PSYC 315 FINAL EXAM

Accomplishments and Gaps of the Sensorimotor Stage

(0-2 years) Learn about the world through touching, sucking, looking reaching, etc. Important milestone → object permanence (6-10 months) [objects still exist even when you can see them]

Accomplishments and Gaps of the Formal Operations Stage

(12+ years) Accomplishment: - Able to reason about abstract concepts - Logically examine evidence and test hypotheses. e.g. Pendulum: have kid figure out what changes the speed of the pendulum. Reason about hypothetical properties

Historical Influences on the Study of Child Development: Enlightened Philosophers

(17/18th c.): - focused on the question of how parents and society can best promote children's development - Locke (like Aristotle) viewed the child as a blank slate; the most important goal of child-rearing is growth of character. - Rousseau believed that parents/society should give children max. freedom from the beginning; learn from spontaneous interaction with the environment.

Alfred Binet

(1905) - French psychologist who studied intelligence for years prior to developing his intelligence test. - Worked with Theodore Simon; *Binet-Simon Intelligence Test* - Argued that "higher" mental processes were the key components of intelligence --> memory, problem solving, language, judgements - Idea of mental age His testing was brought to North America by Louis Terman

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

(1993) People possess at least 8 types of intelligence essential to human functioning - Linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial abilities, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal Theory based not on test scores, but on child development research, case studies of individuals with brain damage or with exceptional abilities. Evidence in support: - Different developmental patterns (e.g., linguistic intelligence may appear before mathematical intelligence) - Damage to area of the brain may impact on type of intelligence, but no others - Savants: individuals with mental retardation but remarkable abilities in one are; Ex. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Little empirical in support of this model of intelligence *Criticism*: circular reasoning: ways that different types of intelligence are defined are related to the actual abilities that they entail Influence on education: children learn best through instruction that builds on their strengths and talents

Accomplishments and Gaps of the Preoperational Stage

(2-7 years) Accomplishments: - Think about objects not present (object permanence) - Symbolic Representations (language is the best example; increases in symbolic play ~ pretend play; deferred imitation) Gaps: - Reversibility: have difficulty following the logic of the operation - Conservation: understanding the physical properties do not change despite changes in form or appearance (tend to focus on one aspect of an object e.g. just the physical characteristics) --> Centration - Egocentrism: inability to realise that other people have views too; they think everyone else sees the world through their own viewpoint. - Animism: children really believe that inanimate objects might actually be alive.

Historical Influences on the Study of Child Development: The Greek philosophers

(4 c. B.C.) - interested in how children's development is influenced by their nature and by the nurture they receive. - Plato and Aristotle believed that the long-term welfare of society depended on the proper raising of children; - Plato emphasized: self-control and discipline as the most important goals of education; kids born with a concept of "animal" - Aristotle agreed on discipline but was more concerned with fitting child rearing to the needs of the individual child; believed all knowledge came from experience.

Accomplishments and Gaps of the Concrete Operations State

(7-12 years) Accomplishments: - Reason logically about concrete objects/materials - Pass conservation tasks --> Decentering - Classification: ability to sort objects into different sets and subsets - Class inclusion (subsets) Gaps: - Reasoning about concepts

Freud's Psychosexul Theory

(Bidirectional) Understanding the causes of illness, "nervous disorder" → argued there must be a psychological root to it, maybe something during childhood Proposed we are born with powerful urges - Id: sexual and aggressive desires - Unconsciously driving us Biological drives are in conflict with reality and societal expectations (superego) How conflict is resolved leaves an imprint Most of his ideas are not supported current research

Advantages & Disadvantages of Structured Observation

(aka experimental & correlational designs) - researchers design a specific task or situation that will elicit behaviors relevant to their hypothesis Advantages: - ensures all children experience the same thing, allowing for direct comparison of diff children/groups Disadvantages: - reveals less info about subjective info than interviews - not in the child's natural environment

Ecological Theories

(bidirectional relationship between the individual and broader environment) Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model - Ecological Perspective → Need to take context into account - Series of nested relationships in nested environments - Development as occurring within a complex system of relationship Criticisms: - Less focus on biological influences - Some aspects are difficult to test

general intelligence

(g); cognitive processes that influence the ability to think and learn on all intellectual tasks. - correlate positivel with school grades and achievement test performance with information-processing speed, speed of neural transmission, and brain volume - Based on the idea that children who tends to do well on the intellectual task do well on others too Viewed as a single trait that influences all aspects of cognitive functioning.

Domains of Development

(more like overlapping venn-diagram rather than separate domains) - many of the changes in the domains accompany each other. Physical Development: changes in the body, e.g. size, shape, physical functioning Cognitive Development: changes in how we think, e.g. memory, problem-solving, language Social and Emotional: changes in emotions and social interaction, e.g. motivations and personality.

Self-Concept: Adolescence

(self-concept development doesn't have to end in adolescence; can continue throughout life) Helps to Remember: - Erikson: Identity vs. Role Confusion - Piaget: Formal Operations Stage Nuanced view of self Understand role of situations and context More Abstract and psychological (observation of internal traits) Begin to develop coherent/integrated self Begin to think about the future; possible selves *False sense behaviour:* intentionally presents a false impression to others (done most in romantic relationships; less with friends and family) *Personal Fable:* belief that one's own experience is unique and novel. *Imaginary Audience:* the belief that everyone else is focused on

Learning Theories

(single direction; how does the environment shape the child) - Classical Conditioning - Operant Conditioning Criticisms: - Lacks bidirectionality - Oversimplification of mental processes -Less useful for explaining broader patterns.

Issue of DEvelopmental Change

*Continuous vs. Discontinuous?* - Continuous development: a gradual change - Discontinuous development: development that is qualitatively different. --> Stage theories of development - It can be either one, depending on how you look at it. *Stability vs. Change?* Predicting Outcomes: - *Equifinality*: different pathways lead to the same outcomes. - *Multifinality*: the same pathway can lead to different outcomes.

Ch.11: Discuss changes in self-esteem across age and gender, and assess how self-esteem may impact other outcomes

*Early childhood:* reveal self-esteem through behaviour High self-esteem: confident, curious, independent Able to verbalize a global self-evaluation at around 8 years Becomes differentiated - Scholastic Competence - SOcial Competence - Behavioural Conduc - Athletic COmpetence - Physical Appearance Starts high, and steadily declines through childhood Impact on Development? - High self-esteem → better in school, better well-being - Low self-esteem → emotional and behavioural problems *Self-Esteem Movement* - programs designed to boost self-esteem in order to booost academic performance

Ch.1: Apply critical thinking skills to be a better consumer of developmental psychology

*Evaluate Sources*: - *Peer Review*: in which scholarly peers evaluate research and make recommendations as to whether it should be published. --> Study → report → editor receives report/sends to peer reviewers → peer reviewers give feedback → report is written & fixed → published? - Good source of peer reviewed studies → PsycINFO *Beware of*: Personal Bias Generalization Correlation and Causation *Question Common Sense*

Describe the two central deficits of autism spectrum disorder, identify common symptoms/behaviours associated with ASD

*Impaired social communication and social interaction* Deficits in social-emotional reciprocity - Abnormal approach or lack of normal back-and-forth conversation - Failure to initiate or respond to social interactions - Reduced shared interests, emotions or affect (e.g., monotonic tone of voice) Deficits in nonverbal communicative behaviours for social interaction - Poor integration of verbal and nonverbal communication - Abnormal body language and lack of eye contact - Lack of pointing and gestures - Lack of facial expressions and nonverbal communication - Less awareness of social norms (e.g., acceptable behavior) Deficits in developing, maintaining and understanding relationships - Difficulties adjusting behaviour to suit various social contexts - Deficits with pretend and imaginative play - Pragmatic deficits (e.g., sarcasm) - Lack of interest in peers *Restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behaviors, interests, and activities* - Repetitive actions (e.g., lining up objects) - Stereotyped movements (e.g., flapping, rocking) - Echolalia = repeating words or phrases - Idiosyncratic language (e.g., "hot" for stove and only stove) - Insistence on routines or ritualized patterns Special interests and preoccupations - Attachment to unusual objects - Perseveration/stimming - Sensory sensitivities (enhanced and/or reduced) - Hypersensitive vs. hyposensitive Difficulties fall along a spectrum ranging from very mild to very severe

Ch.6: Discuss how both nature and nurture play a role in language acquisition

*Nature?* Innately human characteristics in bees, birds, dogs - They can learn words but don't actually understand syntax. Gorillas, Chimpanzees, Bonobos have been taught sign language, lexograms - Conzee the bonobo appears to understand the language that people speak; responds to new combinations of words. *Nurture?* Requires experience & exposure Importance of timing → artificial period? Genie → feral child; lived in a basement from infancy to age 13. Was able to learn words/vocabulary but had difficulty with syntax. Adoptees: born in one language environment (Korea and China) and then adopted into a second language environment (US and UK) varying in the age that they started acquisition of syntax skills. - those adopted before 7 had native level skill of syntax. - Evidences a critical period.

Ch.6: Summarize important changes in syntactic and pragmatic development during childhood

*Syntactic Development* ~18 months, begin combining words -Telegraphic speech By 2.5-3 years, longer and more complex sentences. Understand and follow syntactical rules. - E.g. Wug Task. -Overregularization *Pragmatic Development* Conversation (rules of conversation/physical aspects

Ch.11: Describe the commonly followed pattern of ethnic identity development, and assess how ethnic identity may be related to outcomes

*Unaxmined/Unexplored Ethnic Identity* → Experience/comments; realization of "difference" → Ethnic identity search/exploration - immersion in own ethnic group → *Achieved ethnic identity*

Gender Understanding: Middle Childhood

- Achieve gender constancy - Begin to understand gender as socially vs. biologically determined. - More extensive knowledge of gender stereotypes - Peak of rigid application of stereotypes ~ 5-7 years, then increased flexibility

Parenting Styles in North America

- Authoritative most common - Neglectful also very common How does this relate to different outcomes: - Consistent advantages for children of authoritative parents.\ - Clear disadvantages for neglectful parents

Gender Understanding: Early Childhood (~age 2)

- By 2-2.5, can label themselves and others by gender - Awareness of gender stereotypes - May have difficulty with *gender constancy* → understanding that gender is permanent and immutable

Individual Differences in Reading Skills

- Children who have relatively advanced reading skills tend to be better readers through elementary, middle, and high school. - Genetic and environmental influences are mutually reinforcing

Gender Understanding: Adolescence

- Gender role flexibility: allowing for traditional gender conventions to be transcended - Gender role intensification: heightened concern about adhering to traditional gender roles

Ch.13: Debate the impact of technology/social media on friendship and peer relationships

- Increased anonymity - Less emphasis on physical appearance - More control - Easier to find similar others - All-day access to friends

Ch.1: Describe 4 methods for collecting data; assess advantages and disadvantages of each

- Interviews/Self-Report - Naturalistic Observation - Structured Observation - Physiological Measures

CROWDs

- Larger, reputation-based groups - Less voluntary Functions: - Locate individuals within social environment - Contribute to sense of identity and self-concept - Establish social norms

Ch.6: Evaluate whether theory of mind abilities develop prior to success on traditional false belief tasks

- Many studies show reasoning about mental states earlier in development - Infants can succeed at false belief tasks that use different (easier) methods

Peer Status: Average

- Most common - Moderately sociable, average cognitive skills

Ch.1: Describe the central issues in developmental psychology

- Nature vs. Nurture - The Role of the Child - Developmental Change - Mechanisms of Development - Individual Differences - The Role of Context.

