PSYC 302-Chpt.1
When the theory of rationalism was proposed by René Descartes, which of the following theories did most scholars of the 17th century rely on heavily to answer questions? a. The method of common belief b. The method of sense experience c. The method of authority d. The scientific method
c.
Which of the following is a reason for René Descartes's search for self-evident truths? a. It would allow him to conduct scientific research on the universe. b. It would allow him to prove that the universe did not exist. c. It would contradict his logic that the universe did not really exist. d. It would confirm his belief that all the elements of the universe are real.
c.
The explanations that are based on our own sense of what is true about the world around us are known as _____.
commonsense explanations
A scientific explanation is testable if _____.
confidence in the explanation could be undermined by a failure to observe the predicted outcome.
Jenna uncritically accepts evidence she views as consistent with her beliefs while rejecting contradictory evidence as unreliable, erroneous, or invalid. In this way, she convinces herself that her beliefs are justified. This scenario exemplifies the concept of _____.
confirmation bias
The strong bias of people to search for evidence that supports their beliefs while simultaneously discounting or ignoring evidence that weighs against them is called _____.
confirmation bias
According to Seligman's analysis, some animals may have difficulty acquiring an association between taste and shock because they are _____.
contraprepared by evolution to associate the two
In which of the following steps of a research study can participants actually take part in the study? a. When a researcher is reporting results b. When a researcher is choosing subjects c. When a researcher is deciding on what to observe d. When a researcher is conducting the study
d.
In a research process, deriving a specific hypothesis from general ideas is known as _____.
deductive reasoning
Considering that it deals with issues and phenomena at the fringes of established science, protoscience is also called_________ ______________.
fringe science
explanations of broad explanatory power
general explanations
Identify a feature of scientific explanations that sets them apart from nonscientific and pseudoscientific explanations.
it is a tentative explanation
Identify a nonscience that is a legitimate academic discipline.
philosophy
Scientific explanations are accepted because they are consistent with existing objective evidence, whereas belief-based explanations _____.
require no evidence
An explanation based on the application of accepted scientific methods is called a(n) __________ ___________.
scientific explanation
An explanation based on the application of accepted scientific methods is called a(n)_________ ___________.
scientific explanation
A difference between commonsense explanations and scientific explanations is that commonsense explanations tend to be accepted at face value, whereas scientific explanations _____. a. are subjected to rigorous research scrutiny b. do not follow the rules of logic c. are resigned from strict evaluations d. cannot be be verified through direct observation
a.
Commonsense explanations are based on ______. a. the limited information available from an observed event b. the information available from scientific phenomena c. the evidences provided by scientific explanations d. the external perceptions about a common event
a.
Identify one of the disadvantages of commonsense explanations. a. they are subjected to severe research scrutiny b. they are parsimonious c. they are not accepted at face value d. they are not rigorously evaluated
d.
Identify the defining quality of applied research. It... a. is autonomous of other research in psychology b. is independent of theories c. is not sought out for its application to current phenomena that are happening in reality d. produces results that can be applied directly to a real-world event.
d.
In order to ensure the success of an applied research, a researcher must choose a strategy that _____. a. suggests general information about a phenomenon rather than specifics b. maximizes the risks c. undermines the efficacy of the findings d. maximizes the applicability of findings
d.
The major goal of basic research is to _____. a. seek specific information about dealing with practical problems faced in the world today b. generate information that can be enforced directly to a real-world problem c. conduct a study the results of which can be applies in realy-time d. acquire general information about a phenomenon
d.
Which of the following statements is true about a circular explanation, or tautology? a. It is a common form of scientific explanations. b. It is based on the application of accepted scientific methods. c. It provides a true explanation for a class of observed behavior. d. It merely provides an alternative label for a class of observed behavior.
d.
After a researcher has narrowed his or her research question and developed a testable hypothesis, he or she must next _____.
decide on a design
provide a nutshell description of data collected
descriptive statistics
Identify the first step of the research process.
developing a research idea
Robert Cialdini offers a simple yet effective analogy to describe the process of studying behavior; he likens science to a _____.
hunting trip
In a research question that studies how memory operates, if the meaningfulness of the information to be learned is one variable and the amount remembered is the second variable, the specific statement connecting these two variables is known as the _____.
hypothesis
If commonsense explanations are not evaluated strictly, they are likely to be _____.
incomplete
One of the ways to avoid falling into the trap of proposing and accepting pseudoexplanations is to check whether or not the researcher has provided _____.
independent measures of the behavior of interest
assess the reliability of data collected
inferential statistics
Damon is submitting a research paper on the relationship between ethnicity and religion. To study the behavior of different ethnic groups, he consults religious leaders and various books on theology to collect reliable first-hand information. In this case, Damon is using the _____.
method of authority
When individuals use expert sources like books or people while seeking valid explanations for behavior, they are using the _____.
method of authority
In David Macaulay's book, Howard Carson unearths a motel and begins the task of explaining what our civilization was like based on the artifacts found in the motel, which were assumed to be _____.
