Psyc 260 Exam 4
Stereotype threat study sports
one half were told the game measured athletic ability - black athletes performed better than whites. One half were told the game measured sport strategic intelligence - black athletes performed worse than whites
Social categorization
the natural cognitive process by which we place individuals into social groups. It occurs when we think of someone as a man (vs. a woman), and old person (vs. an young person), a black person (vs. an Asian or white person), and so on.
Social Loafing
the tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated. If being with other people means merging into a group and becoming less noticeable than when alone --> relaxation
The illusion of group effectivity
the tendency to overvalue the productivity of groups. It occurs because: the productivity of the group as a whole is highly accessible, and this productivity generally seems quite good, at least in comparison with the contributions of single individuals. On the affective side, group members receive a lot of positive social identity from their group memberships. These positive feelings naturally lead them to believe that the group is strong and performing well.
Memory bias
(An explanation for Illusory Correlation) Distinctive information (minority groups' infrequent behaviors) is remembered better, thus biasing judgements at the time of retrieval
Encoding bias
(An explanation for Illusory Correlation) Distinctive information (minority groups' infrequent behaviors) is salient, receives enhanced encoding, and becomes highly accessible, thus biasing new information as it comes in
Group formation
1. Forming and relationship development (get to know, introduce) 2. Storming and conflict (group structure forms. Leader takes power. Roles in place) 3. Norming and performing (interdependent faze) 4. Adjourning (achieved goal and break up)
Factors of contact hypothesis:
1. Mutual interdependence 2. Common goal 3. Equal status 4. Friendly, informal setting 5. Knowing multiple out-group members 6. Social norms of equality
Drug discrimination
African-Americans are nearly six times more likely than whites to be admitted to prison and over twelve times more likely with respect to drug-related crimes, despite the fact that studies show that blacks and whites use drugs at largely similar rates. Latinos are almost twice as likely as whites to be admitted to prison and almost 2.5 times as likely to be admitted for drug-related crimes.
Morality
All cultures have morality beliefs -- the set of social norms that describe the principles and ideals, as well as the duties and obligations, that we view as appropriate and that we use to judge the actions of others and to guide our own behavior Morality has both a cognitive and an emotional component. Some judgements feel wrong, even if we cannot put our finger on exactly why that is
Other way of reducing bias
Bodenhausen, Schwarz, Bless, and Wanke (1995) [12] found that when White students thought about positive Black role models—such as Oprah Winfrey and Michael Jordan—they became less prejudiced toward Blacks.
Sherif's (1961) Robbers Cave Experiments
Experiment on contact hypothesis. Created summer camp for boys and established two groups: the rattlers and the eagles. The groups formed and each hated and discriminated against the other. Wanted to figure out how to make the groups reduce animosity for each other. Made them interact in activities that centered around a common goal and where they had equal status.
Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)
Factor that increases stereotyping... a personality variable that refers to the tendency to see and to accept inequality among different groups People who score higher on SDO also show greater ingroup favoritism
Ultimate attribution error
Fundamental attribution error extended to a group level People make trait attribtutions in ways that benefit their in-groups, just as they make trait attributions that benefit themselves. This general tendency results in the tendency for each of the competing groups to perceive the other group extremely and unrealistically negatively. Think Duke vs. UNC
Implicit Measures
Less Aware Less Controllable Less Intentional (Could be) Unendorsed Implicit Measures
Jon Haidt on Morality
Liberals and Conservative - ideology of openesss to experience. 95% of social psychologist are liberal. First of the moral mind: 1. Harm/care 2. Fairness/reciprocity 3. Ingroup/loyalty 4. Authority/respect 5. Purity/sanctity (food and morality today) Liberals only have the first 2 channels of morality: harm/care and fairness/reciprocity. Conservatives have all five channels. Punishment brings large groups to cooperate Traditional morality - formed every group Jon Haidt thinks that these morals are innate
Member Characteristics
Member characteristics are the relevant traits, skills, or abilities of the individual group members On a rope-pulling task, for instance, the member characteristic is the ability of each of group member to pull hard on the rope on his or her own. Some people are highly motivated to join groups and to make positive contributions to those groups, whereas others are more wary of group membership and prefer to meet their goals working alone.
