Psyc 357 Exam 3 on Chapters 7 and 8
what has been found concerning with breaking up?
1.a woman may be better at picking up signs of discontent 2.a woman may be less shocked when the breakup does occur 3.women are more likely than men to blame their partner for the breakup because: -women typically work harder than men do maintain a relationship -when a break up occurs, women may realistically blame their partner for not investing more effort in the relationship
what has been found in concern with Satisfaction During Various Periods of Marriage?
1.a few years after the wedding, many married people report feeling less romantic and more dissatisfied 2.people who have been married 20-24 years tend to be the group that is least satisfied with their marriage 3.marital satisfaction generally improves during the next decade, once the children left home
what has been found concerning with the Psychological Adjustment of Lesbians ?
1.a large number of studies have shown that the average lesbian is as well adjusted as the average heterosexual woman 2.lesbians, gays, and bisexuals who have experienced hate crimes are likely to report problems such as depression, anxiety, and substance abuse 3.lesbians and gay men do not have high rates of psychological dysfunction 4.the research shows that people who accept their lesbian identity have higher self esteem than those who have not accepted their lesbian identity
what has been found concerning satisfaction with marriage?
1.a woman's employment status typically does not influence either her marital satisfaction or the stability of her marriage 2.marital satisfaction is related to other workload related factors -an employed women is usually happier with her marriage if her husband performs a relatively large percentage of the housework -a woman whose husband performs relatively little housework is at risk for depression
what has been found concerning divorce?
1.according to current predictions between 40 and 65 % of first marriages recently taking place in the USA and Canada will eventually end in divorce
what has been found concerning cohabitation and divorce?
1.according to research in the USA and Canada, couples who live together before marriage are more likely to get divorced than those who have not lived together 2.people who live together before marriage are relatively non traditional 3.nontraditional people may also feel fewer constraints about seeking a divorce
what have been the Reactions to Lower Salaries?
1.according to research in the USA and Canada, women specify lower salaries suggesting they are less satisfied with less money 2.both men and women know that women earn lower wages 3.women are typically more concerned about women's lower wages than are 4.women are not especially angry with their salaries -one reason may be that they often fail to acknowledge that they have the right skills for the job
what are Characteristics of Single Women?
1.are highly educated, career oriented individuals 2.allows them to have flexible work hours and geographic mobility 3.have chosen to not marry because they found an ideal partner 4.other research shows that single women and married women are similar in lifespan and both groups tend to live longer than divorced women 5.are generally well adjusted and they are frequently satisfied with their single status
what has been found concerning single women of color?
1.are virtually invisible in psychology research 2.in some communities, unmarried women serve a valuable fashion 3.research shows that many black women prefer to remain single, rather than to marry a man who currently has limited employment possibilities 4.surveys show that asian american single women are frequently expected to fulfill the unmarried daughter role
what has been found concerning with marriage and divorce?
1.college women who are nontraditional tend to say that they will keep their own last name , rather than adopting their husband's last name 2.it's important to keep in mind that the traditions of other countries may be very different
what has been found with latinas and marriage?
1.emphasize that they have an important obligation to their family 2.one of the key concepts that are connected with this ethnicity is machismo 3.most latinas/os report more traditional attitudes than whites or blacks 4.fewer than half of the latinos and latinas believe that marriages should adopt this pattern of inequity in traditional marriages
what has been found concerning mental health for women?
1.employed women are often happier and better adjusted compared to non employed women if their work role is an important part of their positive self concept and if their work allows them some degree of independence 2.many women enjoy the challenge of a difficult take and the enormous pleasure of successfully achieving a long term occupational goal 3.employed women report a greater sense of competence, accomplishment, and life satisfaction compared to non employed women 4.employed women are less likely to be depressed or anxious
what are the attitudes towards single women?
1.experience more housing discrimination 2.most people including some single women are not aware of this singlism bias 3.research shows that college students tend to describe single people as egocentric, lonely, shy, unhappy, insecure, and inflexible -these college students also describe single people as being sociable and friendly so the students do acknowledge some positive characteristics of single people 4.remaining single is currently more respectable than it was earlier eras -one reason is that women in recent years are more likely to be single, partly due to an increase in the number of well educated, economically self-sufficient women 5.many current television programs also represent single women in a positive fashion
what has been found concerning the Characteristics of Lesbian Relationships?
1.for most North Americans lesbian, gay male, bisexual, or heterosexual being in a love relationship is an important determinant of their overall happiness 2.surveys suggest that between 40 and 65 % of lesbians are currently in a steady romantic relationship
what has been found in cross cultural research concerning the ideal romantic partner ?
1.in many developing countries, couples are not expected to marry for love 2.different cultures value somewhat different characteristics in a romantic partner -women are more likely than men to believe that a partner should be well educated and have good financial prospects -men are more likely than women to believe that a partner should be physically attractive
what has been found concerning children?
1.in the USA and Canada most young women expect to combine a career with motherhood 2.most North American mothers do work outside the home
what has been found concerning financial effects of divorce?
1.in the USA, less than half of divorced fathers actually pay the mandated child support 2.black mothers are even more likely than white mothers to face financial problems
(study on breaking up)Choo & her Colleagues (1996)?
asked their respondents to recall how they responded to the end of their love relationship -women and men were equally likely to blame themselves for the breakup -they were also equally likely to take alcohol and drugs following the breakup -men were more likely than women to try to distract themselves from thinking about the breakup -women were somewhat more likely than men to blame their partner for the breakup
what has been found concerning The Workplace Climate for Women in High Prestige Professions ?
1.when women apply for jobs, they may find that they are evaluated in terms of their physical appearance rather than their job related competence 2.after women are hired, they may feel that their male colleagues have negative attitudes toward women and ignore women's contributions
what have been the gender comparisons when it comes to characteristics in heterosexual love relationships?
1.women are significantly more likely than men to report that they had a relationship based on friendship 2.when describing their romantic relationship, women are more likely than men to report commitment, liking, and satisfaction--all positive emotions 3.compare to men, women seem to experience a wider range of both positive and negative emotions 4.both men and women typically say that the essential features of their love relationships are trust, caring,honesty, and respect 5.both men and women also report similar strategies for maintaining romantic relationship, such as acting cheerful toward the partner and expressing love for this person
individuals can have an impact on their own work experiences as well as on the experiences of other women by?
