PSYC 2450- Test 2 Study Guide
spermarche
the term for a boy's first ejaculation, which signals sperm production has begun
menarche
the term for a girl's first period. It signals that ovulation has begun (although is often irregular for a few years)
What are the 6 characteristics of immature adolescent thought as outlined by David Elkind?
(1) Idealism & Criticalness (2) Argumentativeness (3) Indecisiveness (4) Apparent Hypocrisy (5) Self-consciousness (Imaginary Audience) (6) Specialness & Invulnerability (Personal Fable)
What two major characteristics define post-formal thought (5th stage)?
(1) Metacognition - thinking about your own thinking - you can analyze your own thoughts -Example: I feel like I don't want to get out of bed or eat. I have lost interest in my friends. Metacognition ->Maybe I am depressed. (2) Relativistic Thinking - understanding that knowledge depends on the subjective perspective of the knower - this form of thinking comes with practical and life experiences and can effect every domain of one's life -Example: Taught in PT school that patients with pelvic and long bone fractures are the ones most likely to develop blood clots. So we are always vigilant and observe them closely and they rarely die of a clot that travels called a pulmonary embolism. In my experience, the fracture that is mostly likely to result in death due to a pulmonary embolism (relativistic thinking developed from my many years of treating this type of patient) ....... A middle aged male, with abdominal weight (9 month look) who sustained an ankle fracture. Yes! An ankle fracture *The more experience you have, the more you are able to make decisions and judgements based off of your previous experiences
It is estimated that it takes about _____ of training and expertise to become a true expert in a field.
(a) 10 years (b) 20 years (c) 30 years (d) 40 years
Sam and Sue are shopping for groceries. Sam looks at the list and tells Sue, "I'll get the cat food, soap, toilet paper, and flour, and I'll meet you by the lettuce." Sam takes off, muttering to himself over and over again: "Cat food, soap, toilet paper, flour." This best illustrates the use of which memory strategy?
(a) Chunking (b) Elaboration (c) Organization (d) Rehearsal *Rehearsal- A strategy for remembering that involves repeating the items the person is trying to retain.
What is the most common subtype of dementia?
(a) Down syndrome (b) Parkinson's disease (c) Alzheimer's disease (d) Vascular dementia *Alzheimer's Disease- A pathological condition of the nervous system that results in an irreversible loss of cognitive capacities; the leading cause of dementia, or neurocognitive disorder, in later life.
Which is the BEST description of a typical short-term memory?
(a) Fairly brief duration (seconds) and small capacity (seven or so items) (b) Fairly long duration (minutes) and small capacity (seven or so items) (c) Fairly brief duration (seconds) and large capacity (seventy or so items) (d) Fairly long duration (minutes) and large capacity (seventy or so items)
Carlos has experienced significant damage to his hippocampus (an area located in the medial temporal lobe). How would this most likely impact his memory?
(a) He would not be able to recall events from his childhood. (b) He would have trouble creating new episodic memories. (c) He would not be able to recall who he is. (d) He could recall past events but not factual information.
Which structure of the brain is involved in forming emotionally charged memories?
(a) Hippocampus (b) Corpus Callosum (d) Basal Ganglia (d) Amygdala
Which statement would BEST represent a failure of retrieval?
(a) I never actually learned that information. (b) I don't know the answer because I never read the book containing the answer. (c) I know the answer, but I cannot find it in my mind. (d) I would know the answer, but the teacher talked so fast about the information that I could not keep up.
Dr. Quincy is about to conduct an autopsy on an individual he suspects has died due to complications of Alzheimer's disease. Which findings would verify his suspicion?
(a) Neurofibrillary tangles (b) Occipital lobe degeneration (c) A severely damaged brain stem (d) An excessively large corpus callosum ** Alzheimer's disease creates two telltale signs in the brain: senile plaques (masses of dying neural material outside neurons with a toxic protein called beta-amyloid at their core), and neurofibrillary tangles (twisted strands made of neural fibers and the protein tau within the bodies of neural cells). Inflammation in the brain becomes an increasing problem too as microglia, the immune system cells in the brain, try to keep up with the damage to the brain
_____ memories always involve personal experiences. (specific experiences)
(a) Procedural (b) Episodic (c) Implicit (d) Cued-recall *Episodic memory- A type of explicit memory consisting of specific episodes that one has experienced.
What brain change is BEST associated with Alzheimer's disease?
(a) Senile plagues (b) Excessive quantities of the metal mercury (c) Neurofibrillary bundles surrounding alpha-amyloid (d) Excessive levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine
Which of the following activities may prevent age-related memory losses?
(a) Tai-chi for stress reduction (b) Completing cross-word puzzles (c) Walking 2 blocks every night (d) All of the above activities may prevent age related memory loss
Which statement is true regarding "recall" and "recognition" memory in elderly adults?
(a) They are likely to be more deficient in recall than in recognition memory. (b) They are likely to be more deficient in recognition than in recall memory. (c) They are likely to be equally deficient in both types of memory. (d) Neither type of memory diminishes with age (except in extreme cases).
How does the APOE e4 gene appear to contribute to the development of Alzheimer's disease?
(a) Through an increased buildup of beta-amyloid (b) By decreasing blood flow to the prefrontal lobe (c) Through the creation of new synapses within the brain (d) By making the brain more susceptible to damage from a blow to the head
Which pair is best known for developing an information-processing-based model of memory?
(a) Young and Helmholtz (b) Watson and Skinner (c) Fechner and Weber (d) Atkinson and Shiffrin
Dementia is best defined as
(a) a sudden loss of memory and intelligence. (b) an inevitable, normal change in the brain with age. (c) a progressive loss of neural functioning. (d) a one-time period of significant disorientation. *Dementia- A progressive loss of cognitive capacities such as memory and judgment that affects some aging individuals and that has a variety of causes; now called neurocognitive disorder.
Childhood or infantile amnesia is defined as the inability to access _____ memories.
(a) all traumatic (b) insignificant (c) autobiographical (d) meta- *Autobiographical Memories- Memory of everyday events that the individual has experienced.
An explicit memory
(a) always has a sexual overtone. (b) is deliberately recalled. (c) occurs only after a hint has been given. (d) involves recalling behaviors but not ideas. *Explicit memory- (declarative memory) Memory that involves consciously recollecting the past. -involves deliberate, effortful recollection of events
Delirium is best defined as
(a) another term for dementia. (b) incurable. (c) a reversible state of confusion and disorientation. (d) a normal part of the aging process. *Delirium- A clouding of consciousness characterized by alternating periods of disorientation and coherence.
Wayne has trouble remembering the last four digits of his new phone number (4422) until he makes the connection that the last two digits are exactly half of the first two digits. Once he makes this connection, he has no trouble remembering the number! This best demonstrates the memory concept of ___________.
(a) chunking (b) elaboration (c) organization (d) rehearsal *Elaboration- A strategy for remembering that involves adding something to or creating meaningful links between the bits of information the person is trying to retain.
Encoding is BEST described as the process of
(a) cued recall. (b) putting information into the system. (c) uncued recall. (d) taking information out of the system
If Travis is a typical college student, he would have the HARDEST time accurately recalling the
(a) death of his father when he was a year old. (b) time his family moved when he was two years old. (c) birth of his brother when he was three years old. (d) time he was in the hospital when he was four years old.
The information processing approach stresses all of the following basic mental processes EXCEPT
(a) decision making (b) reinforcers (c) perception (d) attention
Research on aging and memory has shown that
(a) declines in memory first become noticeable around age 50. (b) older people experience difficulty on all memory tasks. (c) reliance on data from cross-sectional studies may mean that what appear to be age differences in memory are due to other factors. (d) the severity of memory loss is unrelated to age.
Research on autobiographical memory in adulthood has shown that the more _____ an event, the better it will later be recalled.
(a) distant (b) emotional (c) negative (d) unique
Cognitive theorists suggest that the most likely order of the processes of memory when information is being processed for the first time would be
(a) encoding, consolidation, storage, retrieval (b) retrieval, encoding, consolidation, storage (c) consolidation, storage, encoding, retrieval (d) storage, retrieval, encoding, consolidation *Encode- The first step in learning and remembering something, it is the process of getting information into the information-processing system, or learning it. Consolidation- In information processing, the processing and organizing of information into a form suitable for long-term storage. Storage- In information processing, the holding of information in the long-term memory store. Retrieval- The process of retrieving information from long-term memory when it is needed.
A memory that occurs without any conscious effort is best referred to as _____________.
(a) explicit (b) implicit (c) scripted (d) autobiographical *Implicit memory- (nondeclarative memory) Memory that occurs unintentionally and without consciousness or awareness. -occurs unintentionally, automatically, and without awareness
The information-processing approach to learning
(a) focuses exclusively on the impact of genetics on intelligence. (b) relies heavily on modeling and imitation. (c) likens the human mind to a computer. (d) is concerned primarily with affective responses to the environment. *Information-processing approach- An approach to cognition that emphasizes the fundamental mental processes involved in attention, perception, memory, and decision making. -This model, the information-processing approach to human cognition, emphasizes the basic mental processes involved in attention, perception, memory, and decision making.
Drugs like Aricept and Namenda that are currently used to treat Alzheimer's disease tend to
(a) have little measurable impact on behavioral or cognitive abilities. (b) positively impact cognitive functioning and reduce behavioral problems but do not slow the progression of the disease. (c) positively impact behavioral problems but have little impact on cognitive functioning. (d) positively impact cognitive functioning, reduce behavioral problems and slow the progression of the disease.
Deferred imitation always
(a) involves a reflex. (b) occurs after a delay between seeing an action and the response. (c) reflects the method of loci. (d) indicates that an implicit memory has been activated.
Vascular dementia
(a) is a slowly progressive deterioration of memory and thinking skills. (b) results from a series of small strokes. (c) has a very powerful genetic basis. (d) results from taking medications or having a poor diet and can be reversed when these problems are corrected. *Vascular dementia- The deterioration of functioning and cognitive capacities caused by a series of minor strokes that cut off the blood supply to areas of the brain; also called multi-infarct dementia, it is one of the leading causes of neurocognitive disorder. -Formerly called multi-infarct dementia, most cases are caused by a series of minor strokes that cut off the blood supply to areas of the brain.
A child with _____deficiencies cannot use strategies, even when taught to use them.
(a) mediation (b) utilization (c) mediation and utilization (d) utilization and production
Which is the MOST likely sequence of developing memory or encoding strategies?
(a) organization rehearsal elaboration (b) elaboration organization rehearsal (c) rehearsal organization elaboration (d) elaboration rehearsal organization
The tendency to keep making the same mistake over and over is referred to as making a(n) _____ error.
(a) preservation (b) mediation (c) utilization (d) organization *Preservation- Mistake made when an information processor continues to use the same strategy that was successful in the past over and over despite the strategy's lack of success in the current situation.
In a police lineup, a witness is shown a group of potential perpetrators that includes the actual perpetrator. He or she is then asked to point to the individual who committed the crime. The basic premise of this method involves assessing _____ memory.