The composition and functions of groups
Most groups have three to six members. Due in part to our definition of groups as involving interaction between members. If groups become too large, one has difficulty interacting with all members Upper limit? Dunbar's number = 150. The number of reputations any individual can hold in mind at one time.
Counter stereotypes
Not particularly effective - disconfirming evidence often challenges people to come up with additional reasons for holding on to that belief, thus strengthening stereotypes
Group Cohesiveness through the scope of the Stanford Prison Experiment
Now after seeing the Stanford Prison experiment, it should come as no surprise to you that group cohesiveness matters. As the guards became more cohesive—started to develop an idea of "us" v. "them" they began to enact more bad behavior. The more cohesive a group is, the more likely members are to: Stay in the group Take part in group activities Try to recruit new like-minded members
Realistic group conflict
Occurs when groups are in competition for objectively scarce resources (sports, oil) Conflict results in these conditions because it is easy (and accurate) to blame the difficulties of one's own group on the competition produced by the other group or groups
Similarity
One determinant of entitativity is a cognitive one -- the perception of _____________.
Producing conflict
One factor that tends to produce conflict is that, overall, individuals expect others to take competitive, rather than cooperative, orientations (Sattler & Kerr, 1991), and once they see the behavior of others, they are likely to interpret that behavior as being competitive, even if it is not.
Negative Outcomes of Social Categorization
One problem is that social categorization distorts our perceptions such that we tend to exaggerate the differences between people from different social groups while at the same time perceiving members of groups (and particularly outgroups) as more similar to each other than they actually are
Just World Hypothesis
One way that people do this is by blaming the victim: interpreting negative outcomes that occur to others internally so that it seems that they deserve them. When we see that bad things have happened to other people, we tend to blame the people for them, even if they are not at fault. Thus we may believe that poor people deserve to be poor because they are lazy (or "they should have diversified their assets"), that crime victims deserve to be victims because they were careless, and that people with AIDS deserve their illness. (Or "shouldn't have gone out last night").
Trolley Problem
Outcomes or the way in which you do it. Means matter when it comes to morality
Education reduces prejudice
People who are more educated express fewer stereotypes and prejudice in general. This is true for students who enroll in courses that are related to stereotypes and prejudice, such as a course on gender and ethnic diversity, and is also true more generally—education reduces prejudice, regardless of what particular courses you take.
Acknowledgement
People will also work harder in groups when they feel that they are contributing to the group and that their work is visible to and valued by the other group members.
Avoiding Groupthink
Remain impartial - the leader should not take a directive role Seek outside opinions - the leader should invite outside opinions from people who are not members of the group Create sub-groups - divide the group into sub-groups that meet separately first Seek anonymous opinions - take a secret ballot
Stereotyping
Stereotypes are heuristics (mental shortcuts). Stereotypes may contain a "kernel of truth"; we often can accurately predict group difference E.g., we are rarely are incorrect about the direction of sex differences However, people often exaggerate the differences Display on slides of exaggerated differences
How are stereotypes maintained?
Stereotypes are maintained because information that confirms our stereotypes is better remembered than information that disconfirms them. When we see members of social groups perform behaviors, we tend to better remember information that confirms our stereotypes than we remember. Think of heuristics.
Information sharing
Stove piping Studies on information sharing (more is better). FIND OUT WHAT THIS MEANS
Stereotype threat study - math and gender
When told a math test was designed to show gender differences in math abilities, women did not perform as well as men When told the math test did not detect male-female differences, women and men performed equally well
compensatory or averaging
a task in which the group input is combined such that the performance of the individuals is averaged Task combination:
Disjunctive
a task in which the group's performance is determined by its best group member
additive
a task in which the inputs of each group member are added together to create the group performance Task combination:
Criterion
a task in which there is clearly a correct answer to the problem that is being posed
Judgmental
a task in which there is no clearly correct answer to the problem that is being posed
Maximizing task assessment
a task that involves performance that is measured by how rapidly the group works or how much of a product they are able to make
Intellective task assessment
a task that involves the ability of the group to make a decision or a judgement
Thrombolysis
an example of discrimination - get from notes. Essentially, doctors wouldn't diagnose black patients for thromboylsis because then they would have to see them all the time
Nominal group technique
capitalizes on the use of individual sessions to generate intitial ideas, followed by face-to-face group meetings to discuss and build on them. In this approach, participants first work alone to generate and write down their ideas before the group discussion starts, and the group then records the ideas that are generated. In addition, a round-robin procedure is used to make sure that each individual has a chance to communicate his or her ideas.