1.women should be aware of the conditions in which stereotypes are least likely to operate 2.Join relevant organizations, use the internet, and make connections with other supportive people 3.Locate someone who has achieved success in your profession; ask whether she could serve as your mentor
what are Characteristics of women in High Prestige Professions?
1.women who work in stereotypically masculine occupations are similar to men in those areas 2.to some extent, these similarities may occur because these those women with personal characteristics appropriate for that occupation would choose it for a career and persist in it 3.women and men in the same profession tend to be similar in cognitive skills
Sticky Floor
describes the situation of women who are employed in low level dead end jobs with no chance of promotion 1.in fact these women have no opportunity to even see the entrance to a labyrinth, let alone reach the glass ceiling
Glass Escalator
applies to men who enter fields that are often associated with women such as nursing, teaching, library science, and social work; in these occupations, men are often quickly promoted to management positions
Intersectionality
argues that it's important to consider several social categories together rather than independently
Social Constructionist Approach
argues that our culture creates sexual categories which we use to organize our thoughts about our sexuality 1.sexual orientation is not a fundamental aspect of an individual that must be acquired either before birth or in early childhood 2.propose that based on life experiences and cultural messages, most north american women initially construct heterosexual identities for themselves 3.argues that sexuality is both fluid and flexible 4.some lesbians believe that their sexual orientation is truly beyond their conscious control -these women considered themselves different from other females at an early age usually when they were between 6 and 12 years old
Comparable Worth
argues that women and men should receive equal pay for different jobs when those different jobs are comparable that is when the jobs require equal training and equal ability
(study of reactions to lower salaries)Rester (2001)?
asked 1000 men and women a variety of questions that focused on anger -she found that 62% of the women and 38% of the men agree with the statement "it makes me angry when men have greater job opportunities and rewards than women
(study on cross cultural research concerning the ideal romantic partner)Hartfield & Sprecher (1995)?
asked college students in the USA, Russia, and Japan to rate a number of characteristics that might be important in selecting a marriage partner -women in all 3 cultures are more likely than men to emphasize financial prospects in a spouse -men in all 3 cultures are more likely than women to emphasize physical attractiveness
(study on breaking up)Choo & her Coauthors (1996)?
asked college students to think back on a romantic relationship that had broken up and to assess their emotional reactions immediately after the break up -men and women reported similar negative emotions (anxiety, sadness, and anger) as well as similar guilt -women felt more joy and relief following the breakup -women are usually more sensitive to potential problems in a relationship -women may anticipate a breakup, and they worry about potential danger signs
(study on The Psychological Adjustment of Lesbians)Rothblum & Factor (2001)?
did a study in where they compared the mental health of 184 pairs of lesbian women and their biological sisters who were heterosexual -each lesbian woman in the study resembles a well matched heterosexual woman -results showed that the two groups were equivalently well adjusted, except that the lesbian women were higher in self esteem
(study on martial Satisfaction)U.S. Census Bureau (2008)?
did a study of women who are 15 and older who label their status as married and divorced in 4 major ethnic groups of U.S. residents -for European American women, 51% were married and 11% were divorced -for Latina women, 59 % were married and 10% were divorced -for black women, 37% were married and 14% were divorced -For Asian women, 65% were married, and 6% were divorced
according to the current federal law in the USA concerning affirmative action?
every company that has more than 50 employees must establish an affirmative action plan
Person-Centered Explanations
female socialization encourages women to develop personality traits and skills that are appropriate for these male occupations
(study on single women)U.S census Bureau (2005)?
found that 21 % of women- 18 years of age and older have never married
(study on single women of color)U.S Census Bureau (2005)?
found that 24 % of latina women and 37% of black women have never married in contrast to only 18 % of european american women
(study on marriage ) Bureau Statistics of Labor (2008)?
found that 52% of married couples in the USA, both the wife and the husband are employed
(study on Employment in Traditionally Female Occupations) Statistics Canada (2004)?
found that 70 % of all employed women worked in teaching, health care occupations, and sales or service occupations and 31% of all employed men worked in one of these 3 places
(study on children)Statistics Canada (2008)?
found that 73% of mothers with children under the age of 16 are currently employed
(study on asian american women and marriage)Chan (2003)?
found that Asian American parents expect their children to marry someone from their own ethnic group and the children typically do so
(study of affirmative action) Crosby et al (2003)?
found that U.S. companies with affirmative action programs do indeed have greater workplace equality for women and people of color
(study on children)Riggs (2001)?
found that a substantial number plan to give up Their career once they have children
(study on financial effects of divorce) Rice (2001a)
found that a woman's financial situation is almost always worse following a divorce especially if she has children
(study on Employment in Traditionally Female Occupations) United Nations (2000)?
found that about 80% of women in western europe work in service occupations, but in sub-saharan africa, 65% of the women in the labor force work in agriculture
(studies of affirmative action )Blau et al (2006); Crosby et al (2003)?
found that according to a study of 3000 affirmative action court cases, only 3 cases represented had to do with reverse discrimination
(study of affirmative action)Hurtado (2005)?
found that affirmative action can provide an advantage for white people because white individuals actually learn more cognitive skills and conflict resolution skills if they interact frequently with people from other ethnic groups
(study on marriage and divorce)U.S. Census Bureau (2005)?
found that as of 2003, 63% of U.S. Women were married, a decrease from earlier eras
(study on latina and marriage )Beckmann et al (1999)?
found that both Latina women and Latino men believe that they can effectively influence their partners by being honest and by talking with each other
(study in discrimination in salaries )Statistics Canada (2006)?
found that canadian women who worked full time earned only 71% of the average annual salary of men
(study on single women of color)Tucker & James (2005)?
found that compared to other women, there is more research on black women who are single especially because they spend a longer proportion of their lives as singles
(study on equity on lesbian relationships)Garnets (2008)?
found that couples are happier if both members of the pair contribute equally to the decision making
(study on Satisfaction During Various Periods of Marriage)Bachand & Caron (2001)?