Describe the common symptoms of ADHD, and contrast 3 different subtypes

- Onset in developmental period - 3-20% of children Inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity - inattentive subtype - hyperactive/impulsive subtype - combined subtype

Intelligence Mindsets

- Predicts response to challenges, failure. - Individual difference, but can also be induced (e.g. types of praise) Claro, Paeunesku, & Dweck (2016): examined the relationship between mindsets and academic achievement across SES

Ch.6: Discuss how research on sign language has illustrated children's contribution to the creation of language

- Shares the same properties of language - Children exposed to sign language --> similar patterns of acquisition to spoken language. - Deaf children not exposed to sign language - *homesign* - e.g. Nicaraguan SL: new language that has only been developed in the last 35 years.

Peer State: Popular

- Skilled at initiating and maintaining positive interactions - Good at recognizing and regulating emotions - Good at perspective taking - Rated by teachers as cooperative, friendly, helpful, leaders - Assertive, but not pushy *Perceived/Prestige Popularity* - aggression: instrumental, relational - attractive - based on changing peer norms

Cliques

- Smaller, voluntary, friendship-based groups - Shared interests and attitudes Functions: - Context of friendship - Social group - Sense of belongingness - Support/guide interest in romantic relationships

Peer Status: Neglected

- Timid, shy, lack of social skills - Often not bothered by classification - less stable status

Skills Required to Read

- Understanding of language - Symbolic understanding Phonological recoding - Alphabetic principle: that sounds correspond to letters - Visually based retrieval - Whole-word recognition

Shared/nonshared family environment

- Within- family variations in children's environment seem to have a greater impact on the development of intelligence than do between-family variations - The influence of nonshared environments increases with age, and the influence of shared environments decreases with age, as children become increasingly able to choose their own environments - Shared environment's influences vary with the family's SES and race - IQ scores correlated with involvement of parents, emotional and physical availability of parents, home environment - Risk factors: Low SES, low maternal education, more children within the family - Protective factors: stimulating physical environment, emotional responsiveness of parents, lots of talk to children, age appropriate activities and language used with children, high expectations of parents

Ch.14: Describe why a child may engage in prosocial behaviour

- all children are capable of prosocial behaviors, but children differ in how often they engage in these behaviors and their reasons for doing so - there is SOME developmental consistency in children's readiness to engage in prosocial behaviors, such as sharing, helping, and comforting

Textbook: Summarize the development of play in children

- earliest play begins in year 1, with no motivation other than enjoyment; tends to be solitary - 18 months: pretend play emerges; often engaging in object substitution. - 2.5 years: engaging in sociodramatic play; more complex and more social the O.S. - elementary school age: play begins to include activities like sports and board games that have conventional rules that participants must follow - Not limited to early childhood; continues far longer. - boys and only children tended to report engaging in pretend play at older ages more than did girls and children with siblings Benefits: - expand understand of the social world (people's thinking and emotions) - social pretend play is more strongly related to understand other people's thinking than is nonsocial play.

Animate vs Inanimate Objects

- in order for social cognition, kids need to separate animate & inanimate objects into separate categories. separate social beings from non-social beings - both 9- &12-month-olds show surprise when they see inanimate objects move on their own - understand that self-produced motion is characteristic of ppl & other animals

Advantages & Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation

- researcher observes child in their normal environments of interest (home, school, playground, etc) - used when the primary goal is to describe how children behave in their natural environment Advantages: - particularly useful for studying social interactions & other types of behaviour which could not be studied "on-demand" in a lab - eg, how a child's behaviour changes after a new baby brother or sister is brought home - eg, how children react when mom & dad are fighting Disadvantages: - can't control all variables in a natural environment hard to determine which variables influenced the behaviour - observer may influence behaviour - behaviour you're interested in may occur very rarely, reducing the opportunity to study it - subject to experimenter bias

Standford-Binet Intelligence Test

-Initially used ratio IQ, now uses deviation IQ - Initially provided 1 general score, now also provides subscores IQ = (mental age)/(chronological age) x 100

3 Phases of Internalized Speech

1. children's behaviour is controlled by other people's statements 2. children's behaviour is controlled by their own private speech, where they tell themselves out loud what to do 3. their behaviour is controlled by internalized private speech, in which they silently tell themselves what to do

Mathematics Disabilities

5-8% of children perform so poorly in math that they are classified - BUT they have IQ scores in the normal range. - They're slow to learn to count, learn the relative magnitudes of numbers, and to accurately solve single-digit equations; performance increases with experience, but continue to be slow at single-digit maths and up in adulthood. In severe cases, damage to one or more brain areas that are central to numerical processes is often the cause. In less severe cases, minimal exposure to numbers before school contributes to lagging far behind throughout school. Other variables: - poor working memory - poor executive functioning - slow porcessing of numerical info - math anxiety Programs to Help: - instruction in magnitude comparison

Operant Conditioning

A behaviour is increased or decreased as a result of its consequences Positive vs. negative reinforcement vs. punishment - Punishment: decreases the frequency of an undesirable behaviour - Reinforcement: increases the frequency of desirable behaviour - Positive: applies stimulus - Negative: removes stimulus Very common way of shaping behaviour

Imprinting

A form of learning in which the newborns of some species of birds and mammals become attached to and follow adult members of the species (usually their mother) - for it to occur, the infant has to encounter its mother during a specific *Critical period* very early in life. - infants are genetically predisposed to follow around the first moving object with particular characteristics that they see after emerging into the world. Humans don't imprint but they do have strong tendencies that draw them to members of their own species. e.g. How infants form emotional attachments to their mother (aka "emotional imprinting"); an adaptive relationship that increases the helpless infant's chances of survival by creating reciprocal emotional ties between caregiver and infant. When the relationship is positive, the infant has a secure base.

Split-half reliability

A measure of consistency where a test is split in two and the scores for each half of the test is compared with one another. If the test is consistent it leads the experimenter to believe that it is most likely measuring the same thing.

meta-analysis

A method for combining the results from independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them.

Classical Conditioning

A stimulus that naturally causes a response is paired with a neutral stimulus → the neutral stimulus is conditioned to evoke the response. E.g. Pavlov's dog E.g. Little Albert experiment**

Parental Investment Theory

A theory that stress the evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behaviour, including the extensive investment parents make in their offspring. - brings up the so-called *Cinderella Effect* which refers to the fact that rates of child maltreatment are considerably higher for stepparents

Fluid intelligence

Ability to think on the spot to solve novel problems - closely related to adaptation to novel tasks, speed information processing, working-memory functioning, and ability to control attention. - It is also related to the size of the brain (cortex & parietal area) where it is responsible for drawing attention and problem solving

Reading Acquisition Stage 0: Pre-reading

Acquisition of key prerequisites for reading—including knowing the letters of the alphabet gaining phonemic awareness (knowledge of the individual sounds within words) 0-3 years: - Recognize and pretend to read books - Know that stories/books are meaningful - Plays with words (e.g. nursery rhymes) 3-4 years: - Know that letter have names, might know some - Recognize some print in their environment (e.g. STOP on the stop sign) - Interest in books and reading 5 years: - Recognize uppercase and lowercase letters - Alphabetic principle: understanding that letters in words corresponds to sounds

Textbook: Consider the role of culture in children's peer experiences and peer status

Across cultures, socially rejected kids tend to be aggressive and disruptive, and in most countries, popular kids tend to be described as prosocial and as having leadership skills. - Withdrawal becomes linked with peer rejection in preschool/elementary school... Differences: - Shyness in Chinese Kids: shy, sensitive, cautious/inhibited were viewed by teachers as socially competent, class leaders, and liked by peers - opposite to the US and Canada. This is slowly shifting towards the more western view at due to economic and political changes

Explain potential contributors to autism

Advanced parental age (both mothers and fathers) - YES! Pregnancy and birth complications (e.g., prematurity, low birth rate, multiple pregnancies (i.e., twins, etc)) - YES! Pregnancies spaced less than 1 year apart - YES! Genetics - YES! - ~77% concordance rate in monozygotic twins - Higher rate in siblings (~20% also autistic) - Multiple chromosomes involved (polygenic) - 10% have other genetic conditions Environmental trigger(s) - YES! - Exposure to Microbes? Toxins? Some unknown factors? - E.g., thalidomide Abnormalities in patients with autism of unknown cause were much the same as the anomalies in the thalidomide victims with autism (e.g., ear placement)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Designs

Advantages: - Allows causal inferences because design rules out direction of causation and third-variable problems. - Allows experimental control over the exact experiences that children encounter. Disadvantages: - Need for experimental control often leads to artificial experimental situation - Cannot be used to study many differences and variables of interest e.g. age, sex, and temperament.

Ch.6: Describe how growing up bilingual may influence development

Advantages: - appears to delay the onset of symptoms of Alzheimer's - Increased ability in perspective taking - Heightened executive functioning; - increased cognitive flexibility is likely due to having to learn to rapidly switch between languages, both in comprehension and production Multilingualism: Bilingual Education: controversial topic in the US because it is tied to political, ethnic, and racial issues: - one side wants total immersion; exclusively english so they become proficient asap. - other side wants to provide basic instruction in their native language and then slowly increase amount of english instruction. - evidence that bilingual children are more successful in learning both languages when the school provides support for it.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Physiological Measures

Advantages: - assess biological underpinnings - doesn't require language/behaviour Disadvantage: - can be costly - can be difficult to interpret results For children: - can be loud/frightening

Advantages & Disadvantages of Interviews

Advantages: - reveals children's subjective experience - inexpensive/easy means of data collection - can be geared to specific individuals Disadvantages: - reports are often biased in a positive direction - participants memory is often inaccurate or incomplete - participants ability to predict their actions are often inaccurate - subject to experimenter bias (b/c often open ended & open to interpretation)

False Belief Task and Autism

All children correctly answered control questions (i.e., reality: Where is the marble really?, memory: Where was the marble in the beginning?) Down's Syndrome and typical children answered by pointing to the original location of the marble Children with autism consistently pointing to the actual location of the marble Children with autism, as a whole, failed to employ a theory of mind - That is, an inability to represent mental states Children with autism display a specific deficit in mental state reasoning

Ch.7: Predict the best approaches to combat prejudice in children

All story reading interventions lead to more positive attitudes towards refugees. • Of the story-reading interventions, the most effective is the multicultural-common ground story-reading intervention.