Social norms of equality
contact is most likely to lead to reduced prejudice when social norms that promote and support equality among groups are operating in the situation (Amir, 1969; Wilder, 1984). Social norms are powerful; here they can be harnessed to motivate people to reach out to members of the out-group. For example, if the boss or the professor creates and reinforces a norm o
Communication
default is to assume that people are selfish unless you communicate that you want to be cooperative Finally, communication may also help people realize the advantages, over the long term, of cooperating. If, as a result of communication, the individuals learn that the others are actually behaving cooperatively (something that might not have been apparent given prior misperceptions that make us overestimate the extent to which others are competing), this might increase the motivation to cooperate oneself.
Why thinking in group vs out group is bad for us.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rfpo-gUDSuE (video of girl and cartoon of races) In-group bias, fundamental attribution error
Referee and stereotype implicit bias study
if refs have a majority of blacks or whites, they give their race better calls
Friendly, informal setting
in-group members can interact with out-group members on a 1-to-1 basis. Simply placing two groups in contact in a room where they can remain segregated will do little to promote their understanding or knowledge of each other.
What did Brown vs. Board of Education do?
it did not desegregate schools. It intended to but failed as we see by the current trends.
Social conventional morality
norms that are seen as appropriate within a culture but that do not involve behaviors that relate to doing good or doing harm toward others (e.g. masturbating with a body of a dead chicken) These sort of moral issues can simply be: it is not IMMORal to do these things
Jason's research
on risk taking
Outgroup homogeneity
the tendency to view members of outgroups as more similar to each other than we see members of ingroups. Or, "the perception of a highly complex ingroup and a simple outgroup ('they are all the same')" It occurs in part because we don't have as much contact with outgroup members as we do with ingroup members, and the quality of interaction with outgroup members is often more superficial.
Why do we form groups?
• Social animals • Health • Wealth • Evolutionarily adaptive • Biological need to associate • We like it!
More discrimination ii
A Black boy born in 2001 has a 1 in 3 chance of going to prison in his lifetime; a Latino boy a 1 in 6 chance; and a White boy a 1 in 17 chance. A Black girl born in 2001 has a 1 in 17 chance of going to prison in her lifetime; a Latino girl a 1 in 45 chance; and a White girl a 1 in 111 chance.
(from this point on go back to notebook and add in notes) Authoritarianism
A factor that increases stereotyping... a personality dimension that characterizes people who prefer things to be simple rather than complex and who tend to hold traditional and conventional values Authoritarians are ingroup-favoring in part because they have a need to self-enhance and in part because they prefer simplicity and thus find it easy to think simply: "We are all good and they are all less good." Political conservatives tend to show more ingroup favoritism than do political liberals, perhaps because the former are more concerned with protecting the ingroup from threats posed by others
Zajonc cockroaches experiment
A famous experiment by Bob Zajonc found that even cockroaches respond to social facilitation. He built a maze box and measured how long it took for cockroaches to get through it. Cockroaches got through it much more quickly when there were cockroaches in audience boxes watching than when the cockroach went it alone. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VWsjET4f-2c
The Tit-For-Tat Strategy
A simple strategy that involves initially making a cooperative choice and then waiting to see what the other individuals do. If it turns out that they also make cooperative choice (or if most of them do), then the individual again makes a cooperative choice. On the other hand, if the other group members compete, then the individual again matches this behavior by competing. This process continues such that the individual always does what the others have done on the trial before. Evolutionary psychologist say it's better to give them one chance to mess up or that the strategy is best or something
Common goal
A superordinate goal will take higher priority than other concerns and potentially unite people despite other conflicts
Conjunctive
A task in which the group's performance is determined by its worst member
Divisible
A task in which the work can be divided among individuals : task characteristic
Unitary
A task in which the work cannot be divided among individuals : task characteristic
Violinist Problem
Abortion
Prejudice
Affectively-based. A hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinguishable group, based solely on their membership in that group. Can also be positive feelings for ingroups Any group can be a target of __________
Types of Attitudues
Affectively-based: based more on people's feelings and values Cognitively-based: based more on people's beliefs about the object Behaviorally-based: based more on people's observations of their own behavior
Conflict and Competition
Also leads to negative stereotypes of the outgroup, increases perceptions of the other groups as homogeneous, and potentially even produces deindividuation and dehumanization of the outgroup. The conflict also reduces the amount of interaction among members of the competing groups, which makes it more difficult to change the negative perceptions. The unfortunate outcome of such events is that initially small conflucts may become increasingly hostile until they get out of control
Communication, Interdependence, and Group Structure
Although similarity is critical, it is not the only factor that creates a group. Groups have more entitativty when the group members have frequent interaction and communication with each other
Culture
As a factor that increases stereotyping... Spencer-Rodgers et al. (2007) tested the hypothesis that Chinese participants, because of their collectivist orientation, would find social groups more important than would Americans (who are more individualistic) and that as a result, they would be more likely to infer personality traits on the basis of group membership - this is, to stereotype
Membership Characteristics study
As an example of variation in the importance of member skills, Jones (1974) found that the skill of individual baseball players accounted for 99% of the team performance on baseball teams (and thus group process accounted for only 1%) but that the skill of individual basketball players accounted for only 35% of the team performance on basketball teams (and thus group process accounted for 65%).