found that couples that have been married at least 35 years also report relatively little conflict in their relationship -the reasons for this increased satisfaction are not clear, but they may include factors such as reduced conflict over parenting issues after the children leave home as well as an increase in economic resources
(study on divorce) Deveny (2008)?
found that divorce rates are lowest for people who have completed college
(study on physical health of women)Crosby & Sabattini (2006)?
found that employed women are healthier than nonemployed women
studies of access discrimination Lawless & Fox (2005); Powell & Graves (2003)?
found that employers and career placement consultants select men for jobs when most of the current employees are male and they select women when most of the employees are female
(study of access discrimination)Powell & Graves (2003)?
found that employers will hire a man rather than a woman when both candidates are not especially qualified for a job and in contrast employers are less likely to discriminate against a woman if they have abundant information that she is well qualified and her experienced is directly relevant to the proposed job
(study on taking care of children) Stone (2007)?
found that fathers tend to spend their child care time playing with their children whereas mothers are in charge of tasks such as diapering and discipline
(study on the workplace climate for women in high prestige professions) Kuck et al (2007)?
found that female scientists are much less likely than men to be hired by prestigious universities
(study on the Beginning of a Relationship for lesbians) M.S. Schneider (2001)?
found that for many young women, a romantic relationship is a major milestone in coming out and identifying as a lesbian
(study on Employment in Traditionally Female Occupations) Burn (1996)?
found that in 2 countries from africa like Sierra Leone, men are responsible for the rice fields but in senegal women managed the rice fields
(study on marriage and divorce)Raj, Gomez, & Silverman (2008)?
found that in Afghanistan more than half of the females are married before they are 16, and about ¾ of young women have arranged marriages
(study on financial effects of divorce)Gorlick (1995)
found that in Canada ⅔ of divorced single mothers and their children live in poverty
(study on single women of color)Flores-Ortiz (1998)?
found that in chicana (mexican american culture), an unmarried daughter is expected to take care of her elderly parents or to help out with nieces and nephews
(study on sweatshops)Bilbao (2003)?
found that in latin america, a young women may earn only 16 cents an hour, which cannot cover the cost of her food and housing
(study on traditional Marriage)Amato et al (2003)?
found that in recent decades most U.S. and Canadian marriages are some what less traditional moving closer to an egalitarian marriage
(studies in discrimination in salaries )Blau & Kahn (2006); Dey & Hill (2007)?
found that in the USA and canada demonstrated that women are simply paid less than men even when other factors are taken into account
(study on children)Bureau of Labor Statistics (2008a)?
found that in the USA, 71% of mothers with children under the age of 18 are currently unemployed
(study on marriage and divorce)Surra et al (2004)?
found that in the USA, the average ages for a first marriage are somehow 25 years for women and 27 years for men
(study on factors related to satisfaction with the relationship)Hatfield & Rapson (1993)?
found that in their romantic relationship, women and men have similar self disclosure patterns
(study on breaking up)Place et al (2009)?
found that it's easier to detect romantic interest in a man's facial expression, compared to a woman's facial expression
(study on equity on lesbian relationships)Peplau & Fingerhut (2007)?
found that lesbian couples are especially likely to emphasize that housework should be divided fairly
(study on The Psychological Adjustment of Lesbians)I.L. Meyer (2003)?
found that lesbian women are typically not at greater risk for suicide than heterosexual women
(study on the Beginning of a Relationship for lesbians) Peplau & Beals (2004)?
found that lesbian women want many of the same qualities in a romantic partner that heterosexual women emphasize -these include characteristics such as dependability and good personality
(study on The Psychological Adjustment of Lesbians)Garnets (2008)?
found that lesbians and heterosexual women are similar on almost all psychological dimensions except that lesbians often score higher on positive characteristics such as being self sufficient, being self confident, and making decisions easil
(study on The Psychological Adjustment of Lesbians)Beals & Peplau (2005)?
found that lesbians are more satisfied with their lives and less depressed if their family and friends support their lesbian identity
(study of reactions to lower salaries) Bylsma & Major (1992)?
found that male and female undergraduates who received no additional information provided very different salary requests -specifically men asked for an average of $6.30, whereas women asked for an average of $5.30
(studies on other kinds of treatment discrimination)Baslow (2004); Baslow et al (2006)?
found that male students are more likely than female students to give their female college professors poor ratings on their teaching performance and classroom interactions
(study on Characteristics of women in High Prestige Professions)Hartman and Hartman (2007)?
found that males and females also tend to be similar in their attitude toward working in groups rather than working alone
(study on single women of color)Ferguson (2000)?
found that many asian american women reported that they choose to remain single because they want to pursue an advanced education or because they have not found an appropriate marriage partner
(study on latina and marriage )Molinary (2007)?
found that many latinas emphasize that their catholic faith inspires them to help other people
(studies of sexual orientation) Badgett (2008); Hambright & Decker (2002)?
found that many lesbians say they spend so much energy trying to hide their sexual orientation that their work is less productive
(study on divided house responsibilities) Reiser (2001)?
found that many men do not acknowledge how little housework they do; only 52% of men in one study agreed with the statement men typically don't do their share of work around the house
(study on Employment in Traditionally Female Occupations) Lovell et al (2007)?
found that many of these workers earn wages that are below the poverty level even if they have worked for more than 25 years
(study on the decision to divorce)Levitt & Ware (2006)?
found that many religious leaders in the USA, believe that divorce should be the last resort for a woman who has been abused
(study on satisfaction with marriage) R.C Barnett & Hyde (2001)?
found that marriages are more stable if the woman is employed
(study on Characteristics of women in High Prestige Professions)Cross (2001)?
found that men and women in science and engineering had earned similar scores on standardized test as well as similar grades in graduate school
(study of reactions to lower salaries)Hogue & Yoder (2003)?
found that men asked for an average of $10.27, whereas women asked for an average of $7.48
(study on divided house responsibilities) Coltrane & Adams (2008)?
found that men seldom take responsibility for noticing when a household task needs to be done; instead the typical husband waits for his wife to remind him
(study on cohabitation and divorce)Smock & Gupta (2002)?
found that more than half of first marriages in the USA, couples had lived together before marriage
(study on lesbian color of women)Dube et al (2001)?