(a) recall (b) cued-recall (c) implicit (d) recognition *Recognition memory- Identifying an object or event as one that has been experienced before, such as when a person must select the correct answer from several options. Contrast with cued recall memory and recall memory.
Regis asks a game show contestant, "In inches, how far is the Earth from the sun?" If no other information is given to the contestant, this task is best classified as an assessment of _____ memory.
(a) recognition (b) metamemory (c) recall (d) cued-recall *Recall memory- Recollecting or actively retrieving objects, events, and experiences when examples or cues are not provided. Contrast with cued recall memory and recognition memory.
The process during which information is organized into a form suitable for long-term storage is called __________.
(a) retrieval (b) utilization (c) recognition (d) consolidation
Ethel looks up a phone number of a gas station and remembers it just long enough to walk over to the phone and dial. When dialing, the information is contained in her
(a) sensory register. (b) short-term memory. (c) long-term memory. (d) metamemory. *Sensory register- The first memory store in information processing in which stimuli are noticed and are briefly available for further processing. -which ever-so-briefly (less than a second) holds the abundant sensory information—sights, sounds, smells, and more—that swirls around us Short-term memory- The memory store in which limited amounts of information are temporarily held; called working memory when its active quality is being emphasized. -which holds a limited amount of information, perhaps only four chunks, for a short period of time
Most people find that test questions requiring _____ memory are easier to answer than those requiring _____ memory.
(a) sensory; short-term (b) cued-recall; recognition (c) recognition; cued-recall (d) short-term; sensory *Recognition memory- Identifying an object or event as one that has been experienced before, such as when a person must select the correct answer from several options. Contrast with cued recall memory and recall memory. Cued recall memory- Recollecting objects, events, or experiences in response to a hint or cue. Contrast with pure recall memory and recognition memory.
Information is stored in _____ memory for a relatively permanent period of time.
(a) short-term (b) sensory (c) long-term (d) working *Long-term memory- Memory store in which information that has been examined and interpreted is stored relatively permanently. -believed to be a relatively permanent and seemingly unlimited store of information
Semantic memories are for
(a) specific events. (b) general facts. (c) early childhood experiences. (d) how to perform an action. *Semantic memory- A type of explicit memory consisting of general facts.
The Sequence of Puberty
- Hormone production begins approximately 1/2 year earlier in girls that in boys -The peak height spurt in girls is about 11 1/2 years and for boys it is 13 years of age -Peak muscle and organ growth for girls is about 12 years and for buys is 14 years of age *Girls tend to hit puberty earlier than boys *The voice lowers bor both males and females -For girls, it occurs around 14 years of age and a year later for boys at 15 years of age. The deepening of the voice is more pronounced in boys because of the increased levels of testosterone.
Apparent Hypocrisy
- Teens (as well as children and some adults) often do not recognize the difference between expressing an ideal and then making the sacrifices necessary to live up to it Example: Mom can we have a dog? I promise to take care of the dog. I will take him for a walk and make sure he is feed. Mom gives in and gets the dog. Three months later who is walking the dog? Mom
Self-consciousness
- Teens assume that everyone is thinking about what they are thinking about -> themselves - This is part of a concept called the imaginary audience Imaginary audience - an imaginary observer that exists only in a teen's mind and is as concerned with the teen's thoughts and actions as they are themselves - especially strong in early teens - persists to a lesser degree in adult life Example: I have a pimple on my nose and the whole class is looking at it. In reality, nobody even noticed.
Specialness and Invulnerability
- Teens believe they are special and that nothing will happen to them - This is part of a concept called the personal fable Personal Fable - a belief by teens that (1) they are special (2) their experience is unique (3) not subject to the rules that govern the rest of the world - a special form of egocentrism that underlies risky and self-destructive behavior Example: "Other people get hooked on drugs. That cannot happen to me." "I can hold my liquor. I won't get into a car accident if I drink and drive."
Idealism and Criticalness
- Teens have an "ideal" vision of the world and how it should operate - When the world falls short and disappointments them, they get critical of the adults around them - The first adults that get blamed -> Parents - Could also include teachers and other adults in their world Example: Two years ago after the shooting at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Florida the teens became very vocal and critical of law enforcement and politicians who they held responsible for not keeping them safe. They felt they should be able to go to school without the fear of being shot or seeing their friends die. Many people on social media started to criticize the outspoken nature of several of these students failing to realize that their "ideal" vision of the world had just crumbled.
Argumentativeness
- Teens look for opportunities to try out their newfound formal reasoning skills - They become argumentative as they build a case with facts and logic to try to get their way - Argumentativeness does not mean getting into a yelling match with them _> They are trying to use logic to prove their point (like lawyers) Example: Arguing with parents about why they should be allowed to stay out beyond their curfew.
Indecisiveness
- Teens may be able to consider many alternatives and possibilities, but they lack they experience in choosing effective strategies for picking the best option - They have trouble making up their mind even about the simplest of things Example: What to wear to school?
Anorexia Nervosa
- a disorder characterized by self-starvation · Affects approximately 0.5-3.7% of women · Affects approximately 1.0% of adolescent females · Estimated that 1 in 4 youth diagnosed with anorexia are male · Austria followed by France have the highest prevalence rates of female anorexia · Lowest prevalence rates are found in Northern Ireland and the Netherlands · Restrictive type-rigid and obsessive control about their diet, caloric intake and appearance *Karen Carpenter was one of the first public cases of anorexia; she was a famous singer; cause of death= heart failure' family thought she died of cancer
Obesity
- an eating disorder characterized by an over consumption of food · teenage girls should consume ~ 2,200 calories a day · teenage boys should consume ~ 2,800 calories a day · needed for the growth spurt *teens need a high caloric intake in order for the growth spurt; may be higher for those in sports · obesity is the most common eating disorder in the United States · second only to tobacco use as a preventable cause of disease and death · in light of the current Covid-19 pandemic it is also a predisposing factor for a more severe response to the virus (Prime Minister Boris Johnson of UK)
Bulimia Nervosa
- an eating disorder characterized by binge eating and compensatory behaviors (ie. vomiting) · affects approximately 1.5% of women in U.S. (~4.7 million females) · affects approximately 0.5% of men in U.S. (~1.5 million males) *Princess Diana= face of bulimia; got help for her disorder and became a patron for the eating disorder foundation in Great Britain
Binging-Eating Disorder
- an eating disorder characterized by binge-eating -no compensatory behaviors - most individuals with this disorder are obese
Vygotsky's Theory
- cognitive growth occurs in a sociocultural context -social context= the society and culture that the young person grows up in is very influential in unfolding their cognitive skills - it evolves out of a young person's social interactions - it varies from society to society depending on what mental tools the culture values and makes available - children and teens acquire their society's mental tools by: (1) interacting with parents and other more experienced members of the culture (teachers, coaches etc.) (2) acquiring language and culture (3) as they incorporate what skilled partners say to them into what they say to themselves (done through a process of social -> private -> inner speech) Social Speech- speech with others. Adult guides a child or teens actions through speech -step by step instructions that are followed Private Speech- speech to oneself that guides one's own thoughts and behaviors -mental checklist Inner speech- reflective thought -becomes habit; done out of habit; 2nd nature *Mentorship is key in Vygotsky's theory
Proximodistal principle
- development proceeds from "near to fair" or from the "center -> outwards". · For example, the trunk develops before the arm and leg buds emerge. · The shoulder develops before the most distal part of the arm -> the hand and fingers.
Orthogenetic Principle
- development starts off global, diffuse, and undifferentiated and moves towards more specialization and organization with hierarchical structure. · For example, the blastocyst begins just as a group of replicating cells and then transforms into the embryo with its 3 tissue layers that eventually become very specialized organ systems. · If you think about language development, babies start producing very general sounds (ahhh, oooo) -> babbling (dadada) -> then their first word (dada) ->then two word phrases (dada go) -> then simple sentences (I go with dad.) -> to complex sentences (I am going to the store with dad to buy my new bike.)
Problems with Attention- ADHD (Course, Causes, Treatment)
-ADHD- attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; A disorder characterized by attentional difficulties or overactive and impulsive behavior, or both. -Symptoms= 1 or a combination of these 2: -Inattention. The individual does not seem to listen, is easily distracted, makes careless errors, has trouble following instructions, misses details, is distractible, does not stick to activities and finish tasks, and tends to be forgetful and unorganized. -Hyperactivity and impulsivity. The individual is restless, perpetually fidgeting, finger tapping, or chattering, and has trouble remaining seated; the individual acts impulsively before thinking, cannot wait to have a turn in an activity, and may talk too much, blurt things out, and interrupt others. **Most children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder show inattention but not hyperactivity; they often seem "spaced out" in the classroom. -ADHD is common—and, like autism spectrum disorder, it is becoming increasingly common now that it is better known and makes an affected child eligible for educational and medical services -At least two boys for every girl have the disorder. Girls have often been underdiagnosed because they often show the more common inattentive version of ADHD rather than the more easily observable and often exasperating hyperactive behavior that boys more frequently show. The male-to-female ratio becomes more even by adulthood. Most children with ADHD also have other conditions that are comorbid with it—that is, that co-occur with it—conditions ranging from conduct disorder to anxiety and depression to ASD Developmental Course: -ADHD expresses itself quite differently at different ages. -When the predominant symptom is hyperactivity/impulsivity, the condition may reveal itself in infancy, though it cannot be diagnosed until about age 4. -As infants, children with ADHD are typically very active, have difficult temperaments, and show irregular feeding and sleeping patterns (Teeter, 1998). -As preschool children, they are in perpetual motion, quickly moving from one activity to another. Because most young children are energetic and have short attention spans, behavior must be judged in relation to developmental norms; otherwise, we might mistake most average 3- and 4-year-olds for hyperactive children. -Finally, by the grade-school years, overactive behavior is less common, but children with ADHD are fidgety, restless, and inattentive to schoolwork (APA, 2013). -Most children with ADHD do outgrow their overactive behavior. However, as illustrated by Rachel's story, adolescents with ADHD continue to be restless, to have difficulty concentrating on their academic work, and to behave impulsively. -Yet many individuals with ADHD get in trouble because of disorganization, lapses of concentration, impulsive decisions, and procrastination Suspected Causes: -Russell Barkley (1997, 2015) has put forth the view that the frontal lobes of individuals with ADHD do not function as they do in typically developing children. -Genes predispose some individuals to develop ADHD and underlie the differences in brain development and functioning associated with it. -Low birth weight and teratogens such as maternal smoking and alcohol use and exposure to lead, pesticides, and other toxic chemicals during pregnancy contribute to some cases of ADHD, and traumatic brain injuries, whether in childhood or adulthood, contribute to others -Gene-environment interactions are also part of the picture. Treatment: -About two-thirds of children diagnosed with ADHD are prescribed stimulant drugs (often Ritalin or Adderall), and almost half receive behavioral treatment as well, while a quarter receive no treatment -These drugs increase levels of dopamine and other neurotransmitters to more typical levels and, by doing so, allow these children to concentrate -Behavioral treatment is also used to treat ADHD. -medication; -behavioral programming designed to teach children with ADHD to stay focused on tasks, control their impulsiveness, and interact socially; -parent training designed to help parents understand and manage the behavior of these often-difficult youngsters; and interventions at school to make the learning environment more structured and increase motivation.
