 1) parents exhibit lower marital satisfaction than comparable non-parents 2) mothers of infants report the steepest decline in marital satisfaction 3) the more children couples have, the lower their marital satisfaction tends to be

transitions in family life

percentage of young adults who are postponing marriage until their late 20s or early 30s has risen steadily likely due to new career options for women, increased educational requirements in the world of work, increased emphasis on personal autonomy conjugal status = nature of relationship between cohabiting couples. 80% of Canadian couples still opting for marriage, 20% live in common-law common-law has increased from 6.3% in 1981 to 20% now divorce rate in canada increased to 11.5% in 2011 from 5.1% in 1981. 8-14% of newlyweds are in the distressed range on measures of marital satisfaction personality trait of optimism fosters constructive problem solving and marital wellbeing but relationship-specific optimism which involves idealistic expectations about marriage was associated w less constructive problem solving and steep declines in marital wellbeing during the first year of marriage association between premarital cohabitation and increased divorce rates weak married mothers still put in twice the amount of time for household duties despite married fathers doubling their contribution since the 1960s

infancy (birth - 2)

physical and sensorimotor development: - rapid brain growth, 75% of adult brain weight is attained by age 2 - rapid improvement occurs in visual acuity; depth perception is clearly present by six months, perhaps earlier - ability to localize sounds is apparent at birth; ability to recognize parent's voice occurs within first week - landmarks in motor development: infants sit without support around 6 months, walk around 12-14 months, run freely around 2 years major stage theories: - Piaget: sensorimotor - Kohlberg: premoral - Erikson: trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame - Freud: oral/anal cognitive development: - object permanence gradually develops - infant shows orienting response (pupils dilate, head turns) and attention to new stimulus, habituation (reduced orienting response) to repeated stimulus - babbling increasingly resembles spoken language - first word used around age one; vocabulary spurt usually begins around 18 months social/personality development: - temperamental individuality is established by 2-3 months; infants tend to be easy, difficult or slow to warm up - attachment to caregivers is usually evident around 6-8 months; secure attachment facilitates exploration - stranger anxiety often appears around 6-8 months; separation anxiety peaks around 14-18 months

middle adulthood (40 - 65)

physical/sensorimotor development: - changes occur in vision, increased farsightedness - amount of brain tissue declines - menopause occurs around 50 in women - sensitivity to high frequency sounds especially in males after age 55 major stage theories: Erickson: generativity vs self absorption cognitive development: - some evidence for trend toward improved judgement or wisdom - effectiveness of retrieval from long term memory begins slow decline not usually noticeable till after 55 - gradual decline speed off learning, problem solving, information processing - intellectual productivity and problem solving skills usually remains stable social/personality development: - middle transition usually leads to reflection but usually not a personal crisis - sandwich generation is caught between needs of aging parents and children reaching adulthood - career development peaks; some tendency to shift energy from career to family concerns

late adulthood (65+)

physical/sensorimotor development: - height decreases slightly, decline in weight also common - sensitivity of vision, hearing and taste noticeably decreases - chronic diseases especially heart, disease, cancer, stroke etc increase - rate of aging highly individualized major stage theories: Erickson: integrity vs despair cognitive development: - individual experiences gradual decline in cognitive speed and effectiveness of working memory - intellectual productivity depends on factors like health and lifestyle, many people in 60s and 70s remain quite productive - decision making tends to become more cautious - fluid intelligence often declines but crystallized intelligence remains stable or increases social/personality development: - physical changes associated w aging require adjustments that affect life satisfaction - marital satisfaction often increases, but eventually death of spouses presents coping challenge - living arrangements are significant determinant of satisfaction, as 60-90% of time is spent at home

adolescence (12-20)

physical/sensorimotor development: - in boys, growth spurt begins around 13 - pituitary/hormone increase -puberty begins around 14 in boys, become capable of ejaculation - boys secondary sex characteristics emerge major stage theories: piaget: formal operational Kohlberg: postconventional Erickson: identity vs confusion freud: genital cognitive development: - deductive reasoning/problem solving improve - thought becomes more abstract/relative, abstract vs concrete - idealistic contemplation of hypotheticals - long term memory continues to improve social/personality development: - person experiences increased interactions w opposite sex peers - attention devoted to identity formation - realistic considerations about abilities and training requirements in thoughts of jobs

young adulthood (20-40)

physical/sensorimotor development: - reaction time and muscular strength peak in early to mid 20s - external signs of aging begin to show in 30s - lowered metabolic rate - maximum functioning of all body systems, slow decline begins in 20s major stage theories: piaget: formal operational kohlberg: postconventional Erickson: intimacy vs isolation freud: genital cognitive development: - intellectual abilities/speed of info processing stable - greater emphasis on application rather than acquisition of knowledge - dialectal thought trend (ideas stimulating opposing ideas) social/personality development: - energies focused on intimate relationships, starting family and home - trail period for occupational choices and stabilization of vocational commitment, emphasis on self reliance - close relationships may develop w a mentor

middle childhood (6-12)