found that nonwhite sexual minorities are typically more worried than white sexual minorities that their parents will reject them because of their sexual orientation
(study on the satisfaction in lesbian relationships)Balsam et al (2008)?
found that other research shows that lesbian couples have stronger relationship quality and fewer conflicts than heterosexual married couples
(study on characteristics of single women)Huston & Metz (2004)?
found that other women remain single because they believe that happy marriages are difficult to achieve
(studies of access discrimination)Hopkins (2007); Phelan et al. (2008); Rhode & Williams (2007)?
found that people believe that strong assertive women are not socially skilled and as a result these women may not be hired
(study on Satisfaction During Various Periods of Marriage)Noller & Feeney (2002)?
found that people may realize that they had different expectations for marriage
(study on factors related to satisfaction with the relationship) Schmookler & Bursik (2007)?
found that people who are emotionally and sexually faithful to their romantic partners also tend to be more satisfied with their relationships
(study of sexual orientation)Badgett (2008)?
found that people who are open and accepting of their gay identity are higher in self esteem
(study of access discrimination) Harville & Rienzi (2000)?
found that people who consider themselves strongly religious are likely to have negative attitudes toward employed women
(study on the advantages and disadvantages of being single)B.M. Depaulo & Morris (2005)?
found that single women also have more freedom to choose the people with whom they want to spend time
(study on the advantages and disadvantages of being single)Lee & Bhargava (2004)?
found that single women are more likely than married women to spend their time in leisure activities, travel, and social get togethers
(study on characteristics of single women) Bureau Statistics of Labor (2004b)?
found that single women are slightly more likely than married women to work outside the home
(study on Attitudes Toward Single Women) Byrne & Carr (2005)?
found that single women reported that they received less respect and poorer services at restaurants, compared to married women
(study on characteristics of single women)Byrne (2009)?
found that single women score higher than married women on measures of independence and some research shows that they have lower rates of psychological disorders
(study on characteristics of single women)N.F. Marks (1996)?
found that single, never married women typically receive the same scores as married women on tests that measure psychological distress
(study on other kinds of treatment discrimination)J.Miller & Chamberlin (2000)?
found that students often assume that their male professors have had more education than their female professors
(study on other kinds of treatment discrimination)Arbuckle & Williams (2003)?
found that students rate young male professors as more conscientious and interested in their material, compared to young female professors
(study on other kinds of treatment discrimination)Sprague & Massoni (2005)?
found that students think that their male professors should be entertaining, but their female professors should be caring and nurturing
(studies of access discrimination)Masser & Abrams (2004); Powell & Graves (2003)?
found that supervisors who endorse traditional gender roles tend to avoid hiring women
(study on sexual minority)Pawelski et al (2006)?
found that the U.S. census from 2000 reported that same gender couples live in 99.3% of all the counties within the USA
(study on marriage and divorce)Statistics Canada (2006)?
found that the average Years for a first marriage are 28 years for women and 30 years for men
(study in discrimination in salaries )E.F. Murphy (2005)?
found that the average female college graduate will earn 1.2 million less during her lifetime than the average male college graduate if both of them work full time
(study of access discrimination) Birchard (2004)?
found that the canadian government designed a program of awarding research grants to attract outstanding professors to canadian universities and 17% of the 1000 awards that were handed out were for female, although 26% of all the full time canadian faculty members were female
(study on divorce) Statistics Canada (2006)?
found that the divorce rate in Canada is now about 4 times as high as it was in 1968
(study on breaking up in lesbian relationships)Diamond (2006)?
found that when Relationships end, both lesbian and heterosexual women report some negative emotions and some positive emotions
(studies on other kinds of treatment discrimination) Laube et al (2007); Wilbers et al (2003)?
found that when students address their female professors who have PhD degrees, they are likely to call them Miss or Mrs instead of Dr.
(study on gender comparisons in martial satisfaction)Vangelisti (2006)?
found that women are more likely than men to wish that they could change some aspects of their marriage
(study on gender comparisons in martial satisfaction)Amato et al (2007)?
found that women are most sensitive than men to problems in their marital relationships
(study on marriage and divorce)Blakemore et al (2005)?
found that women are significantly more likely than men to eagerly anticipate getting married
(study on breaking up)Fletcher & Boyes (2008)?
found that women tend to better mind readers than men
(study on the psychological effects of divorce) Baca Zinn & Eitzen (2002)?
found that women who felt constrained by an unhappy marriage may also feel relief
(study on Satisfaction During Various Periods of Marriage) Karney & Bradbury (2004)?
found that young married couples are probably the happiest people in any group
(study of north american research concerning the ideal romantic partner)Burn & Ward (2005)?
found that: -college women were more satisfied with their romantic relationships if their male partner was low in traditionally masculine characteristics
(study of north american research concerning the ideal romantic partner)Urbaniak & Kilmann (2003)?
found that: -female undergraduates were much more likely to prefer a man who said he was kind and attentive and doesn't go for all that macho stuff rather than a man who said he knew how to get what he wants and doesn't go in for all that touchy feely stuff
(Study of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment) According to the Bureau Statistics of Labor (2010d)?
found that: - in 1970, 43% of women over the age of 16 were employed and now that percentage has increased to 65% -there was a comparable percentage in canada 67% -some employment rates for women in other countries are 59% in japan, 59% in france, and 65% in sweden
(study of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment) according to Student Demographics (2010)?
found that: -49% of U.S.medical school graduates are women -47% of U.S. law school graduates are women
(study of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment )According to Statistics Canada (2006)?
found that: -75% of women with a university degree are currently employed, compared to 37% of women who had attended high school but had not graduated
(Studies of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment )Berger (2004); Naidoo (2000)?
found that: -immigrant women face different barriers to employment such as not being fluent in the language of their new country, and their educational degrees, professional licenses and work experience in another country may not be given full credit when they apply for a North American job
(study of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment )According to Finnie et al (2005)?
found that: -immigrants from some countries are relatively well educated -of asian women in canada, 47% have had at least some university education in contrast to only 30%of women who list their ethnicity as canadians
(studies of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment ) Berger (2004); Heese-Biber & Carter (2000)?