Discuss methods of treatment for symptoms of autism

Applied Behavioural Analysis (ABA) - Researching the relationship between behaviours and the environment - Designing methods to change behaviour (based on this research) - Applying these methods to improve the behaviours that are important in people's lives Goals of ABA: To teach children the skills they need to learn from their environment - Identifying specific behaviours, modifying them and keeping data on them to tell what is changing - Assess the child and identify different skills that you want to work on (e.g., home and communities environments) - Reinforcement = the more powerful the reinforcement the more rapid learning will occur B.F. Skinner - Operant Conditioning - Reinforcement (increase behaviour) and punishment (decrease behaviour). Some of the principles: - Reinforcement - Motivation - Extinction - Punishment - Stimulus control (e.g., phones rings and you pick it up)

the child as a problem solver

Assumes that children are *active problem solvers* - kids use the same combination of goal, obstacle and strategies. - children's cognitive flexibility helps them attain their goals.

Textbook: Discuss how parents impact children's peer relationships

Attachment theory maintains that whether a child's attachment to the parent is secure/insecure affects the child's future social competence and quality of relationships with others. - securely attached children develop positive social expectations and are thus inclined to interact readily with other kids, expecting it to be positive and rewarding. - their experience with a sensitive/responsive caregiver develops a foundation for understanding reciprocity - learn to give/take in relationships and be empathic - more likely to be confident, enthuisiastic and friendly. Insecure attachment impairs competence with peers, - if parents are hostile kids probably gonna be hostile. - predisposed to perceive peers as hostile too. - expect rejection from other people and avoid it by withdrawing. When the family is generally characterized by warm, involved, and harmonious family style, young children tend to be sociable, socially skilled, liked by peers, and cooperative. Parents also acts as a buffer to stress experienced at school.

Flynn effect

Average IQ scores have risen over the past 75 yrs in many countries - However, no change in the scores of people in the top 10% of the IQ distribution, but a large change among those in the bottom 10% - Better nutrition, better health, and universal education seem likely to have had especially positive effects on children from the most deprived backgrounds—10% of bottom IQ distribution

Racial and ethnic differences in Intelligence

Average IQ scores of children of different racial and ethnic groups differ - Average IQ score of African American approximately 15 points below average score of European Americans Social class differences - Within each social class, differences in mean IQs of African-American and Euro-American children also are present, though they're smaller than the ones that are present when social class is not held constant There is far more variability within each racial group than between them *Test bias*: tests reflect European cultural heritage of test creators, conducted in unfamiliar testing environments Differences in IQ and achievement test scores of children from different racial/ethnic groups describe children's performance only in the environments in which the children live. Different groups may excel in different areas - *Stereotype threat*: members of a group can feel pressured to perform well in an area their group is characterized by a negative stereotype—makes them perform worse

Ch.7: Summarize and compare the development of children's explicit and implicit attitudes towards racial groups; consider how implicit attitudes may be formed

Baron & Banaji, 2006 - Measure implicit and explicit attitudes in 6year, 10 year, and adult white Americans - Child version of IAT Implicit attitudes are formed from *ingroup biases* and *social norms;cultural evolution of dominance*

Reading and The Brain

Before reading, a child's brain responds to visual information and language information—but there is no link between them in the brain Language information tends to be represented in the left hemisphere of the brain Learning to read changes and creates new connection --> *Visual Word-Form Area* Dehaene et. Al 2010 - Neuronal recycling hypothesis: development of the VWFA on the left side of the brain "pushes" perception of faces to the right hemisphere - Measured brain responses to written language, spoken languages, faces, houses, tools, etc. in literate and literate adults - Greater activation to written language in VWFA in literate adults - In non-literates, VWFA showed greater activation to faces - Suggests that before learning how to read, VWFA was used to process faces; when we learned how to read, written language took over the VWFA and facial processing had occur somewhere else.

The Better Beginnings, Better Futures Project

Began in 1991 as a 25-year longitudinal prevention project. - 1/6 children had an emotional or behavioural problem and being low SES were at higher risk for this. Based on a *universal prevention approach*; focused on communities that were defined as "at risk." All children between ages 4-8 who were living in the neighborhood could participate in the program, as could their families. Drew from Bronfenbrenner's model of development. Targeted physical, social, and cognitive development as well as health. At grade 6, children from BBBF sites had higher math achievement and fewer school suspensions. At grade 9, children in BBBF required fewer sp-ed services, less likely to repeat grades, and were rated as better prepared to learn and had greater potential.

Family environment influence

Bettye Caldwell and Robert Bradly's HOME (1979) - Samples various aspects of children's home life, including the organization and safety of living space --The intellectual stimulation offered by parents -- Whether children have books of their own...etc. - Children's IQ scores are positively correlated with the HOME measure of their family environment - Also predicts future IQ scores - Assessing varied aspects of a child's family environment allows good prediction of the child' IQ Better-quality home environment cause children to have higher IQs - Not yet known b/c: type of intellectual environment that parents establish in the home is almost certainly influenced by their genetic make up - Almost all studies using the HOME have focused on families in which children live with their biological parents

Issue of Mechanisms of Development

Biological Processes, i.e. maturation, walking Experiences - Attention - what we pay attention - Sleep - how much we sleep, how we sleep Timing of Experiences: - Critical Period - you have to have an experience during a specific period of time, otherwise you will not develop that skill. - Sensitive Period

Antisocial Influences

Biological influences → genetics, neurological deficits Parenting → harsh, punitive; low-monitoring; high conflict at home Peers → Time spent with other antisocial children Environment → Low SES (the stress that comes with this environment) Patterns of thinking → hostile attribution bias Biological Predispositions + Socialization (parents, peers, school) = Hostile Attribution Bias → Aggressive Behaviour Media/TV: Bandura: Social Modelling Bobo Kids still act more violently when it's modelled by cartoons Media violence → aggressive/violent behaviour SImilar results iin correlational and experimental studies Social modelling goes both ways → watching prosocial behaviour increases

Textbook: Describe research on the development of conscience

COnscience: internl regulatory mechanism that increases the individual's ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in their culture. - infnats have the beginnings of a moral sense because they can be taught one which may be the foundation for morality to be built upon. - by age 2 toddleres start to recognize moral standards/rules/guilt. Children's growing underrstanding of others' emotions and goals and increasing capacity of empathic conern are likely contributors to the development of conscience. As they mature, children are more likely to take on their parents' moral values, and to exhibit guilt for violating those values, if their parents use disciplinary practices low in parental power and high in reasoning that help children understand and learn the parents' values Differs based on temperament as well. - children who are prone to fear unfamilier people/situations the development of their conscience is promoted by the mother's use of gentle discipline that includes reasoning with the child and providing nonmaterial incentive. - gentle discipline makes no difference in fearless young children, instead a parent-child relationships with secure attachment and mutual cooperation Varies with genetics

Textbook: Discuss the legacy of Vygotsky's theory

COntemporary sociocultural theories have extended Vygotsky's insights - propose that humans have two unique characteristics that are crucial to our ability to create complex, rapidly changing: *inclination to teach others* and *learn from them*; the inclination arises very early, at the age of 1 - enables the new generation to stand on the sohulders of the older and ths see father.

Ch.1: Recognize some of the difficulties in studying development and developmental populations

Can be hard: - other factors associated with age need to be accounted for. - Selection bias - Measurement equivalence e.g. How to measure aggression in infants vs toddlers vs adolescents

Gender Understanding: Infancy/Toddlerhood

Can discriminate between male and female, but focus on superficial cues. Look longer at gender-inconsistent pictures

Ch.12: Contrast types of sibling relationships, and describe the ways siblings may shape development

Caregiver Relationship: one sibling serves as a quasi-parent fo the other. Buddy Relationship: both siblings like each other, and try to be like each other. Critical/Conflictual Relationship: One sibling tries to dominate the other; teasing, quarreling. Rival Relationship: similar to criticial/conflictual, but also lacking in any friendship or support. Casual/ Uninvolved Relationship: siblings have little to do with each other. - Practice communication and social skills - Buffer for peer rejection, parent conflict, stressful experiences - Try out new behaviours - Can be opportunity for learning about another gender - Promote individuality

Assigned Reading: Discuss the motivations, methods, results, and implications of Claro et al.

Ceci and Sternberg argue that measuring a quality as complex and multifaceted as intelligence requires assessing a much broader range of abilities than current intelligence tests include - Current intelligence tests are culturally biased - Reducing a person's intelligence to a number is simplistic and ethnically questionable

Describe and evaluate three theories that explain the mechanism underlying autism

Central Coherence (Frith): Embedded Figures Task, Upside down puzzles - Global vs Local focus Extreme Male Brain (Baron-Cohen): Levels of testosterone, early puberty - "Very male" cognitive/ emotional profile - Morphology (e.g., finger length) - Better at skills that males tend to do better on ('systemizing' skills: math, science, computers) and worse at skills that females tend to do better on ('empathizing' skills: verbal, social-emotional, 'reading' others) Theory of Mind Module (Leslie; Baron-Cohen): - Well-established deficit in Theory of Mind - Typically fail false belief tasks - No social referencing - No gaze following - Poor 'mind-reading' - E.g., Reading the mind in the eyes: Individuals with autism tend to not monitor gaze when watching social interactions (show preference for mouth and other moving parts) Lack joint attention/gaze following - Can result in mislabeling - Difficulty reasoning about intentions - Pragmatic aspects of language are difficult (e.g., sarcasm; tend to interpret literally) - Understanding of nonverbal communication is impaired (e.g., body language) Theory: inability to reason about mental states of others makes the social world incredibly difficult to predict - Results in: -- Preference for social isolation -- Preference for routines (because predictable) and interests in non-social objects that can be understood (e.g., fascination with numbers, math, and physical 'systems') - Poor attachments - No pretend play

Epigenetics:

Changes in gene expression not caused by DNA; evidence of 'nature and nurture'. Gene expression is influenced by our environment. - Methyl groups tags DNA and activate or repress genes. - This is heritable

Textbook: Explain the central ideas and issues of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development

Children are social learners, shaped by other people and by their cultural context and gradually become immersed in it. -Believed that thought is internalized speech and that thought originates in large part in statements that parents and other adults make to children.