Early Maturation Correlations (Blue in this section= from Reading List #2)
-Early Maturing girls are at higher risk of: -teasing or bullying (girls teasing other girls) -early sexual activity ( If they are developed and dressing to look older, and becoming involved in older crowds, this can get them in trouble early with early sexual activity or early substance use like drinking or smoking) -Eating disorders (especially anorexia because they want to look like the other girls) -early substance use -may not gain much status from being larger and more muscled -The early-maturing girl expresses higher levels of body dissatisfaction than her prepubertal classmates and may engage in unsafe dieting and exercising as a result of this discomfort. -The early-maturing girl expresses higher levels of body dissatisfaction than her prepubertal classmates and may engage in unsafe dieting and exercising as a result of this discomfort. -Girls who experience puberty earlier than their peers report higher levels of depression, at least for the period of time that they are out of sync -Early maturing boys are at higher risk of: -rebellion -breaking the law (minor offenses like stealing or joy riding) -stress and depression from relationships ("young eye candy"; a lot of attention is on them until the other boys start puberty, which causes them to lose attention from girls) -increased risk of involvement in substance use and other problem behaviors such as bullying, aggression, and delinquency. *It turns out that both boys and girls who experienced early puberty had also displayed signs of behavior and adjustment problems as early as preschool age. This suggests that teens are not becoming depressed or engaging in problem behaviors because they have experienced early puberty, but they experienced early puberty because of underlying conditions present long before the first observable signs of puberty.
Support for those with Hearing Impairments
-For all ages, there are interventions and treatments that can help maintain quality of life. -For the 2-3 in 1,000 infants born deaf or hearing impaired, early identification and treatment are essential if they are to master spoken language. -most states have now mandated that all newborns be screened for hearing loss before they leave the hospital. -Once infants with a hearing impairment are identified, interventions can be planned. -Today, even children who are profoundly deaf can be helped to hear through an advanced amplification device called a cochlear implant -For other children who are deaf or have a severe hearing impairment, the most important thing may be early exposure to sign language. Early intervention programs for parents of deaf infants can teach them strategies for getting their infants' attention and involving them in conversations using sign language. The earlier in life deaf children acquire some language system, whether spoken or signed, the better their command of language is likely to be later in life -Unfortunately, many older adults are reluctant to admit that they have a hearing problem and do not seek assistance, or they may not even realize they have hearing loss as it may have occurred gradually and they have learned to compensate. Among those who acknowledge having a hearing problem, many refuse to wear a hearing aid because they feel it stigmatizes them as old, or they report that hearing aids do not work or do not help them to hear better -Those who do not have their hearing corrected may suffer depression, decreased independence, and strained relationships -Hearing aids, although beneficial, cannot restore normal hearing; they tend to distort sounds and to magnify background noise as well as what the wearer is trying to hear. In addition, many older people are ill-served by hearing aids that are of poor quality or that are poorly matched to their specific hearing problems. Because cochlear implants work best for individuals exposed to spoken language before they lost their hearing, older adults are ideal candidates for them.
Hearing, Basic Capacities, and Speech Perception
-Hearing- There is definitely some truth to the stereotype of the hard-of-hearing older person as about 75% of adults over the age of 70 have some degree of hearing loss -Basic Capacities- Sources of hearing problems range from excess wax buildup in the ears to infections to a sluggish nervous system. Most age-related hearing problems seem to originate in the inner ear, however (National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, 2020b). The cochlear hair cells that serve as auditory receptors, their surrounding structures, and the neurons leading from them to the brain degenerate gradually over the adult years. The most noticeable result is a loss of sensitivity to high-frequency or high-pitched sounds, the most common form of presbycusis, or problems of the aging ear. -lower-frequency sounds also become difficult to hear. -Some research has found greater loss among men than women, possibly because men are more likely to work in noisy industrial jobs, and those who hold such jobs experience more hearing loss than other men. Compared to women, men are also more likely to own a gun and to regularly discharge it at a gun range or while hunting -Other research finds that while men have greater hearing loss than women, the difference is not large. It seems, then, that most people, men perhaps more than women, will experience some loss of sensitivity to high-frequency sounds as part of the basic aging process, but that certain people will experience more severe losses because of their experiences. There are both personal and societal consequences associated with hearing loss as individuals with hearing loss often become more socially isolated, experience lower levels of emotional well-being, and retire earlier than their peers without hearing loss -presbycusis- Problems of the aging ear, which commonly involve loss of sensitivity to highfrequency or high-pitched sounds. Speech Perception-Perhaps the most important thing we do with our ears in everyday life is listen to other people during conversations. The ability to hear is one requisite for understanding speech, but this complex auditory perception task also depends on cognitive processes such as attention and memory. -Older adults typically have greater difficulty understanding conversation than younger adults do -older adults may recall less information from a conversation that takes place in a crowded, noisy restaurant. -Age-related declines in auditory sensitivity (i.e., acuity) are partly responsible, but cognitive declines also seem to contribute to declines in speech perception among older adults -In addition, auditory perception tasks, like visual perception tasks, are more difficult for older people when they are novel and complex. -most older adults have only mild hearing losses, especially for high-frequency sounds, and only minor problems understanding everyday speech, at least under good listening conditions. In addition, they can compensate for their difficulties successfully—for example, by reading lips and relying on contextual cues. Novel and complex speech heard under poor listening conditions is likely to cause more trouble.
Hormones
-In the brain, puberty begins with a signal from the hypothalamus- to the pituitary gland- to adrenal glands (the HPA axis) and gonads. -The hypothalamus then sends a "Chemical Domino Effect" throughout the brain and the body to release hormones that trigger pubertal changes -Functions of the Hypothalamus: - eating behavior - thirst or drinking behavior - body temperature (ex: shorts in winter; always hot) - hormonal activity that controls aggressive and emotional behavior as well as reproductive behavior (ex: short tempered or emotional) -Gonads release testosterone and estradiol. -Hormones influence MOOD and THOUGHT *The trigger for puberty is in the brain and the structure is the hypothalamus
Attention
-It is fairly clear that adolescents have longer attention spans than children. -This improved ability to sustain attention seems to be tied to the continued myelination of those portions of the brain that help regulate attention -a myelin coating on neurons helps insulate them to speed up transmission of neural impulses. -In addition, adolescents are better able to switch attention from one task to another -When college students text, check email, or engage in other multitasking during a class lecture, they don't perform as well when tested on the lecture material as students who were not multitasking -Evidence consistently shows that as multitasking increases, students' grade point averages decrease -One especially serious consequence of trying to attend to multiple things at one time is the uptick in motor-vehicle accidents from distracted teen drivers. -Multitasking- Attending to and performing two or more tasks at the same time.
Late Maturation Correlations (Blue in this section= from Reading List #2)
-Late maturation may also be difficult, especially for boys in a school which athletics is valued -If they are smaller, they may not be making the football or basketball team -tend to experience greater anxiety and depression, but are less likely to drink alcohol or use drugs during adolescence -Late maturing girls may feel anxiety about when puberty will hit. -. Later-developing girls tend to perform better on school achievement tests relative to early-maturing girls, perhaps because they focus on academic skills when other girls have shifted some of their focus to extracurricular activities
Exploration 5.1- Aging Drivers
-Older drivers are perceived by many as more accident prone and slower than other drivers. -It is true that older adults (70 years and older) are involved in more automobile fatalities than middle-aged adults. But the most accident-prone group is young drivers between ages 20 and 24 -Clearly, vision is essential to driving -Limited visual acuity or clarity is one component of problematic driving, but as noted in the main text, poor acuity is fairly easy to correct and is, therefore, unlikely to account for all the problems older drivers have. -Diminished peripheral vision may be an issue because good drivers must be able to see vehicles and pedestrians approaching from the side. Half the fatal automobile accidents involving older drivers occur at intersections, and older drivers are more than twice as likely as young drivers to have problems making left turns. Why? Poor surveillance is the most common reason. -Older adults may also struggle to simultaneously process multiple pieces of information. Thus, older drivers have trouble reading street signs while driving -However, the driving records of older adults are not as bad as might be expected because many of them compensate for visual and other perceptual difficulties and slower reactions by driving less frequently, especially in conditions believed to be more hazardous—at night, during rush hour, and when the weather is poor -To give up driving is to give up a big chunk of independence, something anyone would be loath to do. Most people want to find ways to drive safely as long as possible. -By understanding the strengths and limitations of their sensory-perceptual abilities, older adults will be in a good position to keep driving safely, which is good to remember the next time you are stuck behind a slow driver.
Sexual Maturation
-Primary Sex Characteristics -The parts of the body directly involved in reproduction (ex: testies, ovaries) -Secondary Sex Characteristcs: -Not necessary for reproduction -All the other physical changes that occur during puberty that are not directly related to reproduction -ex: body odor, acne, breast development, hair voice changes
What is a scheme?
-Schemes: The Basic Unit of Knowledge -Scheme- A cognitive structure or organized pattern of action or thought used to deal with experiences. -Schemes are cognitive structures—organized patterns of action or thought that people construct to interpret their experiences. Schemes are like having a set of rules or procedures that can be repeated and generalized across various situations. -As children develop more sophisticated schemes, or cognitive structures, they become increasingly able to adapt to their environments. Because they gain new schemes as they develop, children of different ages will respond differently to the same objects and events.
Other Physical Changes
-The lymphoid system (tonsils, adenoids) decrease in size. This makes teens less susceptible to asthma and colds. -Skin gets oilier, sweatier, more acne-prone -Acne can be a source of anxiety for teens and lead to greater self-consciousness -Severe acne can be treated with a drug called Accutane. -If Accutane is used it is closely monitored due to known side-effects -routine check ups; girls have to be on birth control because it is a known teratogen; can effect liver function; run risk of having dry mouth, dry eye, and dry skin; peeling of the skin
Touch
-Touch is the most mature sensory system at birth. -Three aspects touch develop which include: general localization, specific localization, haptic perception
Puberty
-a period of rapid physical growth and sexual maturation -the sequence of physical changes is universal , but the timing varies (typically lasting 3-5 years) -universal= each and very person goes through these changes unless they have a rare genetic disorder -age of onset ranges between 8 and 25 -8= early maturers and 15= late maturers
Accidents, Nutrition, and Physical Activity
-accidents: Accidents constitute a major category of negative influences on children's health and well-being. Childhood is unfortunately marked by numerous accidents and injuries, making these the leading cause of death throughout the childhood years -nutrition: Nutrition continues to be an important contributor to health throughout childhood, as it was during the prenatal period and infancy. -physical activity: Health during childhood can be fostered not only by a good diet but also by regular physical activity. -Children should do at least 60 minutes of moderate or vigorous physical activity every day. -average screen time= 3 1/2 hours per day and 4 1/2 hours on the weekend -children who spend more than 7 hours of screen time a day had lower levels of cognitive performance than their peers. Other research has found that children with 5 or more hours of screen time per day are about five times more likely to be overweight than children who watch 2 hours a day or less -Children who achieve the recommended level of physical activity are, not surprisingly, more physically fit than children who lead a more sedentary lifestyle. -Physical activity enhances cognitive and psychological functioning. "brain food" -Children who engage in a physical activity program show higher levels of academic achievement, including math and reading skills. The same research found that physical activity during the school day was associated with better-behaved children in the classroom.