found that: -immigrants salaries are significantly lower than nonimmigrants with comparable training
(study in discrimination in salaries )Powell & Graves (2003)?
found that: -in great britain, switzerland and germany, women earn between 65 and 75 % of men's pay, - in japan, women earn 50% of men's pay, -in norway, denmark, and australia, women earn close to 90% of men's pay
(Studies of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment) Naidoo (2000); Phizacklea (2001)?
found that: -many immigrant women have little formal education -are more likely to find low paying work on the assembly line or in domestic settings
(study of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment )According to Deaux (2006)?
found that: -many immigrants experience discrimination because current North American residents are concerned about competition for jobs
(studies of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment )Bureau of Labor Statistics (2008a); Halpern (2006)?
found that: -the current U.S. data show that women with preschool children do not differ from other women in their rate of employment -ethnicity is not strongly related to participation in the labor force
(study of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment) According to DeFour (2008)?
found that: -women of color are underrepresented in most high salary occupations
(study of north american research concerning the ideal romantic partner)Collins & Steinburg (2006)?
found that: -young adolescents tend to emphasize physical attributes -older adolescents emphasize their compatibility with their partner
(study on the decision to divorce) Enright (2004)?
had a survey that focused on men and women who had experienced a divorce when they were between 40 and 69 years old -results showed that 66% of women said that they had asked for a divorce in contrast to 41% of men -14% of women said that their spouse's request for a divorce had surprised them in contrast to 26% of men
(study of sexual orientation)Horvath & Ryan (2003)?
had undergraduates judged the qualifications of a potential job applicant using a scale from 0-100 -the descriptions of the job applicant's characteristics were identical except for gender and sexual orientation -the results showed that the students give a rating of 85 to the heterosexual man, 81 to the gay men, 80 to the lesbian woman, and 76 to the heterosexual woman
(study in discrimination in salaries )Dey & Hill (2007)?
have found that men with associate degrees earn about $200 more each year than women with bachelor's degree
one of the best predictors of women's employment is?
her educational background
(study of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment) According to the National Committee On Pay Equity (2010)?
if we consider all full time U.S. workers who work during the entire year--women earn 77% of the wages men earn
the number of women has dramatically increased in what?
in some fields that were once reserved for men
TANF(Temporary Assistance for Needy Families)
includes many regulations that jeopardize economically poor women 1.individuals can only receive for a lifetime maximum of 5 years 2.the long term goal should be for a mother to earn enough money for the family to be self-sufficient 3.very few families manage to meet this goal 4.each of the 50 states is allowed to decide which individuals are desperate enough to need financial assistance 5.has had tragic consequences for many women such as: -consider those former recipients who are currently employed; the majority of these women still live below the U.S. federal poverty line -women in most states are specifically discouraged from pursuing education beyond the level of high school 6.the current policy has not solved the employment problem and it also has consequences for the children of these women -if the mothers are poorly educated, then their children are likely to have more cognitive and behavioral problems
(study on The Fluidity of Female Sexual Orientation ) Lisa M. Diamond (2002, 2003b, 2005)?
interviewed 80 women between the ages of 18-25 who had identified themselves as nonheterosexual women - a term that can include lesbian and bsexual women -continued to interview these women over a period of 8 years -of the women who had identified themselves as lesbians in the first interview, some describe a classic development of their lesbian identity -Stable Lesbians-had focused on girls and women during childhood, and this interest continue during adolescence -a large number of women in the study could be classified as Fluid Lesbians-because they had questioned or changed their lesbian identity at some point -many of the women in the study emphasize that they disliked having to fit themselves into someone else's labels or categories -by 2005, ⅔ of the women in the sample had considered themselves to be unlabeled at some period of time in their lives
(study on the Social Constructionist Approach)Celia Kitzinger & Sue Wilkinson (1997)?
interviewed 80 women who had previously identified themselves as heterosexuals for at least 10 years and who at the time study, strongly identified themselves as lesbians -these women reported how they reevaluated their lives in making this transition
Heterosexism
is a belief system that devalues lesbians, gay males, and bisexual
Sweatshop
is a factory that violates labor laws regarding wages and working conditions 1.about half of all the clothing you purchase in the USA was made in another country, typically under extremely poor working conditions 2.in latin america they are called Maquiladoras/Maquilas and they are typically run by U.S. corporations 3.these sweatshop workers cannot earn an education, save money, or train for a better job 4.the women who worked in these workshops often experience sexual harassment and physical abuse
Bisexual Woman
is a woman who is psychologically, emotionally, and sexually attracted to both women and men
Lesbian
is a woman who is psychologically, emotionally, and sexually attracted to other women 1.most lesbians prefer the term lesbian to the term homosexual -they argue that lesbian acknowledges the emotional components of the relationship, whereas homosexual focuses on sexuality 2.in North American culture an important consequence of heterosexism is that many people judge heterosexual relationships to be different from lesbians, gay, and bisexual relationships 3.an important point is that lesbians are no longer invisible to researchers in psychology
Glass Ceiling
is an invisible but rigid barrier that seems to prevent women and people of color reaching the top levels in many professional organizations
Occupational Segregation
is when men and women tend to choose different occupations
Reverse Discrimination
is when someone from a underrepresented group gets hired instead of a high qualify person
the goal of affirmative action is to?