physical/sensorimotor development: - growth spurt around 11 in girls - level of pituitary activity and sex hormones increases - in girls, puberty begins around 12, menstruation starts - girls' secondary sex characteristics begin to emerge major stage theories: piaget: concrete operational Kohlberg: conventional Erikson: industry vs inferiority freud: latency cognitive development: conservation child develops decentration and reversibility metalinguistic awareness long term memory improves w rehearsal, organization, etc social/personality development: - great increase in social skills - role taking skills emerge - altruism tends to increase, aggression tends to decrease and become more verbal than physical

early childhood (2-6)

physical/sensorimotor development: - visual acuity reaches 20/20 - connections among neurons continue to increase in density - bladder/bowel control is established - hand preference is usually solidified by 3-4 years; coordination improves; know how to dress themselves major stage theories: Piaget: preoperational Kohlberg: preconventional Erikson: initiative vs guilt Freud: phallic cognitive development: - egocentrism - centration - irreversibility - telegraphic speech (omitting nonessential words) appears at 2-3 years; syntax well developed by age 5; vocabulary increases dramatically - short term memory increases from two items at age 2 to five items around age 6-7; attention span improves social/personality development: - child realizes that gender doesn't change and begins to learn gender roles and form gender identity; social behaviour is influenced by observational learning, resulting in imitation - parallel play to cooperative play - social world extended beyond family

Kohlberg's stage theory

preconventional, conventional, postconventional derived from Jean Piaget (1932) Kohlberg's theory focuses more on moral reasoning rather than overt behaviour preconventional level: younger children think in terms of external authority. acts are wrong because they're punished or right because they lead to positive consequences stage 1. punishment orientation: right/wrong are determined by what's punished stage 2. naive reward orientation: right/wrong are determined by what's rewarded conventional level: see rules as necessary for maintaining social order, and internalize these rules not to avoid punishment but to be virtuous and win approval from others. inflexible moral thinking at this stage stage 3. good boy/good girl orientation: right and wrong are determined by close others' approval or disapproval stage 4. authority orientation: right and wrong are determined by society's rules and laws which should be obeyed rigidly postconventional level: working out a personal code of ethics. acceptance of rule is less rigid and moral thinking shows some flexibility stage 5. social contract orientation: right/wrong are determined by society's rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute stage 6. individual principles and conscience orientation: right/wrong are determined by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equity and justice PN GA SI criticisms: mixing of stages can occur, focuses too heavily on interpersonal conflicts

motor development

progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities maturation = development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint developmental norms = median age at which individuals display various behaviours and abilities. revolves around average cultural variations/environmental effects have an effect on motor development as well as age

easy and difficult babies: differences in temperament

temperament refers to characteristic mood, activity level and emotional reactivity Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess have conducted a major longitudinal study of the development of temperament - found that temperamental development is established in infant by 2-3 months old. found 3 basic styles of temperament: - 40% were easy children ie happy, regular in sleeping, eating, adaptable, not readily upset - 15% were slow-to-warm-up children who tended to be less cheery, less regular in their sleeping and eating and slower in adapting to changes - difficult children were 10% of the group, and they were glum, erratic in sleeping and eating, resistant to change and relatively irritable - the remaining 35% showed mixtures of these temperaments in a longitudinal design, investigators observe one group of participants repeatedly over a period of time. tend to be more sensitive to developmental changes. but participants often dropout due to loss of interest etc cross sectional design = investigators compare groups of participants of differing age at a single point in time (quicker, easier, cheaper) but may reflect cohort effects cohort effects = occur when differences between age groups are due to the groups growing up in different time periods

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture. unlike Piaget, thought culture exerts great influence over how cognitive growth unfolds so it's not as universal. also argued that language acquisition was crucial in fostering cognitive development unlike Piaget who viewed the gradual mastery of language as another aspect of cognitive development Vygotsky's emphasis on primacy of language = private speech ie when children talk aloud to themselves. language increasingly serves as the foundation for youth's cognitive processes saw cognitive development as apprenticeship vs journey of individual discovery zone of proximal development (ZPD) = gap between what a learner can accomplish alone and what he or she can achieve with guidance from more skilled partners scaffolding = when assistance provided to a child is adjusted as learning progresses. facilitates learning "thought and language" book published in 1986

two themes of human development

transition and continuity people evolve through transitions over time, and find continuity with the past

the transition of adolescence

transitional period between childhood and adulthood, from 13 - 22

Are some cognitive abilities innate?

• Infants seem to exhibit surprisingly sophisticated numerical abilities • Infants understand surprisingly complex concepts that they have virtually no opportunity to learn about nativists vs evolutionary theorists: > nativists = humans are prewired to readily understand certain concepts without making assumptions as to why they're prewired in these ways > evolutionary theorists = agree humans are prewired for certain cognitive abilities, but are keenly interested in why habituation-dishabituation paradigm: > habituation = gradual reduction in the strength of a response when a stimulus event is presented repeatedly > dishabituation = if a new stimulus elicits an increase in the strength of a habituated response