Equal status
At the boys' camp and in the public housing project, the group members were very much the same in terms of status and power. No one was the boss, and no one was the less powerful employee. When status is unequal, interactions can easily follow stereotypical patterns. The whole point of contact is to allow people to learn that their stereotypes are inaccurate; contact and interaction should lead to disconfirmation of negative, stereotyped beliefs. If status is unequal between the groups, their interactions will be shaped by that status difference—the bosses will act like stereotypical bosses, the employees like stereotypical subordinates—and no one will learn new, disconfirming information about the other group
Explicit Prejudice
Aware Controllable Intentional Endorsed Direct Measures
Cooperation
Because cooperation is evolutionarily useful for human beings, social norms that help us cooperate have become part of human nature. These norms include principles of morality and social fairness.
Discrimination
Behaviorally-based. Behaviors directed toward people on the basis of their group membership
Social Fairness
Beliefs about how people should be treated fairly. We determine what is or is not fair by relying on these social fairness norms
More discrimination i
Blacks have higher mortality rates than Whites for 8 of the 10 leading causes of death in the United States (Williams, 1999) and have less access to and receive poorer-quality health care, even controlling for other variables such as level of health insurance. Suicide rates among lesbians and gays are substantially higher than rates for the general population, and it has been argued that this in part due to the negative outcomes of prejudice, including negative attitudes and resulting social isolation (Halpert, 2002).
Cities
By living in close proximity, we use less energy, are healthier, and are wealthier. Even the worst cities in the world in terms of crime and poverity-Kinshasa, Kolkata, and Lagos- confer surprising benefits on the people who flock to them, including better health and more jobs than the rural areas that surround them. Edward Glaeser wrote a book about how cities are humans' greatest invention because they make us richer, smarter, greener, healthier and happier
Affective Misattribution Procedure (AMP; Payne et al., 2005)
Classify pictures by whether you like them more ('e') or less ('i') than the average. Subliminally flash pictures of white or blacks (or class example cats and dogs) then put an arbitrary pictograph (image / symbol (like Chinese)) after. Rate the number of "pleasant" and "unpleasant" responses after pictures of dogs relative to the number of "pleasant" and "unpleasant" responses after pictures of cats
Jigsaw Classroom
Classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice, promote integration, and raise self-esteem. Children in small, desegregated groups. Each child is dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material and do well in the class One of the most effective ways of improving race relations, improving empathy, and improving instruction Why does the jigsaw classroom work? Breaks down perception of in-group and out-group, creates feeling of "oneness" People must do each other "favors" by sharing information - doing others favors leads to greater liking Empathy development
Stereotypes
Cognitively-based. A generalization about a group of people, regardless of actual variation among the members
Competition
Competition between social groups may also provide social comparison information, which can lead both groups to set higher standards and motivate them to greater achievement
Contact Hypothesis
Contact will reduce prejudice when both groups are of equal status and both share a common goal
Hasel Maruks (1978) study on social facilitation and social inhibition
Gave research participants an easy task (putting on and tying their shoes) and an unfamiliar and this more difficult task (putting on an tying a lab coat that tied in the back). People performed better with an audience on the easy tasks / tasks that are their dominant response (e.g. tying a shoe). This is social facilitation. Social inhibition arises when doing a task that isn't your dominant response (e.g. tying lab coat behind back). You do perform worse with an audience. Zajonc made use of the affective component of arousal in his explanation. Zajonc argued that when we are with others, we experience more arousal than we do when we are alone, and that this arousal increases the likelihood that we will perform the dominant response—the action that we are most likely to emit in any given situation.