make sure that fully qualified women and people of color are given a fair compensate for the past or present discrimination
Denial of Personal Disadvantage
many women are reluctant to acknowledge that they personally are the victims of discrimination
Affirmative Action
means that an employer must take special efforts to consider qualified members of underrepresented groups during hiring as well as decisions about salary and promotion -also means that the employer has actively worked to remove any barriers that prevent genuine equality of opportunity
Dating
means that two people are romantically involved and spend substantial amounts of time together
Social Roles Approach
men and women often occupy different social roles; they are also socialized differently and they experience different social opportunities and social disadvantages 1.research demonstrates that women are especially likely to prefer high income men if they live in countries where women have limited educational and financial opportunities 2.contrary to the predictions of evolutionary psychology, culture does affect mate preferences
Dynamical Systems Approach
proposes that a woman may experience new sexual feelings that occur in specific situations and then she thinks about these experiences -if these cycles of sexual feelings and interpretations keep occurring, this woman eventually creates a new perspective about her sexuality -an appropriate model of female sexual orientation needs to focus on how women's sexual orientation may change over time
Sexual Minority
refer to anyone (female or male) who has a same gender attraction
Singlism
refers to bias against people who not married
Access Discrimination
refers to discrimination used in hiring
Treatment Discrimination
refers to the discrimination that women encounter after they obtained a job
Romantic Love
refers to the intense attachments formed between people who are in love, including feelings of wanting to merge with another person, sexual attraction, and the desire to protect the other's welfare
Working Women
refers to two categories which are: a)Employed Women-women who work for pay -may receive a salary or be self-employed b)Nonemployed Women-women are not paid for their work -they may do work for their families in their own homes or for volunteer organizations but they receive no money for these services
Sexual Harassment
refers to unwanted gender related behavior such as sexual coercion, offensive sexual attention, sexual touching, and hostile verbal and physical behaviors that focus on gender 1.women convey this kind of treatment discrimination when other workers convey the message that women are sexual objects or incompetent employees
(study on Characteristics of women in High Prestige Professions)Lubinski & his colleagues (2001)?
sent questionnaires to males and females enrolled in the most prestigious U.S. graduate programs in math and science -the males and females reported highly similar academic experiences and attitudes toward their future careers
(study on divided house responsibilities) Bureau Statistics of Labor (2004)?
studied a U.S. sample of 21,000 women and men -results showed that women in white, latina/o, and black families spend more time than men on housework
(study on factors related to satisfaction with the relationship)Laurie Rudman & Julie Phelan (2007)?
studied a group of college students and a group of older adults all whom were in heterosexual relationships -all participants provided information about their own attitudes toward feminism as well as the feminist attitudes of their partner -in both groups the women who feminist romantic partners tended to report more stable relationships as well as greater sexual satisfaction in comparison to women with non feminist partners -in the older group of males, men who had feminist partners tended to report more stable relationships as well as greater sexual satisfaction in comparison to men with non feminist partners
Machismo
that belief that men must show their manhood by being strong, sexual and even violent clearly dominant over women in relationships -emphasizes that men should not do housework
Marianismo
the belief that women must be chaste until marriage; they must also be passive and long suffering, giving up their own needs to help their husbands and children -is based on the catholic representation of the Virgin Mary who serves as the most important role model for Latina women
Situation-Centered Explanations
the characteristics of the organizational situation explain why women are rarely employed in these traditionally male occupations; personal skills or traits cannot be blamed
Traditional Marriage
the husband is more dominant than the wife and both partners maintain traditional gender roles 1.wife can make most of the decisions about housework and child care but the husband has the ultimate authority in family decisions 2.the husband protects the wife and he also controls the money 3.are especially common among people from a conservative religious background
Evolutionary-Psychology Approach
various species gradually change over the course of many generations so that they can adapt better to their environment 1.a basic principle of this approach is that both men and women have an evolutionary advantage if they succeed in passing on their genes to the next generation 2.evolutionary psychologists argue that their approach can explain why men and women have somewhat different views about ideal mates -men should prefer young, attractive, healthy-looking women because those women are most likely to be fertile -women try to select a partner who will be committed to a long term relationship -women must make sure that their children are provided with financial resources 3.evolutionary psychologists emphasize that culture has little influence on gender differences in mate selection
several decades ago, one of the best predictors of a woman's employment was ?
whether she had young children
Role Strain
which occurs when people have difficulty fulfilling all their different role obligations 1.according to research in the USA, employed mothers in every ethnic group experience some kind of role strain between their jobs and their family responsibilities
Entitlement
with respect to salary, men have a greater sense based on their membership in the male social group, they believe that they have a right to high rewards
Labyrinth Metaphor
women in search of a promotion will encounter many difficulties along the route, including dead ends, detours,and puzzling pathways 1.to successfully reach the goal at the end of the labyrinth women must be extremely competent and they also need to develop flexible strategies that blend warmth and compassion with strength and decisiveness
(study of Background Factors Related to Women's Employment) according to Bureau Statistics of Labor (2000b)?
-found that: -U.S. women with at least a Master's degree are much more likely than women with less than 4 years of high school to be employed outside the home
(study on social roles approach)Pedersen et al (2002)?
-in a study at a California university, 99% of female students and also 99% of male students said that they planned to be in a long term relationship with just one sexual partner
what has been found concerning the Legal Status of Lesbian Relationship?
-as of 2010. Same gender marriages are permitted in canada, netherlands, belgium, iceland, sweden, norway, portugal, spain, argentina , and south africa -a more limited partnership is legally recognized in countries such as austria, hungary, denmark, and switzerland -in the US, attitudes toward lesbians and gay marriages have been growing more positive
affirmative action specifies that?
-companies must encourage applications from the underrepresented groups based on ethnicity and gender -companies must make a good faith effort to meet the affirmative action goals they have set
(study on the satisfaction in lesbian relationships) Lawrence Kurdek (1995)?
-did a survey that measures relationship commitment -the sample of lesbian couples had commitment scores that were similar to the scores of married couples -results showed that the lesbian couples were more committed to the relationship than were heterosexual couples who were dating, but not living togethe
researchers have found a variety of psychological characteristics that are correlated with happy stable marriages such as?
-emotional stability -good communication skills and understanding -a greater number of positive comments and expressions of affection, rather than negative comments and responses -strong conflict resolution skills -trust in the other person -mutual support -the belief that each spouse is genuinely concerned about the other person's well being -flexibility -equal sharing of childcare and household tasks -equal sharing in decision making
people's stereotypes about women may operate in several ways to produce access discrimination such as?
-employers might have negative stereotypes about women's abilities -employers may assume that the candidate must have certain stereotypically masculine characteristics to succeed on the job -employers may pay attention to inappropriate characteristics when female candidates are being interviewed
several factors determine whether women face access discrimination when they apply for work such as?
-employers who have strong gender stereotypes are more likely to demonstrate access discrimination -access discrimination is particularly likely to operate when the applicant's qualifications are ambiguous -employers often discriminate against women candidates who are assertive rather than feminine -access discrimination is particularly likely to operate when women apply for a prestigious position -access discrimination often operates for both women and men when they apply for gender inappropriate jobs
(study in discrimination patterns in hiring )Rhea Steinpreis & her colleagues (1999)?