Social identity theory

Children become more gender-typed in their preferences as they assimilate into their same-gender peer groups. Gender is Associated eith Influence of social status Helps to explain why gender-typing pressures tend to be more rigid for boys. members of high-status groups are usually more invested in maintaining group boundaries and in most societies men are high-status.

Influences of Schooling on Intelligence

Children who are only slightly older but with a year more schooling do better at IQ tests than did slightly younger children in the grade below them - IQ scores rise during the academic year and drop during the summer

Ch.14: Describe Kohlberg's theory of moral development; identify and contrast the 6 stages of moral reasoning

Conducted 20-year longitudinal study - presented children with hypothetical moral dilemmas and then questioned them about the issues involved in their moral judgements - Posed moral dilemmas --> focus on children's reasoning, not on specific answers Not maturation - Advances in cognition - Own thinking; discussions with others - Individual differences

Historical Influences on the Study of Child Development: Social Reform Movements

Contemporary child psych has roots in early social reform movements that were devoted to improving children's lives by changing the conditions in which they lives - e.g. Industrial Revolution (1700-1900's) Social reformers began to study how circumstances affected a child's development. - e.g. Earl of Shaftesbury: noticed that narrow tunnels kids dug coal out from were terrible conditions; helped pass a law forbidding the employment of girls and boys younger than 10. Early social reform movements established a legacy of research conducted for the benefit of children and provided some of the earliest recorded descriptions of the adverse effects of harsh environments on children.

Ch.13: Identify 5 sociometric peer statuses, and explain the different traits associated with each

Controversial: lots of likes AND dislikes Rejected: lots of dislikes & few dislikes Popular: few dislikes & lots of likes Neglected: few dislikes & few likes Average: in the middle.

Bioecological model

Cultural expectations of gender role Opportunity structure Media representations Teacher expectations and behaviours Influence of peers Parent expectations and behaviours

Historical Influences on the Study of Child Development: Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Darwin's work inspired a lot of scientists to propose that intensive study of children's development might lead to important insights into human nature. - Darwin even wrote an article called "A Biographical Sketch of an Infant": systematic description of his son William's day to day development - Intensive studies of individuals became a distinctive feature of the modern field of child development. Darwin's theory of development continues to influence the thinking of modern developmentalists.

Summarize trends in adolescent dating/romantic relationships,

Dating tends to begin ~14-15 years Interest in socializing with potential partners --> Dating casually --> Stable relationships Who to Date? - early adolescence --> status - middle/late adolescence --> kindness, honestly, intelligence, etc.

Neuroscience-based theories on Gender: hormones

Differences in androgen and estrogen hormones lead to gender differences Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: Genetic females (XX) with high levels of androgen, formation of male/partially male genitalia --> more likely to show traditionally "male" behaviour Organizational influences: hormones influence the development of characteristics Activational influences: changes in hormone levels stimulate changes in neural activation/behaviour

Ch.6: Describe the impact of socioeconomic status on language development.

Differences in language input from parents. - Positive correlation between cumulative words addressed to child and status of income group. Differences in language acquisition by children - Children acquire language at a similar rate until around 12 months; then Higher SES children acquire vocabulary significantly more than Middle/Lower SES, with children receiving federal assistance acquiring the slowest/least.

Influence of Culture on Parenting

Different Patterns of parenting style. - E.g. Collectivistic cultures seem to have a more authoritarian style ~ linked to cultural/ethnic values. Different outcomes associated with parenting style? - complex ; in some cultures, authoritarian parenting seems to be associated with good outcomes. Maybe authoritarian parenting looks different to different cultures, "control" might actually be considered "support."

Ch.12: Consider the influence of extended family, socioeconomic status, and culture on the family and children

Different roles Evolutionarily à useful for survival? Can boost emotional well-being Can serve as buffers in children growing up in risky contexts

Writing

Difficult task to learn - Correctly form letters: fine motor abilities - Spell words correctly, use appropriate punctuation/capitalization - Organize information - Make what is written comprehensible to the reader without verbal intonation cues, gestures, and facial information (cannot just write everything as it comes into your head) - As adults, we perform knowledge transforming: organize information into relevant parts, know what to include and what to exclude, what order to write things in, etc. Continuous development throughout life Organizing narrative: knowledge telling vs knowledge transforming - can be very hard

Ch.12: Discuss the influence of parent conflict and divorce on children

Early involvement of fathers → adult children's feelings of satisfaction in spousal relationships and parenting skills (Franz, McClelland, & Weinberger, 1991) Teenager-mother hostility → adjustment at age 25 (Allen, Hauser, O'Connor, & Bell, 2002) Father involvement at age 7 &11 → exam performance at age 16 and criminal records at age 21 (Lewis, Newson, & Newson, 1982) Closeness to mother at age 16 → marital satisfaction at age 32 (Flouri & Buchanan, 2002) Aspects of Parenting Warmth/support/acceptance/responsiveness Control/Demandingness - Behavioural Control - Psychological Control Discipline - Reinforcement & Punishment - Power assertion - Inductive discipline - using explanation/reasoning Child might have certain dispositions that parents shape their parenting styles around.

Function of Friendships

Emotional support Buffer in stressful times (cortisol higher when BFF not present) Development of social skills Learn about peer norms Conflict & resolution Model and reinforce behaviour - Deviancy training

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Envisions intelligence as "the ability to achieve success in life, given one's personal standards, within one's sociocultural context Success in life reflects people's ability to build on their strengths, to compensate for their weaknesses, and to select environments in which they n success Analytical Intelligence - mental steps or components used to solve problems Creative Intelligence - Use of experience in ways that foster insight Practical Intelligence - Ability to Read and Adapt to everyday life

Ch.11: Discuss Erikson and Marcia's approaches to identity development, and explain how different identity status may be related to outcomes for adolescents

Erikson: adolescence a crisis of identity vs. role confusion *Psychosocial Moratorium*: time in which individuals are free from excessive obligations and can experiment with different roles

Ch.6: Describe 4 explanations for the development of theory of mind abilities between ages 3 and 5 years

Experience? - Theory theory -> change in thinking - Simulation theory - Maturation? -> modular theory - Development of other skills? (e.g. Executive function)

Ch.7: Contrast explicit and implicit attitudes, explain how both are measured

Explicit attitudes: attitudes a person consciously endorses and can report - measured with Self Reported Preference Implicit attitudes: attitudes that influence a person's feelings or beliefs at an unconscious level Implicit Association Test (IAT): - Measures the strength of association between concept (i.e., race) and attribute (i.e. evaluation, good vs. bad) - Response time - Stronger association between concept + attribute --> faster reaction, more accurate

Crystallized Intelligence

Factual knowledge about the world - reflects long-term memory for prior experience sand is closely related to verbal ability. - increases steadily from early life to old age Hippocampus—the brain region for forming the long-term memory—plays key role in crystallized intelligence

Poverty and Intelligence

Family income related to IQ scores above maternal education, single parenting, race. More years a child spends in poverty, the worse the outcomes Economically disadvantageous areas: diet, nutrition, unsafe housing, community violence, unemployment Specific needs of a society may shape IQ development; some aspects of IQ higher and some lower - Children from poor families in the US have achievement test scores far below children from poor families in countries with greater income equality.; US are much poorer than the counterparts in many other developed countries. However, resilient children who are from poor families, functioned in the normal range on cognitive social health and growth measures at the age of 3 years (Bradley, 1994) - Parents of these children protected them in a number of ways from the usual harmful effects of poverty

Self-Concept: Infancy

First awareness: self as separate entity, as active/causal agent (that you can make things happen) 18 months >: pass rouge test; put something on a baby's face, will it reach for the mirror or their face? By 18 months, they should recognize that it's something on them, not the mirror. 2 years: recognize self in photographs.

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory

Focused on issues of the ego and societal expectations Highlighted the importance of adolescence in development Development continues into adulthood Criticisms: Some hypotheses are difficult to test

Kohlberg's Cognitive Development Theory: Gender

Gender Identity: 2-2.5 years Gender Stability: 3-4 years Gender Constancy: 5-7 years - increases the likelihood of gender-typed behaviours. Achieving gender constancy --> seek out gender models; stricter adherence to gender role Children actively seek to understand the meaning of gender through observation and interaction with others.

Evolutionary psychology theory of Gender

Gender differences exist because they would have been adaptive for survival Example: maternal care necessary for infant survival --> girls more likely to play in collaborative/caring fashion

Consider the origins and contributors for ADHD

Genetics Neurological differences Difficulties with behavioural inhibition Environmental factors - Prenatal teratogens? - Adverse living conditions Interactions between child & parents' behaviour

GENDER DIFFERENCES:INTERPERSONAL

Goals - Boys --> more likely to emphasize power and dominance - Girls --> more likely to emphasize intimacy and support Aggression - Boys --> more likely to engage in direct aggression - Girls --> slightly more likely to engage in indirect aggression

Reading Acquisition: Stage 2

Grades 2-3 Gains in reading fluency; faster & more efficient

Reading Acquisition: Stage 3/4

Grades 4-8; 8-12 - more complex reading abilities - Chall quotes, "in the primary grades, children learn to read; in the higher grades, they read to learn"

Gathering data with physiological measures

Heart rate, blood pressure, hormone levels, pupil dilation. Neuro-imaging: - EEG/ERP: (electroencephalogram/event-related potentials) measures electrical activity in the brain. - MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): measures brain structure using magnetic fields - fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): measures blood flow in the brain using magnetic fields - NIRS (Near-Infrared Spectroscopy): measures blood flow in the brain using light

Self-Concept: Middle Childhood

Helps to Remember: - Erikson: Industry vs. Inferiority - Piaget: Concrete Operations Stage More realistic and balanced More abstract concepts More integrated Linked to actual competencies/evluation

Self-Concept: Early Childhood

Helps to Remember: - Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt; can you do things on your own? - Piaget: Preoperational Stage; kids can symbolise but cannot theorize or understand abstract concepts. Can describe self Focus on concrete, observable features Unrealistically positive

Ch.11: Summarize the findings of Hallett et al.'s work with Aboriginal adolescents, and consider possible explanations and implications

How stable is ethnic self-identification? - Not always consistent - Formerly declared ~ stopped Identifying Does stability/pattern of change relate to outcomes? - School Drop-Out Rates: to some extent, yes; the always declared group were most likely to drop out of school. Subsequently declared group had the lowest drop-out rates

Erikson's Stages of Psychsocial Theory:

How you resolve each stage impacts the following stages Trust vs. Mistrust ~ autonomy Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt ~ toddlerhood Initiative vs. Guilt ~ early childhood Industry vs. Inferiority ~ Middle Childhood (primary school age) Identity vs. Role Confusion ~ adolescence Intimacy vs. Isolation ~ YOung adulthood Generativity vs. Stagnation ~ Middle Age Integrity vs Despair ~ Old Age

Intellectual Disability

IQ < 70-75 *Organic mental retardation*: traced to a specific biological or physical problem (e.g., Down's syndrome); more severe IQ deficit *Familial mental retardation*: lower end of IQ distribution, but can't be traced back to biological/physical problems *Learning disabilities*: difficulty mastering an academic task; normal intelligence, not suffering from other conditions that might impact performance

Textbook: Describe the relationship between intelligence (and self-discipline) to children's outcomes

IQ scores are a strong predictor of academic, economic, and occupational success. - correlate positively and strongly with school grades/achievement test performance. Self-dsicipline is more predictive of changes in report card grades between 5th and 9th grades than IQ score, although IQ score is more predictive of changes in achievement test scores over the same period. "practical intelligence" predicts occupational success beyond the influence of IQ score. Among people with the same level of education, those with higher IQ scores earn more money

Ch.8/9: Summarize genetic and environmental influences on intelligence

IQ scores more similar between identical versus fraternal twins, more similar between adopted children and their biological parents versus their adopted parents - Correlation between the IQs of identical twins increase from preschool to adulthood, whereas correlations between IQs of fraternal twins decrease Role of genetics more apparent in older vs. younger children Interaction between genetics and environment also important (epigenetics)

GENDER DIFFERENCES: COGNITIVE

IQ tests - Girls -> slightly better at verbal tasks - Boys -> slightly better at spatial tasks Academic performance - Girls -> slightly better grades/school performance Beliefs/interests

Historical Influences on the Study of Child Development: Beginning of Research Based Theories of Child Development

In the late 19/early 20th c., the first theories of child development that incorporated research findings were formulated. - e.g. Freud's *psychoanalytic theory* (based on his patients' recollections of dreams/childhood experiences) proposed that biological drives, especially sexual ones, are a crucial influence on development. - e.g. John Watson's *behaviourist theory* argued that children's development is determined by environmental factors, especially the rewards and punishments that follow the children's actions.

Impact of race/ethnicity vs. Context on Peer Status

Increased social preference for black children BUT Black children preferred a black teach over a white teacher while there was a tiny preference for a white teacher for white kids.

Ch.6: Discuss factors that may influence whether a child is more likely to display theory of mind abilities

Individual differences - # of siblings: (kids with older siblings always outperform others) - Pretend play - Parenting Language Autism - have greater difficulty with false belief problems , as well as understanding other people; likely due to atypical sizes/acitvity of certain brain areas crucial to understanding people.; Or more likely due to less interaction with others.

Textbook: Define and identify the components of language

Involves the learning of the complex systems of phonology, syntax, and pragmatics that govern it's sounds, meaning, grammar, and use. - benefit: generativity

Nature vs. Nurture

Is who we are and how we develop innate or determined by experience? Plato: innate knowledge - at birth, the body traps the soul which already has knowledge (nature) Aristotle: experience matters, we're shaped by it; empiricism (nurture) John Locke: the blank slate; nothing is written at birth, everything is experience. (nurture) Rousseau: children are already born with morals, the plan is already set. (nature)

PRECONVENTIONAL MORAL REASONING

Kohlberg's Theory: Level 1 Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation - Right = obeying authority, avoiding punishment Stage 2: Instrumental and Exchange Orientation - Right = what satisfies one's own interest, occasionally others - "Tit for tat" --> reciprocity

CONVENTIONAL MORAL REASONING

Kohlberg's Theory: Level 2 Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity Orientation - Right = what is expected by people/society - Importance of being "good" Stage 4: Social System and Conscience Orientation - Right = doing one's duty, adhering to authority, upholding social order - "Law and order"

POSTCONVENTIONAL MORAL REASONING

Kohlberg's Theory: Level 3 Stage 5: Social Contract of Individual Rights Orientation - Right = uphold rules in the best interest of the group or those agreed upon by the group - Right = universal values of life, liberty - Emphasis on law, but willingness to change with rational considerations Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles - Right = self-chosen ethical principles that reflect universal principles of justice - Civil disobedience

Reading

Learning how to read is affected by several factors: - Phonemic/phonological awareness - Vocabulary - Knowledge of letter names - Environment at school and home - Family (reading with parents, exposure to books, positive association books - Genetics [?] Some children learn to read effortlessly, while some children face difficulties in learning to read

Peer Status: Controversial

Less Stable status - Shares characteristics of both popular and rejected children à can be helpful/cooperative, but can also be disruptive/aggressive

Stepparents Impact

Majority of stepfamilies are formed through divorce and remarriage, but some after death of a parent. Inroduction of a stepparent often leads to less frequent contact with the noncustodial parent which can be stressful to the child and lead to adjustment difficulties. Can have a positive impact on income A child who bonds with a step parent gains another trusted adult/role model Stepfathers: feel less close to their stepchildren than bio fathers; initially warm and less controlling than fathers, but can also be a good role model for step sons. - having a good relationship w/ both step and bio father is associated with better adolescent outcomes. - conflict w/ stepkids is greater than w/ bio dad because the stepdad might see the kids as burdens - kids with stepdads have higher rates of depression, withdrawal, and disruptive behaviour issues - girls are particularly likely to have problems w/ stepdad b/c it disrupts their close relationship w/ their mom. Stepmothers: have more difficult w/ stepkids than stepdads amd are at risk for depressive symptoms. - fathers expect stepmoms to be like their new mom including monitoring, disciplining the kid. But stepkids also hate being disciplined by the stepmom - stepmoms are more likely to resent the kids.

Same-sax Parenting Impact

Many children of current lesbian/gay parents were born when one of their parents were still in a hetero relationship meaning that 59% of kids in same-sex relationships are biologically related to a parent. - also through IVF or surrogacy, fostering, adoptiong, ettc. Research has consistently shown that children with same-sex parents aren't different from children of hetero parents in terms of adjustment, personality, relationships w/ peers, and academic achievement. - also similar in sexual orientation/gender-typing , romantic involvements and sexual behaviour as adolescents. Generally report low levels of stigmatization and teasing. Adjustment mostly depends on family dynamics more than anything (e.g. closeness of parent-child relationship, parents dynamic, supportiveness, discipline, and stress from parenting)

Explain how ADHD symptoms might be treated

Medication --> stimulants - Reduces symptoms in 70-90% of children - Concerns about side effects, age to start Behavioural therapy - Reinforce and monitor desired behaviours - Focus on parents as well as child

Ch.14: Explain how prosocial moral judgments may differ from Kohlberg's moral reasoning

Meeting own needs vs. helping others E.g. Eisenberg's Stages of Prosocial Moral Reasoning Moral reasoning on prosocial dilemmas seems to be somewhat advanced of Kohlberg's dilemmas

Numerical Magnitude Representations

Mental models of sizes of numbers, ordered along a less-to-more dimension. - accurately linking these numbers and the magnitudes they represent actually constitutes a major challenge for children over a prolonged period of development (even up to adulthood sometimes.). - The range of numbers whose magnitudes children represent reasonably precisely increases greatly with age and experience. - accuracy of magnitude increases from 3-6 - accuracy of numbers 1-100 increases from 6-8; 100-1000 from 8-12. - Ages reflect when children are first gaining substantial experience with each numerical range.

Gender schema theory

Mental representations of gender --> experiences, expectations, stereotypes Motivation to enact gender-typed behaviour begins as soon as children can label other people's and their own gender. (usually by 3 yrs. old) Understanding of gender develops with construction of gender schemas. - motivation for cognitive consistency leads them to prefer and remember more about others of their own gender. Gender schemas are mostly resistant to change but can be modified through explicit instruction although impact fades once intervention ends.

Ch.8/9: Describe the history and main objectives of the intelligence testing movement

Minister of Education of France asked Alfred Binet to develop an objective test of intelligence to identify which students would have difficulty in standard classes. - view at the time was that intelligence was based on simple skills (e.g. associating objects with sounds), responding quickly to stimuli, and recognizing whether two objects are identical. More modern research focuses on *individual differences: on how and why children of the same age differ from one another.

social scaffolding

More competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children's thinking at a higher level than children could manage on own . - includes explaining the goal of a task, how to do it, and helping them do it. - allows children to work at a higher level than without it. - required less and less as the child ages *the higher the quality of the social scaffolding (more instructional efforts are directed at the upper end of the child's capabilities), the greater the learning* - ivolves more explicit instruction/explanation than guided participation - can be used to help children form autobiographical memories

Discuss the relationship between gender and ADHD

More prevalent in boys In girls: - Prevalence vs diagnosis? - Later diagnosis? - More likely to show symptoms of inattention

Stages of Freud's Psychosexual Theory

Most of your personality is developed in the first 3 stages and if you resolve your phallic stage, you're on good track Oral (0-18 months) - Id: pleasure principle; inborn and drives the child in search of oral satisfaction - Ego: reality principle; starts in the oral stage Anal (18 months - 1 years): - Learning to control bowels Phallic Stage (3-6 years): - Oedipus/Elektra complex - Superego: morality principles; develops in phallic stage Latency (6-12 years) Genital (12+)

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

Most widely used intelligence testing instrument for children 6 years and older, - Use deviation IQ - Provides general score plus 5 composite scores Scores normed for each age - Mean = 100 - Standard Deviation = 15 - Normal distribution Underscores Carroll's three-stratum framework, proposing that intelligence includes general ability (g), several moderately general abilities, and a large number of specific processes. - yields an overall score but also separate scores on 5 moderately general abilities Measures these abilities because they reflect skills that are important within information within *information processing theories*, correlate with other aspects of intellifence, and are related to important outcomes. (e.g. grades; occupational success)

Mother vs Father Parenting Style

Mothers → more likely to spend time with child; more likely to engage in caretaking activities. Fathers → more likely to engage in physical play (dependent on culture) Parenting quality → outcomes; regardless of parent gender

Assigned Readings: Discuss the motivations, methods, results, and implications of Baron & Banaji (2006)

Motivation: to understand the origin and development of implicit attitudes Method:used pictures of Black and White children's faces. Because of the variability in reading level among children, we substituted voice recordings of good and bad words for printed words. Result: In 10-year-old's and adults, the same magnitude of implicit race bias was observed, although self-reported race attitudes became substantially less biased in older children and vanished entirely in adults, who self-reported equally favourable attitudes toward Whites and Blacks Implication: e data show the early emergence of implicit attitudes toward both nonsocial (flower vs. insect) and social (Black vs. White) categories. By age 6, children appear to have formed detectable implicit attitudes toward social groups. Moreover, these attitudes did not vary across the three age groups studied here. Yet for self-reported race attitudes, a quite distinct pattern emerges. An early and strong preference for members of one's own social group subsides by age 10 and levels off to an equal preference for the in-group and out-group by adulthood.