Our working definition of a group:
Groups have entitativity, similarity, communicate, interdependence, structure, and members draw some aspect of their social identity from the group
Self-fulfilling prophecy and stereotypes
If a society believes that a particular group is stupid, lazy, it will act in accordance with beliefs E.g., educational resources will not be provided to that group, thus group will not attain adequate education, thus society's original belief will be confirmed E.g., "blacks don't have jobs." employers will not be willing to hire blacks (b/c of black sounding name on resume, etc.), thus group will not have jobs, thus society's original belief will be confirmed
Outgroup homogeneity study
If asked to memorize faces, people are more likely to say "yes, I've seen that face before" to new outgroup faces than to new ingroup faces
Group Think
If maintaining good relations among group members is more important than finding good solutions. Cohesiveness can interfere with optimal performance (e.g. politicians making decisions where they put group allegiances first). (e.g.2. JKF & Cuba) Or what if you're making assumptions about what others know because you know the information and assume everyone else does? Group cohesiveness can lead you to assume that others share the knowledge you have access to and prevent you from putting forth new information
Privatization
In a study by Messick and McClelland (1983) using a resource game, individuals who were given their own private pool of resources to manage maintained them for an average of 31 trials of the game before they ran out. But individuals who were managing pools in groups maintained their pools for only about 10 trials and therefore gained much lower outcomes. In other experimental games, the outcomes are arranged such that the participants are either working for themselves or working for the joint outcomes of the group (Deutsch, 1949). Smaller groups where people are working for the join outcomes of the group is better. Privatization is good because it makes everything clear and public so it takes away the assumptions of what you think people are doing
Who Cooperates and Who Competes?
In general, people who are more self-oriented are more likely to compete, whereas people who are more other oriented are more likely to cooperate. For instance, Campbell, Bush, Brunell, and Shelton (2005) found that students who were highly narcissistic (i.e., very highly self-focused) competed more in a resource dilemma and took more of the shared resource for themselves than did the other people playing the game.
Norman Triplett (1898) bicycle social facilitation study
In one of the earliest social psychological studies, Norman Triplett (1898) investigated how bicycle racers were influenced by the social situation in which they raced. Triplett found something very interesting—the racers who were competing with other bicyclers on the same track rode significantly faster than bicyclers who were racing alone, against the clock.
Interdependence (low and high)
Interaction is particularly important when it is accompanied by this. It is the extent to which the group members are mutually dependent upon each other to reach a goal. Low: group project when one person does all the work. High: four people all doing equal amounts of work
Harm-based morality
It has been found that starting at about age 10, children in most cultures come to a belief about harm-based morality -- that harming others, either physically or by violating their rights, is wrong
Incentives
Perhaps the most straightforward approach to getting people to work harder in groups is to provide rewards for performance. Corporations reward their employees with raises and bonuses if they perform well, and players on sports teams are paid according to their successes on the playing field. However, although incentives may increase the effort of the individual group members and thus enhance group performance, they also have some potential disadvantages for group process.
Zajonc (look at diagram on slides)
Presence of others --> Arousal -- > Dominant Response If dominant response is correct --> process gain If dominant response is incorrect --> process loss
Group Cohesiveness
Qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members. The more _______ a group is, the more its members are likely to: stay in the group, take part in group activities, try to recruit new like-minded members If a task requires close cooperation between the group members, cohesiveness helps performance (e.g. a football team executing a difficult play).
The Prisoner's Dilemma
Resource Dilemma. We suck: In one version of a resource dilemma game that participants sit around a bowl of metal nuts, and the goal is to get as many nuts as one can. The experimenter adds nuts to the bowl such that the number of nuts in the bowl doubles every 10 seconds. However, the individual players are also motivated to harvest nuts for themselves and are allowed to take out as many nuts as they like at any time. Rather than cooperating and watching the pool grow, the participants almost immediately acted in their self-interest, grabbing the nuts from the bow. In fact, Edney reported that 65% of the groups never got to the first 10-second replenishment!