Vision and Hearing Challenges
-all this screen time can lead to eye strain with accompanying headaches, blurred vision, dry eyes, difficulty focusing, and pain in the neck and shoulders. After 4 hours of online gaming, young adults showed decreased ability to focus their eyes and increased discomfort. -you should be at least 15 inches from your screen, and you should not need to crane your neck backward or forward when looking directly at your screen. -Today's world can also be challenging to our sense of hearing, thanks to concerts, power equipment, and headphones attached to a multitude of sound-producing personal devices. As Table 5.2 shows, loud sounds—those above 75 decibels—may leave the listener with a loss of hearing. Fans of loud music, beware: The noise at rock concerts and nightclubs is often in the 120- to 130-decibel range... -The most common outcome of noise exposure is tinnitus, or ringing sounds in one or both ears that can last for days, weeks, or indefinitely. -Hearing problems associated with short periods of exposure to loud sounds may be temporary, but damage from regular exposure to these same sounds can accumulate over time, leading to moderate or even severe hearing loss by adulthood.
Cephalocaudal principle
-development proceeds from "head to tail" or "top -> down". · For example, in the embryonic period the head develops before the trunk · The brain develops before the spinal cord · In terms of movement, we must be able to left and hold our heads before we can sit independently (top half of the spine strengthens before the lower half of the spine)
Exploration 4.1- Sports and Brain Damage
-concussion- a brief loss of brain function in response to a hit or blow to the head. -Most concussions are classified as mild and symptoms usually resolve within several weeks. -It is a fairly common sports injury, with high school football incidents accounting for nearly half of all sports-related concussions, followed by ice hockey and soccer. -Immediate symptoms of concussion include headache, sensitivity to light and sound, feeling dizzy or foggy, and slowed reaction time. -The findings were fairly dramatic, showing clear evidence of damage in the former football players' brains decades after they had retired from the sport. In particular, there was damage to the parts of the brain associated with memory and regulation of mood. -The cumulative effects of blows to the head, regardless of whether or not they result in diagnosis of concussion, can lead to chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a degenerative brain disease with symptoms of memory loss, poor impulse control, depression, and eventually dementia. A definitive diagnosis of CTE can only be made by examining the brain following death -Prior to their deaths, a large number of those diagnosed with CTE had exhibited characteristic symptoms of behavioral or mood disturbance, cognitive impairment, and dementia. The earlier they started playing football, the earlier they experienced symptoms of CTE -Female soccer and basketball players are more likely than their male counterparts to experience a concussion in these sports, and they take longer to recover. -parents may want to hold off on allowing their children to play tackle football until they are teenagers. The brain is still developing and therefore is still vulnerable throughout childhood. -Once there has been an injury, it is critical that the player has sufficient time to recover from a TBI before returning to play. -Thus, the AAN (American Academy of Neurology) recommends that players with any symptoms of altered consciousness, regardless of whether they fainted or "blacked out," should not be permitted to return to play until they have been examined and cleared to play by a medical professional trained in head trauma. -Coaches, parents, and medical professionals need to carefully train their players to reduce the sorts of moves and mindsets that increase the risk of head injuries during sports. Doing so will help ensure that athletes get the benefits of sports without the dangers.
Bigger and Stronger
-growth spurt= a sudden and rapid period of physical growth during puberty -sequence of changes= gain weight, gain height, build muscles or muscle mass -First teens need to gain some weight, then they will gain height, and then they can build muscle or muscle mass -females gain more fat (necessary for reproduction), males gain muscle -lungs and heart increase in size
Conceptualizing Health Across the Life Span
-health is multidimensional and incredibly complex - the biopsychosocioacultural model of heath, with examples of biological, psychological, and social factors that contribute to health. All factors work in concert to shape a persons health -It's clear that health depends on characteristics of individuals such as genetic predispositions, prenatal programming, and personality dynamically interacting with characteristics of their family life and the broader cultural context in which they live. -The biopsychosociocultural model reminds us of the complexity of factors contributing to health across the lifespan -Biopsychosociocultural model- A health model that incorporates biological and psychological factors with social and cultural factors.
Body Rhythms (Blue in this section= from Reading List #2)
-most teenagers bodies prefer to stay up late and sleep in late (Staying up late and getting up early for school can socially sabotage our sleeping patterns; kids should go in earlier than high schoolers (roles reversed!) -teens also tend to get too little sleep for their growing bodies (many are in school, after-school jobs, and homework; should be getting 8-10 hours of sleep, but some may only e getting 4-5 hours of sleep) -Lack of sleep has been associated with higher risk of mood disorders (depression and anxiety) and driving problems 2 Major Changes that come together to lead to insufficient sleep: 1. First, puberty ushers in changes in melatonin (a sleep-promoting hormone) production and circadian rhythms, which can shift the "natural" time for falling asleep later and later. 2. The second change is the earlier start time of most high schools. Consequences for not getting enough sleep: -Teens report greater sleepiness during the day, which is associated with decreased motivation, especially for "boring" tasks -higher levels of depression, irritability, and lack of tolerance for frustration -may also have difficulty controlling their emotional responses, which leads to greater expression of aggression or anger. -have trouble concentrating in school, experience short-term memory problems, and may doze off in class - many teens begin consuming higher quantities of caffeine, which in turn can further disrupt their sleep cycles They found that the amount of study time throughout the week did not matter if students ended up cutting short their sleep time. Students who got a good night's sleep the night before a test did better than students who sacrificed a good night's sleep to get in more study time. There is an important message here for you: Manage your time so that you get all the study time you need without sacrificing your sleep time. Maintaining a consistent sleep-wake cycle with sufficient sleep time is an essential part of optimizing cognitive skills, not to mention physical health. This shift to a later start time allowed the students to get at least 30 minutes more sleep per night, bringing them closer to the recommended amount of sleep. It also aligned their sleep and wake times a little more closely to their natural circadian rhythm. This translated into fewer absences from school and feeling less sleepy during the day. Plus an increase in grades.
Depth Perception -Visual Cliff Article
-the ability to perceive spatial relations in 3D -processed in the parietal lobe -parietal lobe processes somatosensory events like touch, temperature, and body position and our overall spatial awareness -36 infants 6 to 14 months were placed in the center of the table they were observed as their mothers stood at both the shallow end and the deep end at two minute increments the mothers tried to coax the baby into crawling towards them -9 children refused to move off the center board -27 babies crawled towards their mothers at the shallow end without hesitation -only 3 crept without great hesitation off the brink of the visual cliff; nearly all the infants refused to go to the mothers at the deep end which required them to cross the illusionary vertical drop -the experiment shows that depth perception is partly innate meaning we are born with it but the majority of its development happens with experience the babies depth perception started developing as they learn to crawl
Medical Complications of Bulimia Nervosa
1. Amenorrhea 2. Potassium deficiency (a) muscular weakness (b) cardiac irregularities (c) sudden death 3. Irritation around the skin of the mouth (from contact with stomach acid) 4. Blockage of salivary glands (impairs taste sensation) 5. Damaged taste receptors (impairs taste sensation) 6. Deterioration of tooth enamel from contact with stomach acid 7. Dental cavities 8. Abdominal pain and hiatal hernia (herniation of the stomach from the force of vomiting 9. Pancreatitis
Diagnostic Features of Binge-Eating Disorder
1. Recurrent episodes of binge eating (1 or more binges a week for 3 or more months) 2. Loss of control when bingeing (like bulimia) 3. No regular use of inappropriate compensatory behavior (unlike bulimia) 4. Eating until uncomfortably full or when not hungry 5. Feelings of guilt, embarrassment, and depression over bingeing
Diagnostic Features of Bulimia Nervosa
1. Recurrent episodes of binge eating (gorging) as shown by both: (a) Rapid consumption (within a 2 hour period) of large quantities of food (whole pizza, box of cookies, half a container of ice cream) (b) Loss of control over eating during the binge episode 2. Regular inappropriate compensatory behavior to prevent weight gain such as self-induced vomiting; abuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas; or by fasting or excessive exercise. 3. A minimum average of two episodes a week of binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behavior to prevent weight gain over a period of at least 3 months. 4. A concern with the shape and weight of one's body
Diagnostic Features of Anorexia Nervosa
1. Refusal to maintain weight beyond the minimal normal weight for one's age and height; for example, a weight at least 15% below normal. 2. Intense fear of gaining weight. Strong emotional component. 3. A distorted body image in which one's body—or part of one's body—is perceived as fat, although others perceive the person as thin. 4. In cases of females who have menarche, absence of three or more consecutive menstrual periods.
Medical Complications of Anorexia Nervosa
1. Weight loss of as much as 35% of body weight may occur, and anemia may develop (low hemoglobin and low iron levels) 2. Dermatological problems: (a) Dry cracking skin (b) Yellowish discoloration to skin (jaundice) (c) Lanugo (fine fuzzy hair develops on face and arms) 3. Cardiovascular problems: (a) Heart irregularities (b) Hypotension (low blood pressure) (c) Dizziness with standing or sudden positional changes (orthostatic hypotension) (d) Fainting or blacking out 4. Gastrointestinal Problems: (a) Constipation (b) Abdominal pain (c) Obstruction or paralysis of the bowels or intestines 5. Amenorrhea (loss of menstrual period) 6. Muscular weakness and abnormal growth of bones may occur, causing loss of height and osteoporosis. 7. Death (a) Estimated at 5 to 8% over a ten-year period (b) Suicide or medical complications associated with severe weight loss
General Characteristics of Bulimics
1. They do not become abnormally thin like those suffering from anorexia 2. There is more yo-yoing with diet and exercise (normal weight -> gain 5 pounds -> lose 10lbs. -> normal weight again) 3. They overwhelmed with feelings of shame, self-contempt, and depression over their eating habits 4. They experience a perceived or actual loss of relationships and general life control 5. They are concerned with the shape and weight of their body
Stages of Motor Development- Fetal Posture
@ 1 month -decreased flexion -tracks a moving object -head usually to side -hands fisted with indwelling thumb most of the time -reciprocal and symmetrical kicking -alert, brightening expression
Stages of Motor Development- Walk Alone
@ 10-15 Months -begins to walk unassisted -begins self feeding -searches for hidden toys -suspicious of strangers -plays patty-cake and peek-a-boo -imitates
Stages of Motor Development- ?
@ 2 Years -runs well -can go up stairs foot over foot -active, restless, tantrums
Stages of Motor Development- Chin Up
@ 2 months -head elevation to 45 -head bobs in supported sitting -responds to friendly handling
Stages of Motor Development- Climb Stair Steps
@ 20 Months -ascends stairs step-to pattern -jumps off of bottom step -plays make believe
Stages of Motor Development- Chest Up
@ 3 Months -head elevated to 90 -head held in middle while on back, hands resting on chest -takes some weight with toes curled in supported sitting -coos, chuckles
Stages of Motor Development- ?