Consider some of the challenges and consequences of coming out for LGBQ youth

Negative responses from family: anger, disappointment, denial, physical violence. - individuals with accepting parents report higher self-esteem and lower levels of depression and anxiety. - those who are rejected by their parents have a higher risk of developing depression and attempting suicide. Victimization/Harassment by peers and community - more likely to be in a fight, victims of dating violence and sexual assault More likely to be homeless or involved in stree life.

Social cognitive theory

Observational learning (indirect reinforcement) Enactive experience (direct reinforcement) Tuition: direct teaching

Ch.15: Discuss gender cognition, gender identification, and gender preference in transgender children (Olson et al., 2015)

Olson, Key, & Eaton (2015) --> examined gender identity and gender preference in transgender and cisgender children - Socially transitioned trans children - IAT

The Carolina Abecedarian Project

Operated in N. Carolina b/w 1972-85. Children who were at who risk for poor outcomes due to low family income, absence of a father at home, low maternal IQ score and education, etc *began attending special day-care by 6 months of age until 5 years old* - program emphasized general social, cognitive, and motor development; emhpasized lang. development and verbal communication. - 4/5 year olds were given systematic instruction in math, science, reading and music. - families of children were provided nutritional supplements and access to high-quality care. Results: - at age 21: mean IQ scores were 5 points higher than their SES group; achievement test scores in math and reading were also higher. - fewer participants were held back. Version that ended at age 3 didn't produce long-term effects like this.

Altruistic Prosocial Behaviour

Origins of altruistic prosocial behavior are rooted in the capacity to feel empathy and sympathy - empathy: emotional reaction to another's emotional state that is similar to that person's state - sympathy: feeling of concern for another person (or animal) in reaction to the other's emotional state or concern An important factor contributing to empathy and sympathy is the ability to take another's perspective - at about age 2, children start to more clearly differentiate between another's emotional distress and their own, although their responses may still be egocentric - 2-3 years of age, the frequency and variety of young children's prosocial behaviors increase, although they do not regularly act in prosocial ways - children's prosocial behaviors increase from the preschool years to adolescence

Divorced Parenting Impact

Over 10% of parents in Canada lived in a step family. Why it affects the kid: - creates larges changes in a child's life - lone parents raising the kid at a time: more time/finance intensive - more irritable, less warmth, emotional availability, consistency, and supervision from parents. - moving, new school, transitions. - exacerbation of conflict b/w parents - parents oversharing about this divorce problems negative effects: increased risk of depression, anxiety, problematic behaviour, lower self-esteem Positive Outcomes: - if parents were fighting a lot, it may reduce child's stress - most children do no suffer significant, enduring problems as a consequence Older children understand divorce better but they are also at higherrisk for difficulty adjusting

Discuss the influence of parent conflict and divorce on children

Parenting and Marital quality combinations. - Consistently supportive parenting/marital quality: very high standardized scores on cognitive assessment. - Consistently moderate parenting/marital quality: ok standardized scores - Good parenting, poor marriage: highest standardized scores - Poor parenting, good marriage: very low standardized scores - Consistently risk parenting/marriage: lowest standardized scores. Divorce → Associated with increased problems in children - Parent conflict - Economic difficulties/changes - Absence of a parent/fear of absence - Diminished parenting - Relocation

Ch.11: Identify and explain influences on self-concept and self-esteem

Parents - Warmth & Support - Family Narratives - Scaffolding of memories Peers Culture: Individualistic vs. Collectivist Self-Esteem - Approval of others → Parents, peers, teachers - Societal Standards --Physical attractiveness (Accounts for majority of self-esteem) -- Media

Issue of the Role of the Child

Passive Learning? ~ the child is like a sponge, and absorbs their surrounding Active Contributions - children actually take part in their development - Attention - Language - *"Niche Picking"*: choice of environments, activities, friends.

Pattern of Antisocial behaviour

Physical aggression → high in toddlerhood/early childhood, then decreases as we age. Social/relational aggression → increases in middle childhood/adolescence (especially for girls) 5 Different Trajectories - Most common: very low and low levels of aggression throughout development - Only 3% of kids display high levels of aggression Children who are aggressive at 8 are more likely to be convicted to crimes when they are adults.

Ch.13: Contrast different types of bullying, and describe the impact of bullying on children

Physical bullying § Verbal bullying § Social/relational bullying § Cyberbullying § Bullies à higher in social status, antisocial, susceptible to peer pressure, lack self-control, poor relationship with parents § Victims à rejected status (sometimes withdrawn, sometimes aggressive), feel depressed/anxious, do poorly in school

Biosocial theory of Gender

Physical differences between sexes would lead to behaviouraldifferences in gender Example: men are taller/stronger --> boys more socially dominant Impacted by social environment

Ch.15: Summarize gender differences in physical abilities,

Physical differences in sex begin at conception - Chromosomes --> XX vs XY - 1.5mos gestation, physiological differences emerge - 2.5-3mos gestation, external genitals emerge Boys - greater physical strength & speed Gender differences increase following puberty Puberty - Physical growth - Development of primary sex characteristics, which results in hormone changes that enable reproduction - Development of secondary sex characteristics (breasts, genitals, pubic/facial/body hair)

Stages of Development:

Pre-natal period: conception to birth Infancy: birth - 3 years Early Childhood: 3 - 6 years Middle Childhood: 6 - 11 (puberty) years Adolescence: 11 - 19/20 years "Early Adulthood": 19/20 - 25 years Adulthood: 25 →

Ch.14: Describe Piaget's theory of moral development

Premoral Reasoning (<4 years) --> Heteronomous Morality (4-7 years) --> Autonomous Morality (>11/12 years) Increases with cognitive development and time spent with peers - described how children's moral reasoning changes from a rigid acceptance of the dictates and rules of authorities to an appreciation that moral rule are a product of social interaction and hence are modifiable Support: - Moral reasoning correlated with performance on tests of cognitive development - Children do increasingly consider intentions and motives Challenges: - Young children also consider intentions and motives --> underestimated - Little evidence for the role of peers

Eisenberg's Sages of Prosocial Moral Reasoning

Preschool/early elementary - Hedonistic/Self-oriented Preschool/elementary - Needs of Others Elementary/Secondary - Approval and/or Stereotyped Older elementary/Secondary - Empathic Secondary+ - Internalized

Pre-Reading Skills

Preschoolers acquire basic information about reading just from looking at books and having their parents read to them. Children with well-educated parents tend to learn the names of most of letters of the alphabet before they enter school. Phonemic awareness is both correlated with later reading achievement and a cause of it - Phonemic awareness is measured by asking children to decide whether two words rhyme, to decide whether they start with the same sound...etc. - Performance on these tasks is the strongest predictor of children's ability to sound out and spell words in the early grades—stronger even than IQ or social-class backgrounds. - Teaching phonemic-awareness skills to 4-and 5-year-olds cause them to become better readers and spellers, with the effects enduring for years after the training - Hearing nursery rhymes correlates positively with their later phonemic awareness Teaching reading: - Phonics: teaching that sounds are associated with letters; teach which combinations of letters correspond to which sounds - Whole-word reading: teaching children to recognize words in general, as a whole. Works fairly well early on, but as children develop, reading becomes slower and less fluent - Whole-language: teaching using both of these techniques. Effective as a teaching strategy

Contrast facts and myths regarding autism

Prevalence: Estimates range: ~1/4000 to 1/68 Increases in rates: 1/150 in 2000; 1/68 in 2010 More common in males: 1/42 boys and 1/189 girls ~33% also have an intellectual disability ~33% remain nonverbal Medical issues associated with autism: GI disorders, seizures, sleep disturbances, ADHD, anxiety and phobias Affects every race and SES - Can be diagnosed as early as 18 months - A small % are autistic savants = profound capabilities - Lifelong disorder - ASD cannot be cured and/or outgrown

Project Head Start

Provided services to more than 32 million kids. - most kids are from families with income below poverty line, and single-parent run. - Children are provided with medical/dental care, nutritious meals, and a safe environment. - many parents were caregivers at the Head Start centres, serve on it's policy councils and receive help with their own vocational/emotional needs. Results: - Produced higher IQ and achievement test scores at the end of the program and briefly thereafter. - BUT by the end of the 1st grade, children's intellectual outcome were identical to nonparticipants. - postive effect that does endure: improved social skills and health, lower frequency of being held back, greater likelihood of graduating from high school and enrolling in college, lower rates of drug use.

Textbook: Summarize common trajectories in the development of sexual identity, and consider some of the challenges and consequences of coming out for LGBQ youth

Puberty is the most likely time for youth to begin experiencing feelings of sexual attraction to others. Most current theorists believe that whether those feelings are directed toward members of the opposite sex or one's own is based primarily - evidence indicates that a person's sexual orientation is at least partly hereditary. Majority of adolescents are heterosexual, while 10% identify as gay, lesbian or bisexual. Across genders, sexual identities and age, most participants reported experiencing their first same sex attraction between ages 10-15, but didn't identify until after 15. Females experiences a considerable instability in same-sex attraction or sexual behaviour

Comprehension

Reading comprehension involves forming a mental model of the situation or idea being depicted in the text and continuously updating it as new information appears. Basic processes and capacities such as encoding and automatization are crucial to reading comprehension. Increasing metacognitive knowledge also contributes to improvements in reading comprehension - *Comprehension monitoring*—process of keeping track of one's understanding of a verbal description or text—differentiates good readers from poor ones at all ages from the 1st grade to adulthood. Parents' involvement in children's reading also influences their reading comprehension improvement

Why we need theory of mind

Reason 1: Interpreting others' Actions • understanding what a person is thinking, feeling, beliefs etc. helps us interpret their behaviour (mental state attribution) Reason 2: Predicting Others' Actions • understanding what a person is thinking, feeling, beliefs etc. helps us predict their behaviour (within limits) Reason 3: Successful Communication • requires appreciating what the other person knows, doesn't know & how knowledge can be acquired (eg, teaching) Reason 4: Selective Social Learning • knowing who knows more, who knows what (eg, deciding who or when to learn from someone) Reason 5: Manipulation • eg, deception, tricks, surprises, make them believe smth that's not true (false belief) Reason 6: ?? So they don't accidentally kill themselves (eg, 3 yr old jumping off deck)

Ch.6: Explain the role that gesture plays in children's thought and cognitive development