-wrote to psychology professors asking them to evaluate the qualifications of a potential candidate -all the professors received the same identical resume -half of the resumes used the name Karen Miller and the other half used the name Brian Miller -found that of those who thought the candidate was female, 45% said that they would hire her and of those who thought the candidate was male,75% said they would hire him -it was also found that female professors were just as likely as male professors to demonstrate this biased hiring pattern
what has been found on the psychological effects of divorce?
1.is especially painful because it creates so many different kinds of transitions and separations in addition to the separation from a former spouse 2.when a woman is divorced she may be separated from friends and relatives previously shared by the couple 3.is one of the most stressful changes a person can experience 4.depression and anger are often common responses, especially for women 5.mothers typically need to help children cope with the reality of divorce 6.many women also report that their divorce lets them know they are stronger than they had thought 7.some say that the divorce actually had some long range positive effects
what has been found concerning lesbian women of color ?
1.lesbians of color often comment that they face a triple barrier in U.S society: -their ethnicity -their gender -their sexual orientation 2.many lesbians of color face an extra barrier because their culture has even more traditional views of women than does mainstream european american culture 3.another issue is that some cultures may be more traditional than european american culture with respect to discussing their sexuality 4.many conservative heterosexual people of color believe that only european americans face the problem of having gays and lesbians
what are ways we know Lesbians frequently face heterosexism in the workplace?
1.many employers refuse to hire individuals who are known to be gay 2.public schools often discriminate against lebians, gays, or bisexuals as teachers -the unjustable argument is that these individuals may try to persuade young people to adopt a nonhetersexual orientation 3.in some parts in the USA, employers can fire employees for any reason they choose, including being a lesbian or gay male 4.several studies have shown that lesbian workers earn higher salaries than heterosexual female workers -one explanation is that lesbians are almost twice as likely as married women to have at least a bachelor's degree, and education is correlated with a person's income -another explanation is that lesbians are more likely than other women to pursue nontraditional careers, which also pay better than traditionally feminine careers
what has been found concerning maternal employment and children?
1.many people respond negatively to nontraditional families with mothers employed full time -they also tend to believe that a mother's employment has a negative impact on her children 2.mothers who do not work outside the home also believe that children are harmed by their mother's employment 3.research has found that the cognitive development of children who have been in a daycare setting is similar to that of children cared for by their mother at home 4.when low income families have high quality day care, the children score higher on cognitive tasks compared to children cared for at home 5.children who spend more time in daycare interact slightly more negative with their playmates 6.children in high quality day care are generally more cooperative and they have fewer behavioral problems compared to home care children 7.research shows that employed mothers tend to encourage their children to be independent
what has been found concerning domestic work?
1.many women that immigrant to north america, come to live and work in private homes, doing child care and other domestic work until they can earn a green card, which will allow them to find better jobs 2.women may be expected to work everyday with time off and no health insurance for a fraction of the minimum wage salary 3.many of the women report that their employers insult them, do not let them leave the house and treat them like modern day slaves 4.many immigrant domestic workers do not know their legal rights
what are the Characteristics of Bisexual Women?
1.often comment that the nature of their attraction to women and men may differ -bisexuality creates a flexible identity 2.they seem to be similar to other women 3.bisexual and lesbian women are equally satisfied with their lives and with their current sexual identity 4.bisexuals who come from a background of mixed ethnicity often find that their mixed heritage is consistent with their bisexuality
what have been the Attitudes Toward Bisexual Women?
1.often report that they have been both rejected by both the hetereosexual and the lesbian communties 2.heterosexuals rate bisexual women more negatively than they rate lesbian women 3.many heterosexuals also believe that bisexuals are frequently unfaithful to their partners 4.lesbians often argue that bisexual women are buying into heterosexism and therefore deny that they are lesbians 5.both heterosexuals and lesbians often to fail to understand women who classify themselves as bisexuals
what has been found concerning physical health for women ?
1.only one group of women has substantial health problems: women who have low paying or unrewarding jobs, several children, and or an unsupportive husband
what are Factors Related to Satisfaction with the Relationship?
1.other research suggests that both men and women are more satisfied with a love relationships if it is based on friendship 2.people who have friendship-based relationship also report a greater degree of reciprocal understanding 3.relationships that are based from friendship lasted longer 4.both men and women are more satisfied with their love relationship if both partners are skilled at expressing their emotions
what has been found in north american research concerning the ideal romantic partner?
1.other researcher confirms that physical appearance is extremely important when people first meet a potential romantic partner 2.also attractiveness and slimness are especially important when men are judging women 3.several systematic studies of personal ads in both the USA and Canada confirm that men are more likely than women to emphasize physical attractiveness in describing an ideal partner 4.women are more likely than men to emphasize the financial status of an ideal partner 5.research also shows that both men and women tend to specify that an ideal partner should be warm, romantic, kind, sensitive, and also have a good sense of humor
what has been found concerning with taking care of children?
1.research suggest that North American fathers have substantially increased their child care responsibilities since similar studies were conducted 30 years ago 2.researchers conclude that mothers perform most of the child care 3.if we combine the hours spent on housework and the hours spent on child care, we see that mothers devote many more hours working in the home in comparison to fathers 4.when fathers perform a high proportion of child care, children show greater cognitive and social skills, higher self esteem, and they have fewer behavioral problems than when fathers seldom provide child care
what has been found concerning Biological Explanations of sexual orientation?
1.researchers who favor biological explanations are much more likely to study gay men than lesbian women 2.other research examines humans to determine whether genetic factors, hormonal factors, or brain structures determine sexual orientation 3.some of the research suggests that a particular region on the X chromosome may contain genes for homosexuality 4.biological factors may be responsible for a small part of women's sexual orientation, however relatively few studies examine either lesbians or bisexual women
what has been found concerning with black women and marriage?
1.researches have often criticized black women for working outside the home and for being strong figures in their own homes 2.the research does support the idea that black couples may be more egalitarian than couples from some other ethnic backgrounds 3.most of these families are close to the egalitarian model
what has been found on employment in traditionally female occupations?