@ 3 Years -rides tricycle -jumps with 2 feet -understands sharing
Stages of Motor Development- Sit with Support
@ 4 Months -rolls from back to side, stomach to side -sits with support -no head lag in pull to sit -laughs out loud
Stages of Motor Development- ?
@ 4 Years -hops on one foot -stands on tip toes -relates to friends
Stages of Motor Development- ?
@ 5 Months -rolls from stomach to back - head control in supported sitting
Stages of Motor Development- Sit Alone
@ 6 Months - rolls from back to stomach -independent sitting
Stages of Motor Development- Creep
@ 7 Months -can maintain 4-point -pivots on belly -assumes sitting from 4-point - trunk rotation in sitting - recognizes tone of voice -may show fear of strangers
Stages of Motor Development- Stand Alone
@ 8-9 Months -side-sitting -4-point crawling -cruises sideways, can stand alone -can transfer objects from one hand to the other
Stages of Motor Development- ?
@5 Years -skips -kicks ball well -dresses self
Health and Wellness
Adults often struggle to maintain healthy lifestyles, which eventually catches up with many of them in the form of various chronic diseases including obesity, diabetes, hypertension, cancers, congestive heart failure, and more. by the time people are 65 or older, it is hard to find many who do not have something wrong with their bodies.
Formal Operational
Age: 12 years and older; adolescence through adulthood (1) Thinking hypothetically (educated guess) (2) Thinking abstractly (3) Understanding the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning -Inductive: Specific facts -> General Conclusion Example: Specific weather changes like fires, flooding, Artic ice melts -> General conclusion of climate change -Deductive: General conclusion -> Specific fact Example: Deductive is like what a detective does at a crime scene. Observes body on floor and blood on wall ->General conclusion that a murder has occurred and then works to find out who specifically committed the crime 4) Better understanding of past, present and future (how the past relates to the present and how the present might affect the future Piaget left us at "Formal Operational Thought" basically saying it begins in adolescence and the characteristics are refined into adulthood (he passed away in 1980 before he could elaborate on the specifics of adult cognition). Other researchers who followed proposed a 5th stage known as post-formal thought
Preoperational
Age: 2-7 Defined by 3 tasks children cannot do which include: (1) Cannot do conservation tasks (2) Cannot think backwards (ex: cannot count backwards) (3) Cannot split their attention (called centration of thought - focus on only one thing at a time) Two tasks that they can do at this stage include: (1) Represent objects and events with words and images -Example: You tell them they are going to Disney World and Mickey Mouse pops into their head (2) They engage in imaginary or pretend play Example: Play house or soldiers and they talk to their toys *Imaginary or pretend play is a major theme in preoperational thought
Concrete Operational
Age: 7-11 (1) They can now do the 3 tasks that they could not do in the previous stage (they can do conservation tasks, think backwards, and split their attention) (2) They can understand basic math concepts with application (+, -, x, ÷) -we learn forward processing before we learn reverse processing (3) They begin to understand the difference between fantasy and reality -Example: They figure out who is Santa Clause, Tooth Fairy, and the Easter Bunny
Sensorimotor
Age= 0-2 Characteristics: (1) Infants experience their world through their senses and movement patterns -As they gain more movement from rolling to crawling to walking to running, they can explore their world and gain more knowledge; also they use their senses; 1st explore their world through taste (2) Infantile amnesia - they do not have concrete memory under age 2 -Example: Do you remember your first birthday party? (3) Object permanence - the realization that objects and people still exist, even when out of sight
Table 4.2- Leading Accidental Causes of Death and Injury in Childhood
Ages 1-4 Top 3 Accidents Leading to Death: (1) Drowning (2) Motor-Vehicle Accident (3) Fire/Burns Top 3 Accidents Causing Injury (bit not death): (1) Falling (2) Struck by/against something (3) other, bite/sting ---------- Ages 5-9 Top 3 Accidents Leading to Death: (1) Motor-vehicle accident (2) Drowning (3) Fire/burns Top 3 Accidents Causing Injury (bit not death): (1) Falling (2) Struck by/against something (3) other, bite/sting ---------- Ages 10-14 Top 3 Accidents Leading to Death: (1) Suicide, suffocation (2) Motor-vehicle accident (3) Suicide, firearm Top 3 Accidents Causing Injury (bit not death): (1) Falling (2) Struck by/ against something (3) Unintentional overexertion ---------- Ages 15-24 Top 3 Accidents Leading to Death: (1) Motor-vehicle accident (2) Unintentional poisoning (3) Homicide, firearm Top 3 Accidents Causing Injury (bit not death): (1) Struck by/against something (2) Falling (3) Motor-vehicle accident
What is assimilation and accommodation?
Assimilation- Piaget's term for the process by which children interpret new experiences in terms of their existing schemata. Contrast with accommodation. -is the process by which we interpret new experiences in terms of existing schemes or cognitive structures. Thus, if you already have a scheme that mentally represents your knowledge of cats, you may label this new creature "kitty." Through assimilation, we deal with our environment on our own terms, sometimes bending the world to squeeze it into our existing categories. Throughout the life span, we rely on our existing cognitive structures to understand new events. Accommodation- In Piaget's cognitive developmental theory, the process of modifying existing schemes to incorporate or adapt to new experiences. Contrast with assimilation. In vision, a change in the shape of the eye's lens to bring objects at differing distances into focus. -is the process of modifying existing schemes to better fit new experiences. Perhaps you will need to invent a new name for this animal or ask what it is and revise your concept of four-legged animals accordingly.
Causes of Obesity
Causes include: 1. Sedentary lifestyles (of all age groups) 2. Dietary issues including large portion sizes "supersized", salt and fat content, fast food options are often less expensive than fruits and vegetables 3. Genetically some individuals have an abnormally large number of fat cells 4. Unable to recognize cues about hunger and fullness (hypothalamus) 5. Slower metabolism (check thyroid functioning - hypothyroidism can lead to weight gains) 6. Poorer neighborhoods, less access to healthy foods
Exploration 4.1- What to live to be 100?
Centurions- An individual who lives to be 100 years of age. An increasing number of people are centenarians—people who live to be 100 or older. Dan Buettner (2008) identified five communities around the world with unusually high proportions of centenarians. These so-called "Blue Zones" are located in Ikaria Greece; Loma Linda, California; Sardinia, Italy; Okinawa, Japan; and Nicoya, Costa Rica. So the key to longevity is likely a combination of good genes and a healthy lifestyle. (staying away from anything bad)
Hearing
Changes in hearing include: 1. Changes can begin as early as the 4th decade of life -listening to loud music as a teen can accelerate this loss; occupational hazard 2. Men are twice the rate of women 3. Hearing losses occur earlier for men than women Outer Ear • Wax buildup • Conductive hearing loss Middle Ear • Hammer, anvil, stirrup • Typically minimal changes Inner Ear • Atrophy of the cochlea and vestibular structures • Changes in sound sensitivity • Changes in equilibrium/balance • Problems understanding speech/sound perception • more prone to an (inner ear) infection; extremely painful, dizziness, taken off driving, can last 6-8 weeks *MOST PROBLAMATIC
Vision
Changes in vision include: 1. Presbyopia - the inability to focus properly yielding blurry images due to decreased elasticity in the lens of the eye 2. Decreased adaptation to dark and light changes 3. Increased sensitivity to light and glare -driving at night could be a problem; most older people dont drive beyond dusk because the oncoming headlights may become a problem 4. Loss of color discrimination, especially dark colors -having difficulty telling black, brown, and dark navy apart 5. Decreased pupillary responses -not quite as quick as in early years *can happen in your 40's *can be corrected with classes
Treatment- Obesity
Clinical approaches to treatment should focus on the following components: 1. Dietary plans with a registered dietician 2. Safe exercise programs 3. Psychological counseling to identify behaviors that reinforce the eating disorders 4. Family support, counseling, and therapeutic inclusion
What is cognitive development?
Cognitive development is developing the activity of knowing and the processes through which knowledge is acquired and problems are solved.
Healthy Aging- The Nun Study
David Snowdon (2002) studied 678 nuns ranging in age from 75 to 106 years. -Snowdon, an epidemiologist, chose to study the nuns because they were very similar with respect to SES, housing, health care, and diet. -In this remarkable longitudinal study, participants underwent annual mental and physical testing, provided complete access to a lifetime of health records, and agreed to donate their brains for examination following their deaths. -The first finding to emerge from the so-called Nun Study was that level of education affected longevity and health. -Another major finding was that the nuns who were active, both physically and mentally, lived longer and healthier than nuns who were not as active. -A unique aspect of the Nun Study was that each nun had written an autobiography prior to taking her vows (average age of 22 years) and, decades later, these autobiographies became part of the data analyzed for the study. This analysis revealed that older nuns who were healthy had used more complex vocabulary in their autobiographies decades earlier (on average, 60 years earlier). -. In addition, nuns whose autobiographies expressed more positive emotions lived longer than nuns whose autobiographies expressed fewer positive emotions. -The message to take away from such research is that both physical and mental activity, along with a positive attitude, can help slow the effects of aging on both the body and the brain.
Decubitus Ulcers
Decubitus ulcers - are also known as pressure sores or bed sores · Caused by pressure placed on boney prominences · Common areas affected include the sacral area, heels, between the knees, hips, shoulder blades, back of skull Risk factors include: 1. Immobility and inactivity 2. Sensory impairment (don't feel the area) 3. Cognitive deficits (Don't realize they need to turn) 4. Decreased circulation 5. Poor nutritional status - cannot heal wounds 6. Incontinence and moisture *If you turn someone on their side (to protect the sacral area), you have to put a pillow between the knees and at the ankles
Degenerative Arthritis (blue in this section= from reading list #2)
Degenerative arthritis - is an inflammatory, progressive disorder of joints, typically affecting hips, knees, fingers, and the spine · Affects more than 16 million Americans *bone spurs, cartilage loss, joint space narrowing Characterized by: 1. Pain and stiffness - worse in the early morning or with overuse (I am stiff as a board!) (Osteoarthritis) (Osteoarthritis is a common joint problem that results from gradual deterioration of the cartilage that cushions the bones from rubbing against one another.) 2. Muscle spasm 3. Loss of range of motion and mobility 4. Muscle weakness secondary to disuse Management includes: 1. Joint replacement (hip and/or knee) 2. NSAIDS (Motrin, Advil - watch blood pressure can increase with use) 3. Corticosteroid injections -No more than 3 of these injections in 1 spot and leave it for 6 months-1 year before you can go back and inject again; can destroy joints 4. Exercise is key (walking, swimming) (swimming= better option) 5. Weight reduction to relieve stress on joints
Stages of Prehension
Development of Prehension During the First Year of Life 16 Weeks: -scratches with fingers on table top -looks at and swipes at objects -retains toys put into hand -makes no contact with object on table 20 Weeks: -contacts toys on table -grasps block precariously 28 Weeks: -Bangs, shakes, and transfers toys from hand to hand -Palmer grasp of block -whole hand contact of raisin 36 Weeks: -finger grasp of block -scissors grasp of raisin 40 Weeks: -holds one block in each hand -crude, voluntary release of block -index approach to raisin 48-52 Weeks: - forefinger grasp block -releases block into cup -neat pincer grasp of raisin
Eating Disorders
Eating disorders can affect every age spectrum of the lifespan. -most commonly diagnosed in adolescence Nearly 50% of adolescent girls and 20% of adolescent boys diet to control their weight. -These days childre as young as 6-7 are also being diagnosed with eating disorders In a 2012 study, approximately 17% of children and adolescents were overweight and 68% of adults experienced the same condition (Flegal, Carroll, Kit & Ogden, 2012).