musical instruments
patients fixated their eyes on a stationary light
no eye movement
Philosophers may differ on what they consider to be ethical behavior and may support their positions through logical argument that lacks empirical evidence. In this case, the question of what is ethical cannot be addressed through scientific means. This is an example of a _____.
nonscience
For a scientific explanation to be empirical, it must be based on observations that are _____.
objective and systematic
A scientific explanation that explains behavior with the fewest number of assumptions is known as a(n) _______ ___________.
parsimonious explanation
explanations that explain behavior with the fewest number of assumptions
parsimonious explanations
Conducting a miniature version of a research study is called a(n)
pilot study
A term given to science at the edges of current scientific understanding is known as _____.
protoscience
In formulating valid scientific explanations for behavioral events, it is important to avoid the trap of _____.
pseudoexplanation
In seeking to provide explanations for behavior, psychologists sometimes offer positions, theories, and explanations that provide an alternative label for the behavioral event known as _____.
pseudoexplanation
If a researcher proposes an explanatory concept for a behavioral event, then he or she can be said to have avoided falling into the trap of proposing and accepting _____.
pseudoexplanations
According to Robert Carroll, a set of ideas based on theories put forth as scientific when they are not scientific is known as _____.
pseudoscience
On the basis of Scott Lilienfeld's list of defining qualities, using impressive-sounding jargon that lends false credibility to ideas and relying on nonscientific anecdotal evidence to support an idea is most likely a defining feature of a(n) _____.
pseudoscience
The science of behavior and mental processes is known as _____.
psychology
If an explanation follows the rules of logic and is consistent with known facts, it can be called _____.
rational
The method that depends on logical reasoning rather than on authority or the evidence of one's senses is known as the _____.
rational method
René Descartes' theory that valid conclusions about the universe could be drawn through the use of pure reason is called ________
rationalism
Descartes had identified two statements whose truth logically cannot be doubted using only his powers of _____.
reasoning
The method of inquiry that involves observing a phenomenon, formulating tentative explanations of cause and effect, further observing or experimenting to rule out alternative explanations, and refining and retesting the explanations is known as the _____.
scientific method
On the basis of Robert Cialdini's analogy, identify the step in the process of studying behavior that involves making systematic observations of naturally occurring behavior.
scouting
The power of the rational method lies in logically deduced conclusions from _____.
self-evident truths
René Descartes' method of rationalism began with _____.
skepticism
In the research process, after identifying the behavior to study, a researcher must _____.
state a research question in terms that will allow others to test it empirically
During a research process, after the collection of data, a researcher must _____.
summarize and analyze data
According to Robert Cialdini, after one identifies a problem that interests oneself, identifying the factors that might affect the behavior that one has scouted leads to _____.
systematically studying the phenomenon
An observed behavior is used to prove the existence of the behavioral instinct, and the concept of instinct is then used to explain the behavior. This form of reasoning is called _____.
tautology
Newton's conception of the universe, one of the most strongly supported views in scientific history, had to be replaced when new evidence showed that some of its predictions were wrong. This is an example of the fact that scientific explanations are _____.
tentative
Scientists may have confidence in their explanations, nevertheless they are willing to entertain the possibility that they are faulty. This explains the fact that scientific explanations are _____.
tentative
Based on René Descartes's search for self-evident truths, deduction guarantees the truth of conclusion when _____.
the assumptions are true
Commonsense explanations are based on _____.
the limited information available from an observed event
Scientific explanations are different from nonscientific and pseudoscientific explanations because _____.
they are based on objective observation and logic
Explanations based on belief are typically accepted because _____.
they come from a trusted source
Identify one of the reasons why scientific explanations are constantly evaluated.
to check for consistency with the evidence
Identify the reason for attempting to extend the scope of the explanation while evaluating scientific explanations.
to cover broader areas
According to Robert Cialdini's analogy of science to the process of studying behavior, after having identified a problem, the next thing to do is to identify the factors that might affect the behavior that one has examined. This process is known as _____.
trapping
True or false: A scientific explanation should either be verifiable through direct observation or lead to specific predictions about what should occur under conditions not yet observed.
true
True or false: A scientist approaches a problem by carefully defining its parameters, seeking out relevant information, and subjecting proposed solutions to rigorous testing.
true
Scientific explanations are limited to addressing those questions that can be answered by means of objective observations, whereas explanations based on belief may seek to answer _____.
virtually any question
René Descartes reasoned that it was even possible to doubt the existence of the universe because _____.
what was perceived could be an illusions
A continuum of preparedness to help explain why an animal can learn some associations easily and other associations only with great difficulty was proposed by________ _____________.
Martin Seligman
According to Scott Lilienfeld, identify a quality that defines a pseudoscience. a. Relying on confirming one's beliefs rather than disconfirming them b. Encouraging the peer review process that would scientifically evaluate claims c. Having a mechanism for self-correction d. Relying on scientific evidence to support an idea or claim
a.