1.roughly half of all female professional or technical workers are in traditional areas such as nursing and pre college training 2.women in traditionally female jobs struggle with problems such as: -low income -underutilization of abilities -lack of independence in decision making 3.it is important to know that the work considered traditional for women may be quite different in developed countries 4.we even see different work patterns within the same continent 5.the only characteristic that all these female traditionally occupations have in common is that its low pay
what has been found on divided house responsibilities?
1.several studies in the USA suggest that men do somewhat more housework if they are married to employed women 2.women are more likely than men to do the cooking, cleaning, laundry, dishwashing, and shopping 3.U.S. Women in the 3 largest ethnic groups do more housework than men do however this discrepancy is often largest for Latina/o couples 4.research in the USA and in 13 European countries shows that men tend to share the housework more equality if they are nontraditional and politically liberal 5.surprisingly many women do not express anger toward their greater work in the home
what are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Being Single?
1.single women identify having freedom and independence as advantages of being single 2.single women mentioned that privacy is an advantage for them 3.by learning to be alone with themselves many women also say that they have developed a greater level of self knowledge 4.single women identify loneliness as being a disadvantage for them -single women frequently develop flexible support systems for caring and social connection
what has been found concerning satisfaction in lesbian relationships?
1.some of the research on lesbian couples shows that their satisfaction with their relationship is much the same as for heterosexual couples and gay male couples
what has been found concerning single women?
1.the category single women includes those who have never married -includes women who are either in a dating relationship or living with a romantic partner -women who are separated or divorce
what has been found concerning the decision to divorce?
1.the data show that wives initiate divorce more often than husbands do 2.the three major reasons that women listed for a divorce were : -physical or emotional abuse -infidelity -drug or alcohol abuse
what has been found concerning breaking up in lesbian relationships?
1.the general pattern seems to be similar to the heterosexual breakup pattern 2.in the current U.S. culture certain factors are more likely to keep heterosexual couples from splitting apart such as: -the cost of divorce -joint investments in property -concerns about children 3.lesbian couples are less likely to have support for their relationship from other family members a factor that often keeps heterosexual couples together 4.lesbians are likely to derive substantial emotional support from their partners especially because they experience relatively little emotional support from heterosexuals -their heterosexual friends often consider this loss to be less devastating than the break up of a heterosexual relationship
what has been found Discrimination in Salaries ?
1.the most obvious treatment is that women earn less money than men do 2.one important reason for the discrepancy in salaries is that men enter jobs that pay more money 3.other variables that explain part of the wage discrepancy include gender differences in the number of years in work experience and family responsibilities
what has been found concerning The Beginning of a Relationship for lesbians?
1.the research suggests that most lesbian couples begin their relationship as friends and then fall in love 2.lesbian couples are likely to emphasize emotional closeness 3.physical attractiveness is relatively unimportant as a basis for a lesbian relationship
what are reasons why lesbian couples want to marry?
1.two women want to recognize their commitment to each other 2.lesbians would like their relationships to have first class status , the same as heterosexual marriages 3.they want overcome the heterosexist bias that makes lesbians invisible 4.in the US general accounting office it has calculated that two people who are married can receive more than 1000 federal and state benefits and protections, in comparison to two people who are an unmarried couple
organizations that are genuinely committed to change can take the following precautions?
1.understand affirmative action policies and take them seriously; make sure that women are well represented in the pool of candidates for hiring and promotion 2.Appoint a task force to examine gender issues within the organization 3.Train managers so that they can evaluate candidates fairly, reducing gender stereotypes
what has been found on asian american women and marriage?
1.when people have recently emigrated from Asia, they are more likely to encounter conflict between the traditional customs from their home country and the contemporary gender roles in North America 2.when Hindu couples immigrate to the USA from India, the traditional wife is supposed to quietly obey her husband and in laws -she should consider the goddess Sita to be her role model and she must therefore be self sacrificing, faithful, and uncomplaining 3.traditional Hindu couples also divide decision making power along gender stereotypical lines -wives are primarily responsible for decisions concerning food and home decoration -husbands are primarily responsible for decisions requiring large sums of money 4.couples from all cultures frequently create their own marriage styles that differ greatly from the norms of their culture
what has been found concerning The Fluidity of Female Sexual Orientation ?
a)current researchers realize that the model researchers were using to study sexual orientation was too simplistic because it does not acknowledge the diverse pathways by which sexual orientation develops, especially for women b)one problem with the older research is that most of the sexual minority individuals who shared their stories were openly gay males who were exclusively attracted to other men c)according to more recent studies, sexual orientation can be a fluid changing process rather than a rigid category
what has been found concerning Employment in Traditionally Male Blue Collar Jobs?
a)most women in blue collar jobs report that the pay is attractive, especially compared to the salaries for jobs that are traditionally female b)women in blue collar jobs often report that they are held to stricter standards than their male coworkers
what has been found with other kinds of treatment discrimination?
a)several studies show that women in the workplace are more likely than men to receive negative evaluations b)sometimes the treatment discrimination depends on the gender of the students c)women in blue collar jobs are typically more likely than men to report negative interactions in the workplace d)women may be excluded from informal social interactions where employees may exchange important information and form useful friendships e)women of color are especially likely to be left out of the social interactions and mentoring
(study of north american research concerning the ideal romantic partner)Regan & Berscheid (1997)?
asked undergraduates to rank a variety of personal characteristics in terms of their desirability for a partner for sexual activity and a partner for a long term relationship such as marriage -both men and women emphasized physical attractiveness when judging an ideal sexual partner -men were more likely than women to rank physical attractiveness as the most important characteristic -the gender differences are small for a marriage partner because both women and men value honesty, good personality, and intelligence
Gender-Role Spillover
beliefs about gender roles and characteristics spread to the work setting
Heterosexism
bias against lesbians, gay males, and bisexuals groups that are not heterosexual
Egalitarian Marriage
both partners share power equally, without traditional gender roles 1.the wife and husband have equal responsibility for housework, child care, finances, and decision making 2.also emphasize companionship and sharing 3.are based on a true friendship in which both partners really understand and respect one another 4.the man and woman also share many of the same interests