Female Menopause and Male Andropause
Female Menopause- between ages 45 and 54, women go through the process of menopause, which culminates in the ending of menstrual cycles. -The ending of a woman's menstrual periods and reproductive capacity around age 51. -Levels of estrogen and other female hormones decline to the point where a woman is no longer ovulating, no longer menstruating, and no longer capable of conceiving a child. This process takes place gradually over 5-10 years as periods become either more or less frequent as well as less regular. -The age at which a woman reaches menopause is somewhat related to both the age at which she reached menarche and the age at which her mother reached menopause. Researchers have discovered that menopause can be predicted by a hormone called anti-Müllerian hormone. Anti-Müllerian hormone peaks around age 16, remains stable until about age 25, and then begins a slow decline Symptoms of Menopause: -hot flashes - vaginal dryness and irritation or pain from intercourse. *Still other women experience no symptoms. -For women who experience moderate to severe symptoms of menopause, their physician may prescribe hormone replacement therapy (HRT), taking estrogen and progestin to relieve physical symptoms of menopause, such as hot flashes and vaginal dryness. -HRT was found to increase women's chances of developing breast cancer and experiencing heart attack and stroke, but that is no longer the case -For women with milder symptoms, lifestyle changes such as exercising and getting adequate sleep may be the best options for alleviating symptoms -menopause seems to be "no big deal" for most women. ____________________ -Andropause, also called age-associated hypogonadism, is characterized by slowly decreasing levels of testosterone and a variety of symptoms including low libido, fatigue and lack of energy, erection problems, memory problems, and loss of pubic hair -Andropause- The slower and less-dramatic male counterpart of menopause, characterized by decreasing levels of testosterone and symptoms that include low libido, fatigue and lack of energy, erection problems, memory problems, and loss of pubic hair. -This change in hormone levels, though, is a natural part of the aging process. -As many as half of men over the age of 40 report some degree of erectile dysfunction—inability to achieve or sustain an erection for intercourse—despite having sufficient levels of testosterone......For many men, erectile dysfunction can be effectively treated with sildenafil, no doubt more familiar to you by the name Viagra. -In sum, the changes associated with andropause in men are more gradual, more variable, and less complete than those associated with menopause in women. As a result, men experience fewer psychological effects.
Fractures
Fractures are common in the elderly population due to: 1. Low bone density (Osteoporosis) 2. Multiple risk factors such as age, co-morbid diseases, dementia, medications The most common fracture affecting the elderly population is the hip fracture. *We often say somebody fell and broke their hip. Yes, that could happen, but more often then not, because of the weakened bone in the femoral neck area, an older person could just turn the wrong way as they turn and pivot on their hip; they crack the bone and then fall Hip fractures · ~270,000 cases annually · By age 90, ~32% of women and 17% of men have suffered a hip fracture · 20-25% die of complications (high mortality rate) · 50% will not resume premorbid function à leads to dependency issues *dynamic hip screw can fiz fractures; it extends into the balls of the femur through the femoral neck down into the shaft of the femur secured with screws; great way to fix this fracture because they can get up the next day and they can put weight on their leg right away; accelerates rehabilitation process Additional areas of concern for fractures in the elderly include: 1. Vertebral compression fractures · Common areas between T8-L3 · Can occur from routine activities such as bending, lifting, or rising from a chair 2. Stress fractures - fine hairline fractures usually with soft tissue injury · Common areas include the pelvis (pubic rami), proximal tibia, distal fibula, metatarsal bones (5th metatarsal commonly fractured - side of foot) · Can be an unsuspected source of pain
Gastointestinal
Gastrointestinal changes include: 1. Decreased salivation 2. Inadequate chewing 3. Poor swallow reflex (Parkinson's, CVA, MS) 4. Indigestion, acid reflux(heartburn), hiatal hernia 5. Constipation
Sensory
General loss of sensory function can lead to: 1. Quality of life changes 2. Strain on social interactions 3. Sensory deprivation, isolation, disorientation, confusion, or the appearance of senility
Biological Sequence of Puberty (The Chemical Domino Effect of the Hypothalamus)
Hypothalamus releases hormones to the pituitary glands The pituitary gland releases 2 hormones; the growth hormone and the gonadotropin releasing hormone. -The growth hormone sends signals to the adrenal glands and those adrenal glands are then responsible for the growth spurt that you see in adolescence -The gonadotropin releasing hormone targets the gonads (ovaries and testies) to produce estrogen and testosterone which then gives you the primary and secondary sex characteristics
Where is motor development hardwired in the brain?
If you remember from Introductory Psychology movement is in the motor cortex located in the back of the frontal lobe.
Table 4.4- Environmental Factors Contributing to Obesity
Inactive lifestyles- Among adults, occupations have become more sedentary (e.g., sitting at a computer all day) and, as a result, adults burn 100-150 fewer calories every day. Over a person's work life, this can add nearly 30 pounds of weight. Portion sizes- In just 20 years, the average soda size has increased from 6.5 to 20 ounces. Burgers at fast-food restaurants increased from 4.5 to 8 ounces. The original McDonald's hamburger, in 1955, weighed just 1.6 ounces. Fat content- In 2000, average fat consumption was 75 pounds per year, up nearly 30 pounds from 1950. Sugar- In 1822, each person consumed approximately 6 pounds per year; today, each person consumes nearly 108 pounds per year. This figure rises even higher—as much as 150 pounds per year—if all forms of sweeteners are combined. The American Heart Association recommends no more than 9.5 teaspoons per day. Stress- Prenatal exposure to a mother's stress can craft a neural architecture that is associated with later obesity. And stress in one's own life is associated with accumulation of belly fat. Unhealthy snacking is a common response to stress. Although research has uncovered these connections between stress and obesity, it does not address whether stress has contributed to the rise in obesity. Poverty- A large proportion of children who live in poverty are obese or overweight relative to children in households not affected by poverty. The number of households meeting the U.S. criteria for poverty has increased in recent years. Among adults, higher income tends to be associated with higher obesity rates for men, but with lower obesity rates for women.
Integumentary
Integumentary changes include: 1. Dermis thins with loss of elastin 2. Decreased vascularity - easy bruising -> senile purpura 3. Skin dries, wrinkles, aging spots -aging spots are typically on the hands, side of forehead/face; don't cause any problems just dark areas on the skin 4. General thinning and graying of the hair 5. Nails grow slowly and become brittle and thick
Why is it important to know how motor skills develop and unfold during infancy and childhood?
It is always important to know what is normal in development so that you can identify when development is delayed, abnormal, or perhaps ahead of schedule. For example, sitting independently occurs at approximately 6 months of age. If a baby is 15 months old and still cannot sit on their own there is a problem. Also, later in life if an adolescent or adult suffers injury (brain injury) affecting their movement you rehab them in the order of movement skills presented on the following handout. For example, if an adult suffers a stroke and can no longer sit independently (they would now be at 6 month old level) you start working on building core abdominal and spinal strength to get them to sit by themselves again without falling over. You would not start having them walk. You need sitting balance before you can achieve static standing balance (standing in one spot without falling over) and then dynamic standing balance (needed for walking). This is important to remember for all the future nurses, PTs, OTs, and PAs in the class. It is also important on a personal level if a family member is ever affected by movement deficits.
Who are the two major theorists who discussed the development of cognition within a lifespan perspective?
Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky *Jean Piaget= 1st theorist who discussed development though a lifespan approach, his theory is the stage theory which means you pass through the stages in sequence
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Perspective on Cognitive Development
Lev Vygotsky - Russian psychologist - worked in the late 19th/early 20th century - died at age 38 of tuberculosis before his theory was fully developed *his theory of cognitive development was very influential at the time and continues to be so today. He discussed how cognition unfolds across the lifespan and key principals of learning that is very influential in educational psychology.
Musculoskeletal
Musculoskeletal changes that occur throughout the adulthood years include: 1. Loss of muscle strength 2. Loss of skeletal muscle mass (loss of muscle bulk) *You will see a decrease in the size of muscles like the gastroc, quads, biceps, and triceps; that is why it is so important for older people to maintain some exercise and some activity to negate some muscle loss or strength. 3. Changes in muscular endurance -> muscles fatigue more easily (will need to take more breaks) 4. Cartilage changes include decreased water content which can lead to stiffness and pain (in joints like the knee, hip, shoulders, or back) 5. Intervertebral disks flatten leading to decreases in height 6. Loss of bone mass and density Senile postural changes include: 1. Forward head (head come a little more forward) 2. Kyphosis of the thoracic spine (bending forward) (hunching of the upper back) 3. Flattening of the lumbar spine (low back pain) 4. Flexion contractures (hip and knee can get stuck in a flexed position if they are sitting in a prolonged position) Overall clinical implications: 1. Movements are slower 2. Fatigue easily 3. Decreased trunk rotation and arm swing can lead to stability and balance issues 4. May need assistive devices and DME (Durable Medical Equipment) for increased support and safety (walkers, shower chairs)
Eating Disorders-Suspected Causes
Nature and nurture contribute in complex ways to eating disorders. Genes, though we are not sure of all the genes involved, serve as a diathesis, predisposing some individuals to develop eating disorders Some of the gene variants implicated have roles in metabolism Low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin, which is involved in both appetite and mood and has been linked to both eating disorders and mood disorders, also seem to be involved Genes also contribute, along with environment, to a personality profile that puts certain individuals at risk. sociocultural factors are significant Families have been blamed as the cause of eating disorders but do not deserve all of the blame. So, anorexia is most likely to emerge if a genetically predisposed girl who reaches puberty and lives in a weight-conscious culture is pressured by parents, peers, and/or the media to overvalue thinness, becomes dissatisfied with her body, and faces overwhelming stress.