Reflect Thought: - A "window" into what children know -- # of gestures --> vocabulary (nouns) -- # of gestures + word combo = complex sentences - Gesture-speech mismatches: reflect verge of learning? Change Thought: - Can convey knowledge to others - Can help "lighten the load" in difficult tasks - Cook, Mitchell, & Goldin-Meadow (2008): Gesture makes learning last

Peer Status: Rejected

Rejected-aggressive: instrumental and relational aggression, physical aggression, bullying Rejected-withdrawn: poor social skills, socially anxious, difficulty with social goals Rejected-aggressive/withdrawn Related to: - externalizing problems - internalizing problems - academic problems

False Belief Tasks

Sally-Ann task (question posed is where would sally look for her ball? if has TOM & understands false belief then should believe she will look in the basket) Widely studied false belief problem - preschoolers are shown a box that ordinarily contains smarties. The experimenter then asks what is inside the box. Logically the preschooler says "smarties", but when the experimenter opens the box, there's not smarties, just pencils. Most 5 years olds laugh/smile and admit their surprise. When asked what another child would say if shown the closed box, the preschooler says "smarties". If you ask a 3 year old, they will say they knew it all along and other 3 year olds would also say pen pencils. Thus showing that they have difficulty understanding that other people act on their own beliefs, even when the beliefs are false, and that other people don't necessarily know what the child knows - many 3 year olds succeed at this task if its presented in a way that facilitates understanding. e.g. "no we're going to trick another kid by hiding smarties"

Genotype-environment interactions

Sandra Scarr proposed gene environment relations involve three types of effects: passive, evocative, and active *Passive effects* of the genotype arise when children are raised by their biological parents Ex. Children, who predispose genes that make them like to read, are raised by parents who also like to read. *Evocative effects* of the genotype emerge through children's eliciting or influencing other peoples' behavior Even if their parents are not avid readers, they will read more bedtime stories to the child if he/she seems interested in the stories. *Active effects* of the genotype involved children's choosing environments that they enjoy.

Ch.14: Consider possible interventions to promote prosocial behaviour and decrease antisocial behaviour in children/adolescents

Schools/Community: how to best encourage moral development? Boost moral reasoning → kohlberg's Just Communities program Focus on positive reinforcement → Positive Behavioural iNternventions and Supports (PBIS) Focus on Strengths → positive youth development

Ch.1: Consider some of the ethical concerns in working with developmental populations

Scientific Knowledge vs. Potential Harm to Subjects Non-harmful procedures Vulnerable populations (children) → "minimal risk" - Informed Consent (Parents/guardians for children); children gives a verbal agreement after the design is explained to them in understandable terms ~ called "assent." - Protect anonymity and confidentiality - with children - Debriefing → correct incorrect ideas - Concern for child's welfare → inform parents/guardians - Counteract negative consequences

Ch.15: Define gender identity

Sense of self as gendered; internal/psychological experience Transgender: in which gender identity/expression differs from assigned sex/gender (umbrella term) Cisgender: in which gender identity matches assigned sex/gender Genderqueer: in which an individual rejects categorization of gender Agender/gender-neutral: in which an individual does not identify as man/woman/any gender

Reading Acquisition: Stage 1

Stage 1 (1st and 2nd grades): acquisition of phonological recoding skills—the ability to translate letters into sounds and to blend the sounds into words

KOHLBERG'S THEORY: criticisms

Strict sequence? - Studies show that some people skip a stage, or regress - People can use different reasoning at different types - Kohlberg's response à change scoring system for stages Role of culture? - Similar sequence of stages across cultures - But, different rates and end stages - Bias in how moral reasoning is assessed? - May be differences in moral principles Role of gender? - Kohlberg's original study --> all male participants - Carol Gilligan: principle of care - Most studies show similar moral reasoning across gender - social conventions or moral issues?

GENDER DIFFERENCES: PLAY

Style of play--> boys more physically active, competitive; girls more cooperative Toys --> girls more likely to play with dolls, kitchen sets, dress-up; boys more likely to play with action figures, construction toys, video games Fantasy play --> boys more likely to involve heroes, combat; girls more likely to involve household roles, romance Size of play group --> girls more likely to play in pairs/threesomes; boys in larger groups

Ch.4: Discuss the legacy of Piaget's theory

The Active child Criticism: - Overemphasized clear-cut stages - Lots of variability in children's responses depending on methods - Underestimates children (the test Piaget used on children were very difficult for children to understand; language wasn't simplified) - Underestimates the influence of others - Unclear on the mechanisms of developmental change.

Ethology

The study of evolutionary bases of behaviour. - attempts to understand behaviour in terms of its adaptive or survival value. - proposes that a variety of innate behaviour in terms of its adaptive behaviour patterns in animals were shaped by evolution just as surely as their physical characteristics were.

the child as a processing system

Theorists draw comparisons b/w the information processing of computer and humans. - a computer's processing is limited by its hardware/software; the hardware being memory capacity and speed and software being aailable strategies and knowledge

theory-theory

This theory asserts that individuals hold a basic or 'naïve' theory of psychology ("folk psychology") to infer the mental states of others, such as their beliefs, desires or emotions. This information is used to understand the intentions behind that person's actions or predict future behaviour. The term 'perspective taking' is sometimes used to describe how one makes inferences about another person's inner state using theoretical knowledge about the other's situation. children seek to find explanations that help them understand their surroundings. They learn through their own experiences as well as through their observations of others' actions and behaviour

Ch.1: Discuss two main reasons why people study developmental psychology

To better understand nature: - e.g. What causes development? Language, motor, thinking skills. - We want to be able to predict an individual's trajectory based on their development. To Improve the lives of children and adolescents: - Parenting - to be better caregivers - Schooling - better education - Policy - legislation to help children and families

Textbook: Describe how information processing theories seek to explain development

Trying to understand the specification involved in children's thinking Sees thinking as a process that occurs over time (continuously, in small increments). Cognitive Development arises from children gradually surmounting their processing limitations through. - expanding the amounts of information they can process at one time - increasing processing speed - acquiring new strategies and knowledge.

Types of Antisocial behaviour: intended to harm others.

Types of Antisocial behaviour: intended to harm others. - Instrumental aggression: motivated by a desire to obtain goal - Hostile aggression: primarily goal of harm - Reactive aggression: in response to other's behaviour - Physical aggression: physically harm - Verbal aggression: threats, name-calling yelling - Social/relational aggression: directed towards damaging reputation and/or relationships.

Conceptual Understanding of Arithmetic

Understanding why some arithmetic procedures are appropriate and others inappropriate poses a major challenge for many children, even those who have memorized the correct procedure - conceptual understanding of arithmetic begins developing during preschool (e.g. 4 year olds understand the *commutative law of addition*)

Written Language

Unlike spoken language, not all children learn to read Skill that is acquired and needs to be taught Fairly recent cultural development - Not all societies did/do use written language - Has only been invented a few times in human history Different types: - *Alphabetic*: each of the characters of the language corresponds to a sound able to sound out words based on letters (e.g., English, French, Russian, etc.) - *Syllabic*: each character corresponds to a syllable (e.g. Japanese, Ethiopian) - *Logographic*: each word corresponds to whole word or concept (e.g., Chinese) Types of orthography (alphabet) - *Transparent/shallow*: one letter corresponds to one sound (e.g., Spanish, Hungarian, Czech) - *Opaque/deep*: a single letter can represent a number of sounds (English)

Textbook: Summarize the strategies and understanding needed to master arithmetic, and explain mathematical difficulties experienced by some children

Usually starting around age 4/5, most children begin to learn arithmetic, using various problem-solving strategies. - e.g. counting from 1, retrieval They then go on to *counting from the larger addend* and begin using *decomposition* (dividing problems into 2+ easier ones). As children gain experience with the answers to single digit arithmetic problems, their strategy choice shifts toward using *retrieval* - children of any given age differ considerably in their knowledge of numerical magnitudes; these are related to the child's overall mathematical knowledge. More accurate magnitude representations help children learn arithmetic. May enhance arithmetic learning by suggesting plausible answers and eliminating implausible ones from consideration.

Gender:

Virtually all cultures expect males and females to be different. Assigned gender/gender identity impacts children. a person's sense of self as gendered (male, female, genderqueer, etc.)

Similar or Different identity development processes for ethnic minority/majority teens?

Weighty process for ethnic minorities Often there is more than one ethnic identity that a minority has to develop → personal ethnicity vs. societal identity *assimilated* positve majority identity + negative minority identity *marginalized* negative majority identity + negative majority identity *bicultural* positive majority identity + positive minority identity *separated* negative majority culture + positive minority identity Assimilation can be very difficult Research suggests that the best outcomes is the bicultural identity. *"Savvy" bicultural* - knowing the drawbacks of your minority cultural within a broader society, but also not rejecting the majority culture either.

Issue of Individual Differences

What makes children different, even from the same family? - Genetic Differences - Differences in treatment - Differences in reactions to similar experiences - Different choice of environment/attention

Textbook: Contrast Vygotsky's theory with Piaget's theory

Where Piaget emphasized the child's efforts to understand the world on their own, Vygotsky portrayed children as social learners Piaget viewed children as intent on mastering physical, mathematical, and logical concepts that are the same in all times and places, Vygotsky viewed them as intent on participating in activities that are prevalent in the specific time and place in which they live. Piaget emhpasized abrupt qualitative changes in children's thinking, Vygotsky emphasized gradual continuous changes. Piaget viewed language and thought as dependent, whereas Vygotsky viewed them as integrally related.

content knowledge

With age, knowledge increases - improves recall of new material by making it easier to integrate the new material with existing understanding. - prior content knowledge improves memory for new information in several different ways (improved encoding, memory by providing useful associations) - indicates what is and is not possible and therefore giodes memory in useful directions.

Word Identification

Words can be identified in two main ways: phonological recoding vs. visually based retrieval - *Phonological recoding*: involves converting the visual form of a word into a verbal speech-like form and using the speech-like form to determine the word's meaning - *Visually based retrieval*: processing a word's meaning directly from its visual form Strategy—*choice process*: procedure for selecting among alternative ways of solving problems. - Mechanisms of it involve a form of associative learning, in which children's past behavior shapes their future behavior.