Identify the conclusions drawn by George Renfrey and Richard Spates on Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) therapy. a. Eye movements are not an essential component of reprocessing therapy. b. Eye movements under voluntary control reduce anxiety. c. Eye movements bring about rapid and dramatic reductions in stress disorder symptoms. d. Eye movements coupled with traumatic thoughts restore the neural balance of the brain.
a.
Scientific explanations differ from nonscientific and pseudoscientific explanations in that scientific explanations _____. a. demand reliable results b. are purely based on quantitative data and not on qualitative data c. are purely based on qualitative data and not on quantitative data d. rely on people's confirmation bias
a.
Generating information that can be applied directly to a real-world problem is the primary goal of _____.
applied research
Scientific explanations have survived rigorous testing against plausible alternatives, whereas explanations based on belief _____.
are simply assumed to be true
A difference between commonsense explanations and scientific explanations is that commonsense explanations tend to be accepted at face value, whereas scientific explanations _____.
are subjected to rigorous research scrutiny
patients shifted their eyes back and forth between two alternating lights
automated EMDR condition
Identify the elements that are part of the step of conducting a study in the research process. (Check all that apply.) a. Summarization of research findings b. Measurement of participants' behavior c. Observation of participants d. Analysis of data collected
b and c
In the context of rationality, identify the situations when an explanation does not qualify as scientific. (Select all that apply.) a. It follows the rule of logic. b. It is inconsistent with established fact. c. It makes logical fallacies in drawing conclusions. d. It makes parsimonious assumptions.
b and c
Identify a similarity between commonsense explanations and scientific explanations. a. Both are subjected to strict evaluations. b. Both start with an observation of events in the real world. c. Both end with an observation of events in the real world. d. Both are accepted at face value.
b.
Scientific explanations are different from nonscientific and pseudoscientific explanations because _____. a. they are inconsistent with established fact b. they are based on objective observation and logic c. they are characterized by several assumptions d. they are conclusive explanations
b.
Which of the following is a result of accepting post hoc belief-based explanations? a. It does not require that one assumes the common occurrence of highly unlikely events. b. It leads to an unparsimonious quilt of explanations. c. It produces just testable predictions about future findings. d. It leads to excessive generality of explanations.
b.
Research that is conducted to investigate issues relevant to the confirmation or disconfirmation of theoretical or empirical positions is known as _____.
basic research
For questions that can be settled on the basis of objective observation, scientific explanations have provided more satisfactory and useful accounts of behavior than a priori or _____.
belief-based explanation
Presentation of a research paper in a scientific meeting usually involves the preparation of a(n) _____ of the research for review.
brief abstract
Identify the two major goals of the science of psychology. (Select all that apply) a. To discount the use of basic and pure research in real-time events b. To ensure that real-world problems are not solved using applied research c. To describe mental and behavioral processes and develop reliable explanations for these processes d. To build an organized body of knowledge about its subject matter
c and d
Identify two self-evident truths proposed by Descartes in his method of rationality. (Select all that apply.) a. I don't think. b. I think because of the evidence of my senses. c. Something that thinks must exist. d. I exist.
c and d
Identify a true statement about the relationship between true science and pseudoscience. a. Pseudoscience does not necessarily translate to false science. b. Methods of pseudoscience have the same rigor or standards required of a true science. c. True science and pseudoscience share many characteristics. d. Pseudoscience differs from true science more in kind than in degree.
c.
Identify why the method of authority does not always provide valid answers. a. Information obtained from authorities on a topic cannot familiarize one with a problem. b. It fails to provide acquisition of scientific knowledge. c. The source that one consults may not be truly authoritative. d. It is against the idea of pure reason and rationalism.
c.
On the basis of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy, Francine Shapiro speculated that traumatic events impact the excitatory/inhibitory balance in the brain, which _____. a. allows the brain to function more actively b. strengthens the cognitive abilities of an individual c. causes a pathological change in the neural elements d. induces photons to positively alter the mind
c.
Identify a true statement about an individual with a scientific outlook. He or she does not.... a. accept everything at face value b. view science as a mean of acquiring knowledge c. have a skeptical view of the world d. question the validity of provocative statements
a
If an explanation is based on the evidence of the senses, it is known as _____.
empirical
According to Francine Shapiro, _____ were believed to be central to the power of the reprocessing therapy to bring about rapid and dramatic reductions in post traumatic stress disorder.
eye movement
True or false: The method of authority and the rational method when combined with other features form the basis for general methods of inquiry.
false
True or false: Applied research cannot be found in industrial psychology.
false -applied research is found in areas of clinical, environmental and industrial psychology -this is actually basic science
True or false: The method of authority depends on logical reasoning rather than on the evidence of one's senses.
false -this is actually rational method -the method of authority involves consulting some source that you consider authoritative on the issue in question.
Identify the problem that is illustrated in David Macaulay's satirical book, "Motel of the Mysteries."
faulty inference