Osteoporosis (blue in this section= from reading list #2)
Osteoporosis - reduction of bone mass and the failure to form new bone (low bone density) · Affects ~20 million Americans -> 80% are women · Accounts for 1/3 of all orthopedic problems *bone cells are spaced apart, pourus in texture, spongy Common areas affected include: 1. Vertebral column (spine) 2. Femoral neck (most issues with osteoporosis in the hi joint) 3. Distal radius/wrist 4. Humerus (upper arm bone) Causes include: 1. Hormonal deficiencies (menopause - estrogen loss) 2. Nutritional deficiencies -> lack of calcium, impaired absorption of calcium, excessive alcohol or caffeine consumption can impair calcium absorption, lack of vitamin d 3. Decreased physical activity 4. Diseases that affect bone loss (hyperthyroidism, DM (diabetes), RA (rumatiod authoritis) , liver disease, certain types of cancer ie. Multiple Myeloma) 5. Medications that affect bone loss (thyroid hormones, corticosteroids, chemotherapy medications, anticonvulsants ie. longstanding use of Dilantin) (seizure medicine) -common affliction in old age is osteoporosis (meaning "porous bone"), a disease in which a serious loss of minerals leaves the bones fragile and easily fractured. *Osteoporosis weakens the bones, leading to the stooped posture displayed by many older adults. It also increases the risk of fractures, which can rob older adults of their independence. Osteoporosis- A disease affecting older adults in which bone tissue is lost, leaving bones fragile and easily fractured.
Obese teens are more likely to become obese adults. They are subject to a number of physical, social, and psychological risks.
PHYSICAL 1. Sleep Apnea (very common in the morbidly obese population) (sleep sitting up) 2. Pulmonary Issues 3. CHF (Congestive Heart Failure) 4. Back problems (herniated disks) 5. Joint problems (specifically hip and knee requiring replacement surgery) 6. Risk for fractures (ie. 500lbs with a small bone structure) 7. Bed sores 8. Excessive skin stretching (which may require surgical removal if weight is lost) 9. In cases of extreme morbid obesity (>600-700lbs.) organ failure including heart, lungs, and kidneys (requiring emergent dialysis) 10. Type 2 diabetes SOCIAL 1. Social withdrawal 2. Social isolation (homebound, unable to work or go to school) 3. Lack of social support 4. Lack of meaningful relationships 5. Subject of bullying PSYCHOLOGICAL 1. Depression 2. Generalized anxiety disorder 3. Panic disorder 4. Obsessive-compulsive tendencies with food 5. Thoughts of suicide
Parkinson's Disease
Parkinson's disease - chronic, progressive disease of the nervous system · Affects ~1.5 million Americans with ~50,000 new cases diagnosed yearly · Mean age of onset is between 59-62, but is can start earlier (Michael J. Fox) · Problem lies in the Substantia nigra (midbrain structure) (contains dopamine producing cells) · Loss of neurons that produce the neurotransmitter Dopamine Symptoms include: 1. Rigidity or extreme stiffness 2. Resting tremor 3. Impaired postural reflexes impacting balance 4. Problems initiating movements 5. Slowed movement patterns 6. Freezing episodes (ie. getting stuck in doorways) 7. Flexed forward posture from the truck 8. Shuffling gait pattern 9. Feet close together (narrow base of support) 10. Impaired speech and oromotor control (eating) *flexed forward; senile purpura (on face)
Table 5.3- Age- Related Challenges in the Visual System
Part of the eye: Pupil Related Changes or Disease: Less responsive to changes in lighting conditions and to dim light Resulting Limitations: Difficulty reading menus in dimly lit restaurants; trouble with night driving; unable to adjust quickly enough to oncoming lights at night or exiting a movie theater into daylight Part of Eye: Lens Age-Related Changes or Disease: -Cataract: Cloudiness of the lens -Presbyopia: Thickening or hardening of the lens Resulting Limitation(s): -Blurred or distorted vision (cataracts) -Decreased ability to see close objects; need for "reading" glasses (presbyopia) Part of Eye: Retina Age-Related Changes or Disease: -Age-related macular degeneration (AMD): Photoreceptors in the middle of the retina, the macula, deteriorate -Retinitis pigmentosa (RP): Deterioration of light-sensitive cells outside the macula Resulting Limitation(s): Loss of central vision, an important contributor to reading, driving, watching TV, and other daily activities Loss of peripheral vision Part of Eye: Eyeball Age-Related Changes or Disease: Glaucoma: Increased fluid pressure in the eyeball Resulting Limitation(s): Glaucoma: Increased fluid pressure in the eyeball
Post-formal Thought
Post-formal thought can only occur if 2 things happen: brain maturation and expanding environmental opportunities What are the two major requirements to shift from formal operational to post-formal thought? (1) Brain maturation - final neural connections are made around age 22 -> adult brain - also referred to as functional connectivity (2) Expanding environmental opportunities - the more varied situations and experiences you can offer young people the more enhanced their cognitive development will be -ex: do they have the opportunity to play sports or travel?
Table 6.2- Sensorimotor Substages (The Substages and Intellectual Accomplishments of the Sensorimotor Period)
Reflex activity (birth-1 month) -Active exercise and refinement of inborn reflexes (e.g., change sucking patterns to fit the shapes of different objects). Primary circular reactions (1-4 months) -Repetition of interesting acts centered on the child's own body (e.g., repeatedly suck a thumb, kick legs, or blow bubbles). These typically begin as random acts but are then repeated for pleasure. Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months) -Repetition of interesting acts on objects (e.g., repeatedly shake a rattle to make an interesting noise or bat a mobile to make it wiggle). Thus, circular actions extend beyond one's self (primary) to objects in the environment (secondary to self). Coordination of secondary schemes (8-12 months) -Combination of actions to solve simple problems or achieve goals (e.g., push aside a barrier to grasp an object, using the scheme as a means to an end); first evidence of intentionality. Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months) -Experimentation to find new ways to solve problems or produce interesting outcomes (e.g., explore bath water by gently patting it, then hitting it vigorously and watching the results; or stroke, pinch, squeeze, and pat a cat to see how it responds to varied actions). Beginning of thought (18-24 months) -First evidence of insight; able to solve problems mentally and use symbols to stand for objects and actions; visualize how a stick could be used (e.g., move an out-of-reach toy closer).
Somatosensory
Somatosensory changes include: 1. Decreased sensitivity to touch 2. Proprioceptive losses 3. Loss of joint receptor sensitivity -> kinesthetic sense 4. Increased cutaneous pain thresholds UE >LE
Taste and Smell
Taste and smell changes include: 1. Decreased taste and smell sensitivity 2. Can lead to poor diet and nutrition 3. Increased use of taste enhancers (salt & sugar) 4. Decreased home safety (smoke & gas leaks) Additional loss of taste and smell: 1. Smoking (long-term can make you lose taste and smell) 2. Chronic allergies or respiratory infections (are more prone to losing taste and smell) 3. Dentures 4. CVA -> loss of hypoglossal nerve -those who have suffered from a stroke too
What structures mature and change in the adolescent brain to bring forth the potential forpost-formal thought?
The brain matures from back-to-front. The last neural connections are made in the prefrontal cortex. -Remember: The prefrontal cortex in the frontal lobe is responsible for the higher executive or intellectual functions like reasoning, decision making, problem solving etc.
Inside the Adolescent Brain
The brain undergoes two major developmental spurts, one in the womb and the second from childhood through teen years, when the organ matures by fits and starts in a sequence that moves from the back of the brain to the front. Corpus Callosum- Thought to be involved in problem solving and creativity, this bundle of nerve fibers connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain. During adolescence, the nerve fibers thicken and process information more and more efficiently Prefrontal Cortex- The CEO of the brain, also called the area of sober second thought, is the last part of the brain to mature- which may be why teens get into so much trouble. Located just behind the forehead, the prefrontal cortex grows during the preteen years and then shrinks as neural connections are pruned during adolescence. Basal Ganglia- Larger in females than in males, this part of the brain acts like a secretary to the prefrontal cortex by helping it prioritize information. The basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex are tightly connected: at nearly the same time, they grow neuron connections and then prune them. This area of the brain is also active in small and large motor movements, so it may be important to expose preteens to music and sports while it is growing Amygdala- This is the emotional center of the brain, home to such primal feelings as fear and rage. In processing emotional information, teens tend to rely more heavily on the amygdala. Adults depend more on the rational prefrontal cortex, a part of the brain that is underdeveloped in teens. That may explain why adolescents often react more impulsively than adults. Nerve Proliferation- By age 11 for girls and 12 1/2 for boys, the neurons in the front of the brain have formed thousands of new connections. Over the next few years, most of these links will be pruned.
What are the general principles of motor development?
The general principles include: 1. The cephalocaudaul principle is present. 2. The proximodistal principle is present. 3. The orthogenetic principle is present. 4. Movements begin as unrefined in nature and become more refined over development. · For example, a baby will initially swipe at an object that it wants almost always knocking it over. As grasp develops, the baby will eventually be able to pick up a Cheerio between the tips of their thumb and first finger (pincer grasp) which is a refined form of grasp. 5. Core stability must be developed before controlled mobility can occur. · For example, an infant or child needs to develop spinal strength to be able to sit with good balance. This must be in place before they can reach in sitting for an object that is slightly out-of-reach to grab it and not fall over. 6. There are periods of equilibrium and disequilibrium in motor (and other forms) of development. · For example, a baby may be able to get on their hands and knees (4-point positioning) and rock back and forth, but they still haven't figured out how to move their arms and legs to crawl. They could be doing this movement pattern for a few weeks (equilibrium). Then you put them on the floor to play in the family room while you are cooking in the kitchen. You hear the dryer go off, so you step out for a few minutes to pull out the laundry in the laundry room. When you return to the kitchen and look into the family room your baby is gone! What happened? In those few moments you were gone, a period of disequilibrium or sudden change occurred and the baby figured out how to crawl. When you go looking for your baby you find him/her under the kitchen table smiling at you! Now you know it's time to "baby proof" the house. 7. There are "sensitive periods" when an infant or child is especially affected by environmental inputs or experiences. · When a baby starts pulling up onto furniture and walking along the couch (a motor skill called cruising), it would also be a good time to practicing walking with the baby. You would take the baby by the hands and walk behind them so they could practice balance in standing with nothing supporting them on the sides. Babies who practice walking this way with their caregivers often walk independently sooner than their peers who did not get this same experience.
Why did Elkind think that adolescent thought patters were immature?