Sexual Minority Youth

Young people who experience same-sex attractions They continue to be discriminated against, both in law and in practice, and are frequent targets for harassment and violence Often feel "different" and some even display cross-gender behaviours from a relatively early age, however, it can take a long time to recognize their sexuality *first recognition* an initial realization that one is somewhat different from others, accompanied by feelings of alienation from oneself and others. Identity disclosure doesnt usually occur until after age 20 depending on cohort. *test and exploration* is the period where an individual may feel ambivalent about their sexual attractions. *identity acceptance*: period of time marked by a preference for social and sexual interaction with other sexual-minority individuals, the development of positive feelings about sexual identity, and the disclosure of sexual identity to family or friends.

object substitution

a form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than itself, e.g turning a broom into a horse

Theory of Mind

ability to infer about other ppl's mental state. how we reason about other ppl's ideas

strategies

acquisition and growth of strategies is another source of memory development - from ages 5-8, children begin to use a number of broadly useful memory strategies (e.g. rehearsal, selective attention)

self-socialization

active process during development whereby children's cognition lead them to perceive the world and to act in accord with their expectations and beliefs. - occurs when children seek to behave in accord wit their gender identity.

sociodramatic play

activities in which children enact miniature dramas with other children or adults, such as "mother comforting baby" - becomes even more sophisticated when playing with a parent or older siblings who can scaffold the play sequence, providing opportunities for learning (e.g. storytelling skills)

autonomous Moraltiy

age 11/12, second stage of moral reasoning - children no longer accept blind obedience to authority as the basis of moral decisions - they understand that rules are the product of social agremen tand can be changed if the majority ofa group agrees to do so.

language mixing

aka Code mixing or code switching phenomenon in which bilingual speakers conversing in one language insert words or phrases from their other language. - a normal aspect of bilingual development and *doesn't reflect confusion* - reflects a gap of knowledge in one language that the child is trying to fill in with the other, rather than a confusing of the two language systems.

overlapping waves theory

an information processing approach that emphasizes the variability of children's thinking; kids usually use a variety of approaches to solve problems. - with age and experience, kids rely increasingly on more advanced strategies(e.g. counting on, faster and more accurate execution of all strategies, children choose among strategies increasingly adaptively) - development involves changes in the frequency of use of existing strategies as well as discovery of new approaches,

stage theories:

approaches proposing that development involves a series of large, discontinuous, age-related phases.

sociocultural theories

approaches that emphasize that other people and the surrounding culture contribute greatly to children's development

Ch.8/9: Discuss children at the extremes of intelligence

children functioning at an extremely high level; extraordinary performance or creativity. - show astonishing early facility in a single area; a smaller number of children are exceptional over a wide range of intellectual areas. - show an intense interest or love of learning. - often foreshadows outstanding later achievement. Students whose verbal test scores exceed their math scores tend to make their largest contribution in the arts, humanities and social sciences vice versa. Not a guarantee of outstanding adult achievement. How to Educate: - enrichment approach: kept at grade level, but enrolled in special programs and given individual activities - accelerated approach: allow gifted students to move ahead at their own pace, skipping grades if needed

Textbook: Consider how observed gender differences in cognitive performance and social interactions can be explained by theories of gender

cognitive theories stress children's active *self-socialization* and *role of environment*

Cross-sectional Designs:

different groups of participants at different ages measured at the same time. - Probably the most common, easiest design method. Advantages: - Can demonstrate age differences - Relatively inexpensive, little time to conduct. - yields useful data about differences among age groups. - quick and easy to administer. Disadvantages: - Age differences may reflect cohort differences, and developmental effects - No Data on individual development - uninformative about stability of individuals and differences in individual children's patterns of pattern. - direction of causation problem - third-variable problem

Sequential Designs:

follow multiple samples of different ages over time - Allows us to make a lot of comparisons; cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cohort comparisons. Advantages: - Can discriminate developmental trends from cohort effects - Can compare developmental trends between cohort effects Disadvantages: - Very time consuming & expensive - Can still leave questions about generalizability beyond test cohorts - Selective attrition, practice effects

Transitional Period

from age 7/8-10; transition from heterogeneous morality of constraint to the next stage. - occurs as children reach the concrete operational stage. - increased social interaction - start to value fairness and equality and begin to become autonomous in their thinking about moral issues

Gender expression:

how a person demonstrates their gender

simulation theory

humans anticipate and make sense of the behavior of others by activating mental processes that, if carried into action, would produce similar behavior. - children use their own emotions to predict what others will do. Therefore, we project our own mental states onto others.

theory of mind

involves the ability to infer & reason about the "mind" or mental states (ability or a skill) - eg, emotions, desires, goals, intentions, knowledge, thoughts, beliefs - in one's self or in someone else - aka "mind"-reading (not ESP), naive psychology, mental state attribution, social perspective taking, role-taking

Observational/Social Learning

learning from watching other people Albert Bandura Bobo Doll Study - does watching aggressive behaviour lead children to act more aggressively

Pretend play:

make believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one

Psychometric approach to Intelligence

measurement of mental abilities, devising tests to measure a person's intelligence relative to others

autobiographical memories

memories of one's own experiences, including one's thoughts and emotions. - overtime become organized into a coherent-ish narrative about one's life

heternomous morality

most characteristics of children who havent reached Piaget's concrete operations stage. - rules are seen as unchangeable "givens"; justice is whatever authorities say is right, and authorities' punishments for noncompliance are always justified Due to two factors: - parent control of children is coercive and unlitateral, eading to children's inquestioning respect for rules set by adults. - children's cognitive immaturity causes the mto believe that rules are "real" things, which exist outside people and are products of the human mind.

Explain how nature and nurture work together to influence development

nature vs. nurture debate is stupid because we need/depend on both. Its nature and nurture. We want to see how they interact.

Sex:

objectively measurable biological organs, hormones, chromosomes (male, female, intersex, etc.)

Gesture-Speech Mismatches

phenomenon in which hand movements and verbal statements convey different ideas. Children's hand gestures reveal that they have somewhat better understanding of mathematical equality than is revealed by their answers or explanations. Children who display mismatches learn more from instruction on mathematical equality than do peers whose gesturing and speech before the instruction were constant.

guided participation

process in which more knowledgeable individuals organize activities in ways that allow others to learn

joint attention

process in which social partners intentionally focus on a common referrent in the external evironment - around 1 year, infants increasingly look towads objects that are the target of their social partners' gaze, even if the partner isn't acting on the objects. Also start to direct a partner's attention toward objects that they find interesting - increases the child's ability to learn from other people. e.g. language learning - enables infants to evaluate the competence of other people and decide when/if to imitate

Ch.8/9: Define dyslexia, and discuss its causes

reading ability is lower than what would be expected based on IQ 5-17% of the population Causes? - Genetics - Old theory: visual impairment - Current theory: phonological deficits - Influence of language --> more for deep/opaque orthographies - See the shape of the word, but glancing at a word quickly makes it easy to mistake this word for a different one - Difficulty with vocabulary development

generativity

refers to the idea that through the use of the finite set of words and morphemes in humans' vocab, we can put together an infinite number of sentences and express an infinite number of ideas.

Conduct Disorder (CD):

repetitive pattern of antisocial behaviour that leads to problems at school/home/in relationships Violate rights of others or societal norms Resistant to treatment Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): disobedience guided by excessive anger, spite, stubbornness (more vindictive than CD)

task analysis

research technique of identifying goals, relevant information in the environment, and potential processing strategies for a problem. - helps researchers understand and predict children's behaviour and to rigorously test precise hypotheses regarding how development occurs

syntax

rules in a language that specify how words from different categories (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) can be combined

Longitudinal Designs:

same participants measured repeatedly across time at different ages. - Second most common method for studying development Advantages: - Can reveal links between early and later experiences/development - Can control for individual differences between participants - Indicates the degree of stability of individual differences over long periods. - reveals individual children's patterns of change over long periods. Disadvantages: - Time consuming and expensive - Selective Attrition: Difficult to keep all participants in study - Cohort effects (generalizability) - Practice Effects: Repeatedly testing children ca threaten external validity of study

Ingroup assimilation:

socialized to confirm to ingroup norms - demonstrating the characteristics that define the group.

Gender role:

societal expectations of gendered behaviour/thoughts/traits.

children as products of their culture

sociocultural theoriests bleive that many of the *processes* that produce development (e.g. guided participation like anallogical problem solving) are the same in all societies. - children's memories of their own experiences reflect their culture (e.g. reports of chinese children's first memory included more references to other people while US.S children included more references to their feelings and reactions.

Ingroup bias:

tendency to evaluate individuals and characteristics of the in-group as superior to those of the out-group

pragmatic development

the acquisition and knowledge of how a language is used.

phonemes

the elementary units of meaningful sounds used to produce languages - e.g. *r*ake vs. *l*ake, only differ in one phoneme but have completely different meanings

phonological development

the first step in children's language learning. - the acquisition of knowledge about the sound system of a language.

syntactic development

the learning of the syntax of a language

semantic development

the learning of the system for expressing meaning in a language including word learning.

intersubjectivity

the mutual understanding that people share during communication. - beleived to be the foundation of human cognitive development - based on the idea that effective communcation requires participants to focus on the same topic, as well as on each other's reaction to what is being commuicated. - evident in early infancy; at 6 months infants can learn novel behaviours though observation

selective attention

the process of intentionally focusing on the information that is most relevant to the current goal - increasingly prevalent in preschool and early elementary years.

rehearsal

the process of repeating information multiple times to aid memory of it.

encoding

the process of representing the memory information that draws attention or is considered important. - memory is very selective; we encode information that draws atttention or that we consider relevant, but fail to encode a geat deal of other stuff. - if info isn't encoded, it's not remembered later.

private speech

the second phase of vygotsky's internalization-of-thought, in which children develop self-regulation and problem solving abilities by telling themselves aloud what to do, much as their parents did in the first stage.

Basic Processes

the simplest and most frequently used mental activities - includes *associating* events with one another. - *recognizing* objects as familiar - *generalizing* from one instance to another. - *encoding* - *improved speed of processing* plays a key role in memory, problem solving, and learning. (increases the most at young ages but continues to increase in adolescence);

morphemes

the smallest units of meaning in a language, composed of one or more phonemes. - e.g. dog has only one morpheme; dogs contains two morphemes dog+s

Microgenetic Designs:

track development over a short period of time, over closely spaced sessions. - Often used to test skill development Advantages: -Can reveal the how and why of specific developmental changes - Can examine development of skills, or effects of interventions Disadvantages: - Experience in study may lead to unnatural/atypical effects (practice effects) - Selective attrition - Often require a lot of time participants

Gender schema filter vs. Interest filter

two filters to process info Gender Schema filter: initial eval. of information as relevent for one's own gender. Interest filter: initial eval. of info as being personally interesting. Accounts for findings that children are often inconsistent in their gender-typed interests.

Ch.13: Summarize trends in adolescent dating/romantic relationships, discuss their functions in development

§ Establish autonomy § Status § Sense of belonging § Feelings of self-worth § Furthering development of gender and/or sexual identity