Situational factors that increase conflict
Ross and Ward (1995) found that participants played a game more competitively when it was described as a "Wall Street Broker Game" than when the same game was called "Community Game.: And other studies have found that subliminal priming of money or business materials (e.g., boardroom tables and business suits) increases competition.
Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald et al., 1998)
Say good or bad when flashed picture of white or black people -- measured the time of the response as well as the response
Behavioral Attitude Measure Example:
Sechrist and Stangor (2001) selected White college students who were either high or low in prejudice toward Blacks and then provided them with information indicating that their prejudiced or unprejudiced beliefs were either shared or not shared by the other students at their university. Then the students were asked to take a seat in a hallway to wait for the next part of the experiment. A Black confederate was sitting in one seat at the end of the row, and the dependent measure was how far away the students sat from her. Need to get results. If they were shared did they sit further or closer?
Brainstorming: is it effective?
Short answer: no. Social loafing When individuals are told that other group members are more knowledgeable than they are, they reduce their own contributions When they are convinced that they themselves are experts, their contributions increase
In-group bias: minimal group paradigm
Strangers are formed into groups using the most trivial criteria imaginable. They rated members of their in-group as more likely to have pleasant personalities and to have done better work than out-group members. They allocated more rewards to those who shared their label. Participants in another experiment were first asked to express their opinions about artists they had never heard of and were then randomly assigned to a group that appreciated either the "Klee style" or the "Kandinsky style," ostensibly due to their picture preferences. In short, the boys preferred to maximize the gains of the other boys in their own group in comparison with the boys in the outgroup, even if doing so meant giving their own group members fewer points than they could otherwise have received. Perhaps the most striking part of Tajfel's results is that ingroup favoritism was found to occur on the basis of such arbitrary and unimportant groupings. In fact, ingroup favoritism occurs even when the assignment to groups is on such trivial things as whether people "overestimate" or "underestimate" the number of dots shown on a display, or on the basis of a completely random coin toss. Tajfel's research, as well other research demonstrating ingroup favoritism, provides a powerful demonstration of a very important social psychological process: Groups exist simply because individuals perceive those groups as existing. Even in a case where there really is no group (at least no meaningful group in any real sense), we still perceive groups and still demonstrate ingroup favoritism.
Stereotype threat
The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype //// Don't want to confirm stereotype and arousal is raised performance decrements that are caused by the knowledge of cultural
Strategies for Producing Cooperation
The characteristics of some social dilemmas lead them to produce a lot of competitive responses, whereas others are arranged to elicit more cooperation. Thus one way to reduce conflict, when the approach is possible, is to change the rules of the task to reinforce more cooperation. Common sense, people respond to incentives. E.g. if he only gave 3 A's in class people will be less cooperative and more competitive (won't help each other). But if everyone can get A's because he doesn't believe in grades, people are likely to cooperate and work together
In-group bias
The major underlying motive is self-esteem. Individuals enhance self-esteem by identifying with specific social groups; self-esteem is enhanced only if the individuals sees their group as superior to others
Group structure
The stable norms and roles that define the appropriate behaviors for the group as a whole and for each customs, traditions, standards, and rules, as well as the general values of the group (e.g. QB telling everyone else the play)
Social facilitation
The tendency to perform tasks better or faster in the presence of others is known as ____________. "Now thus far we've talked about how groups can be bad, but I'm sure you can imagine that groups can be very good. For instance, a group can make you work harder at something. Imagine volunteering with a team of people. You're really motivated to work harder. Now imagine a study group—you're motivated to study longer and harder. This is called ______________."
Illusory Correlation
When people see two things as being related that are in fact not related; a way to explain how infrequent events stand out when performed by a minority group
A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination
To manipulate perceived race, resumes are randomly assigned African-American- or White-sounding names. White names receive 50 percent more callbacks for interviews. Callbacks are also more responsive to resume quality for White names than for African-American ones. The racial gap is uniform across occupation, industry, and employer size. It indicates that a white name yields as many more callbacks as an additional eight years of experience. African-Americans are twice as likely as whites to be unemployed and they earn nearly 25 percent less when they are employed.