The pre-frontal cortex matures last and the prefrontal cortex is responsible for the higher intellectual functions or executive functions which include problem-solving, decision making, making judgments, reasoning skills, and concentration skills; lack of full brain maturation coupled with lack of life experience can lead to incomplete or not fully thought out executive capacities
There are three major types of eating disorders recognized by the DSM-5. *DSM= Diagnostic and Statistical Manual; published by the APA, American Psychological Association
These disorders include: 1. Anorexia Nervosa 2. Bulimia Nervosa 3. Binge Eating Disorder (new to DSM-V) 4. Obesity (not officially recognized as an eating disorder in DSM-V) -it poses a # pf physical, social, and psychological risk factors that are important to note
Urogenital
Urogenital changes include: 1. Loss of kidney mass and total weight leading to decreased excretory and re-absorptive capacities (fluid retention, decreased urine output) 2. Bladder weakness can lead to decreased capacity causing urinary frequency 3. Bladder weakness can also lead to difficulty emptying causing urinary retention 4. Increased likelihood of UTIs (urinary tract infections) 5. Urinary incontinence - inability to hold urine or bladder leakage · affects over 10 million adults · over half of nursing home residents and 1/3 of community dwellers · urinary incontinence - women - pelvic floor weakness · urinary incontinence - men - prostate disease
Table 15.1- Common Forms and Causes of Dementia
Vascular dementia- Formerly called multi-infarct dementia. Caused by minor strokes or other vascular events that cut off blood (and oxygen) to areas of the brain; results in steplike deterioration after each stroke; functioning depends on location and extent of brain damage but often involve impaired judgment. Lewy body dementia- May be as common as vascular dementia. Caused by protein deposits called Lewy bodies in neurons. Motor problems, as in Parkinson's disease; visual hallucinations, attention and alertness problems, unpredictable cognitive functioning. Frontotemporal dementia- Early-onset dementia associated with shrinking of the frontal and temporal lobes. Executive function problems (e.g., impulsive behavior and poor judgment) as well as language problems are more common than memory problems. Parkinson's disease dementia- Lewy bodies in subcortical areas of the brain contribute to motor problems (tremors, slowing/freezing while walking); treatment of Parkinson's disease with the drug L-dopa to make up for dopamine deficiency caused by the disease is effective, but some patients go on to develop what is called Parkinson's disease dementia in the later stages. Huntington's disease- Caused by a single dominant gene. Subcortical brain damage results in involuntary flicking movement of the arms and legs; hallucinations, paranoia, depression, personality changes. Alcohol-related dementia- Caused by alcohol abuse; memory problems are the primary symptom in the condition called Wernicke-Korsakoff's syndrome. AIDS dementia complex (ADC)-Caused by HIV virus infection. Encephalitis, behavioral changes, decline in cognitive function, progressive slowing of motor functions.
Visual Pathology Eye pathologies
Visual pathology includes: 1. Cataracts - clouding of the lens due to changes in proteins •Central vision lost 1st followed by peripheral vision •Problems with glare (driving at night problematic) •General darkening of vision •Surgical intervention can restore visual loss *white film over the eye 2. Glaucoma - caused by increased intraocular pressure in the eye •Atrophy of the optic nerve if left untreated •Early loss of peripheral vision •"Tunnel vision" •Can progress to total blindness *can be treated with eye drops if caught early enough 3. Senile Macular Degeneration - decreased blood supply and abnormal growth of blood vessels under the retina •Loss of central vision first •Initially retain peripheral vision •Can lead to total blindness *inherited condition *can be treated with surgery/shots in the eye *can slow progression, but you cant stop it completely from occurring 4. Diabetic Retinopathy - damage to retinal capillaries, growth of abnormal blood vessels, hemorrhage leads to retinal scarring and possibly retinal detachment •Central vision impairment •Complete blindness rare
A Comparison of Vygotsky and Piaget
Vygotsky's Sociocultural View: - Processes of animal and human development are fundamentally different. - Cognitive development is different in different social and historical contexts. - Appropriate unit of analysis is the social, cultural, and historical context in which the individual develops. - Cognitive growth results from social interactions (guided participation in the zone of proximal development). - Children and their partners co-construct knowledge. - Social processes become individual psychological ones (e.g., social speech becomes inner speech). - Adults are especially important because they know the culture's tools of thinking. - Learning precedes development (tools learned with adult help become internalized). - Training can help mediate development. Piaget's Cognitive Developmental View : - Processes of animal and human development are fundamentally the same. - Cognitive development is mostly the same universally. - Appropriate unit of analysis is the individual. - Cognitive growth results from the child's independent explorations of the world. - Children construct knowledge on their own. - Individual, egocentric processes become more social (e.g., egocentric speech becomes social speech). - Peers are especially important because the cognitive conflict triggered by different perspectives of other children is not so overwhelming that it cannot be resolved. - Development precedes learning (children cannot master certain things until they have the requisite cognitive structures). - Training is largely ineffective in "speeding up" development.
Warning Signs of Anorexia Nervosa
Warning signs include: (1) Determined secret dieting (2) Excessive and prolonged exercise (3 hours of cardio, 3 times/day) (3) Dresses in layers to hide weight loss or stay warm (4) Develops food rituals (eating foods in a certain order, excessive chewing, rearranging food on a plate) (5) Concerned about eating in public (6) Cooks meals for others without eating (7) Has a strong need for control
What are the three fundamental principles governing both prenatal and postnatal development?
cephalocaudal principle, proximodistal principle, orthogenetic principle
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
includes sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
is the difference between the range of tasks that a learn can do without help and what he or she can do with help -learner can do with guidance
Figure 4.2 - Endocrine Glands and Hormones
pineal gland- produces melatonin, which helps us fall asleep parathyroid gland- four small glands behind the thyroid that influence bone growth adrenal glands- produces adrenalin (aka epinephrine), our "fight or flight" hormone ovaries in females- (females) make estrogen and progesterone to regulate the menstrual cycle and maintain a pregnancy testes in males- (males) make testosterone which is involved in sperm production hypothalamus- connections the endocrine system to the nervous system pituitary gland- the "master gland"; uses information from the hypothalamus to control the release of hormones from other glands in the endocrine system thyroid gland- produces thyroid hormone, which controls metabolism thymus gland- produces white blood cells that help fight infections pancreas- makes insulin and glucagon to maintain balance of sugar in bloodstream and cells
Major Reflexes in the Infant (Handout)
reflexes; developmental course; Significance Survival Reflexes: -breathing reflex; permanent; provides oxygen and expels carbon dioxide -eye-blink-reflex; permanent; protects eyes from bright light or foreign objects -Pupillary reflex: constriction of pupils to bright light, dilation to dark or dimly lit surroundings; permanent; protects against bright light; adapts visual system to low illumination -Rooting reflex: turning of check in direction of a tactile (touch) stimulus; weakens by 2 months, disappears by 5 months; orients child to breast or bottle -Sucking reflex: sucking on objects placed (or taken) into mouth; is gradually modified by experience over the first few months of life, disappears by 7 months; allows child to take in nutrients -Swallowing reflex; is permanent but modified by experience; allows child to take in nutrients and protects against choking Primitive Reflexes: -Babinski reflex: fanning and then curling toes when bottom of foot is stroked; disappears between 12 and 18 months of life; presence at birth and disappearance in first year indicate normal neurological development -Grasping Reflex: Curling of fingers around objects (such as finger) that touch baby's palm; disappears in first 3-4 months, is replaced by voluntary grasp; presence at birth and later disappearance indicate normal neurological development -Moro Reflex: loud noise or sudden change in position of baby's head will cause baby to throw arms outward, arch back, and then bring arms toward each other as if to hold onto something; disappears by 4 months, however child continues to react to unexpected noises or a loss of bodily support by showing a startle reflex (which does not disappear); Presence at birth and later disappearance (or evolution into the startle reflex) indicate normal neurological development -Swimming Reflex: infant immersed in water will display active movements of arms and legs and involuntary hold breath (thus staying afloat for some time); disappears in first 4-6 months; presence at birth and later disappearance indicate normal neurological development Stepping Reflex: infants held upright so that their feet touch a flat surface will step as if to walk; disappears in first 8 weeks unless infant has regular opportunities to practice it; presence at birth and later disappearance indicate normal neurological development *Preterm infants may show little or no evidence of primitive reflexes at birth and their survival reflexes are likely to be irregular or immature. However, the missing reflexes will typically appear soon after birth and will typically appear soon after birth and disappear a little later than then do in full-term infants.
specific localization
· 12 to 16 months of age · If you touch the baby they will look at or touch the place where you touched · For example, if you touch their arm they will look at that spot and maybe even put their own hand over the spot you touched · Note: This is also seen when you teach them their body parts à If you say, "Where are your eyes?" à The first thing they do is touch their eyes. · This aspect of touch is also important for the beginnings of "self-awareness". · If you place a baby in front of a mirror at 9 months of age, do they know they are the baby in the mirror? No, they think the baby in the mirror is another baby. They don't recognize their own image yet. · A couple of months later place them in front of the mirror again, but this time put a little red lipstick on their cheek. They will touch their cheek, then touch the cheek of the baby in the mirror and go back and forth until they have a moment of realization that they are the baby in the mirror. At first they have a surprised expression followed by a laugh as they have that first moment of "self-awareness".
general localization
· 7 to 9 months of age · Baby will move their limb out of the way if you try to touch them · For example, you try to tickle their feet and before you can touch them they have moved their leg out of the way · Also sometimes referred to as "anticipated touch"
Hearing
· Auditory discrimination occurs quickly after birth · Occasionally, there is a little debris (wax) in the middle ear that takes a few days to clear after birth · Babies can then hear clearly · Infants can hear much better than they can see
Pattern Discrimination
· Infants are attracted to patterns that have a large amount of light-dark transitions or contour · They are very attentive to sharp boundaries between light and dark areas (like the yin and yang symbol) · They are attracted to moving patterns of objects · Attracted to moderately complex patterns (like the checker board pattern) · Keeping this in mind, can you see why if you present black and white text on a cell phone to them and they swipe at it and make it move that it becomes so visual stimulating to them and why they cry when you take it away
Smell
· Newborns and infants have an acute sense of smell · They can recognize the smell of their mother's breast milk from that of other women by 1 to 2 weeks of age
Pain
· Newborns can feel pain from the moment they are born. · The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) has identified the third trimester (beginning at ~ 27 weeks) as the time when the fetus could experience pain in the womb. It is believed that the pain receptors are mature by that time.
Taste
· Newborns have all four taste qualities at birth (sweet, sour, salty, and bitter) · They prefer the taste of sweet.
haptic perception
· The ability to identify objects by touch or feeling · In order for haptic perception to occur you must have somatosensory perception (coming from the parietal lobe) and proprioception. · Somatosensory perception is the ability to identify objects using touch by their edges, curves, or textures. · Proprioception is the ability to perceive where our hand or limb is in space. · How do you test for haptic perception? · Place a few objects in a brown paper bag (paper clip, rubber band, key, eraser, and quarter). Then go up to a family member who does not know what is in the bag. Ask them to place their hand in and without looking identify one of the objects by touch and then pull it out. Most people would be able to identify the above 5 objects by touch only. · If you cannot identify objects by touch that is a condition known as tactile agnosia. This condition is seen in patients who have suffered a stroke or who have brain lesions in the parietal lobe.
Vision
· Vision is the least developed sense at birth · Initially newborns see in black and white · The cones in the retina (color vision) are still slightly underdeveloped · At two months of age the first color they see is red followed by green at the end of the second month · At the beginning of the third month, they can see blue followed at the end of the month by yellow · What are the colors of Fisher Price toys and the characters on Sesame Street? (It makes sense when you think about it.) · They have tracking abilities at birth (follow a moving object with their eyes) · Distance vision is poor (Think about how you hold a newborn and how close your face is to their face.) · 20/20 vision (normal distance vision) does not occur until approximately 6 months of age · Binocular vision must develop before either distance or depth perception can occur · Binocular vision occurs when the two eyes can focus together to perceive a single three-dimensional image in the environment · Binocular vision emerges at approximately 4 to 5 months of age