Example of prejudice resulting in discrimination
Video of bi-racial couple in restaurant: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjGLECNnxKE
School and segregation
We have gotten back to the same amount of segregation since 1968. Reagan cut governmental spending and stopped the bus system that was in play
Have we evolved to be prejudiced?
We have not evolved to be prejudice. We have, however, evolved to categorize groups into ingroups and outgroups. What these groups are is socially constructed and the content of our prejudice/stereotypes changes over time.
Mutual independence
When each party's success depends on the other party's success
Group Polarization
Whenever a majority of members in the group favors a given opinion, even if that majority is very slim, the group is likely to end up adopting that majority opinion. Of course, such a result would be expected, since, as a result of conformity pressures, the group's final judgment should reflect the average of group members' initial opinions. Although groups generally do show pressures toward conformity, the tendency to side with the majority after group discussion turns out to be even stronger than this. It is commonly found that groups make even more extreme decisions, in the direction of the existing norm, than we would predict they would, given the initial opinions of the group members. Democrats and Republicans more ideologically divided than in the past - they used to be pretty similar in ideology. But through group polarization became more strong in differing views
Car search discrimination
While being stopped at roughly the same proportion, black drivers or their vehicles were searched 9.5% of the time, Hispanic motorists were searched 8.8% of the time, and white motorists were searched only 3.6% of the time. This profiling of blacks and Hispanics persists even in the face of studies demonstrating that those ethnicities are usually found to be carrying contraband at rates the same as or lower than that of whites.
Shooters task - stereotype implicit bias study
White people were more likely to shoot an unarmed black person. The study was whites and blacks and told to shoot those with guns and not shoot those without.
Gender Differences in Cooperation and Competition
Who cooperates more, women or men? In terms of whether or not people accepted an initial offer that was made to them or demanded more, experimenters found that about half of the men they sampled negotiated a salary when they took their first job offer, whereas only about 1/8 of the women reported doing so. Not surprisingly, women received substantially lower average annual starting salaries than did the men, a fact that is likely to contribute to the wage gap between men and women. Small, Gelfand, Babcock, and Gettman (2007) found that, overall, women were less likely than men to try to bargain for personal gain in an experimental task. Small and colleagues concluded that women felt that asking for things for themselves was socially inappropriate, perhaps because they perceive that they have less social power than do men. It turns out that women compete less than men in some situations, but they compete about much as men do in other situations. For example, Bowles, Babcock, and McGinn (2005) showed that the roles that are activated at the negotiation table (i.e., whether one is negotiating for oneself or on behalf of others) are important triggers for gender differences. Women negotiated as well as men when they were negotiating for others, but they negotiated less strongly than men did for themselves. Kray, Galinsky, and Thompson (2002) showed that gender differences in negotiation behavior are strongly affected by cognitive constructs that are accessible during negotiation. In general, gender differences in negotiation seem to occur in situations in which other-concern is highly accessible but are reduced or eliminated in situations in which other-concern is less accessible
Devil's Advocate
Within the group itself, conversation can be encouraged through the use of a __________ - an individual who is given the job of expressing conflicting opinions and forcing the group (in a non-combative way) to fully discuss all the alternatives
Knowing multiple out-group members
an individual will learn that his or her beliefs about the out-group are wrong. It is crucial for the individual to believe that the out-group members he or she comes to know are typical of their group; otherwise, the stereotype can be maintained by labeling one out-group member as the exception (Wilder, 1984). For example, a study of male police officers assigned female partners in Washington, D.C., found that although the men were satisfied with their female partner's performance, they still opposed hiring women police officers. Their stereotypes about women's ability to do police work hadn't changed; in fact, they matched those of male officers with male partners (Milton, 1971). Why? They perceived their partner as an exception.
Procedural fairness
refers to beliefs about fairness (or unfairness) of the procedures used to distribute available rewards among parties. Means matter.
Distributive fairness
refers to our judgements about whether or not a party is receiving a fair share of the available rewards
Entitativity
refers to something like "groupiness" -- the perception, either by the group members themselves or by others, that the people together are a group. Can be grouped by age, appearance,
Social Identity
refers to the part of the self-concept that results from our membership in social groups. Although cognitive factors such as perceived similarity, communication, interdependence, and structure are part of what we mean by being a group, they do not seem to be sufficient. Groups may be seen as groups even if they have little interdependence, communication, or structure
