PSYC 365 Final

Has a central conceptual structure for numbers

As Valerie grows older, she becomes increasingly proficient in a variety of tasks involving numerical reasoning, including counting, adding and subtracting, and comparing two-digit number. From a neo-Piagetian perspective, Valerie's simultanous progress in these diverse areas reflects the idea that she:

Experiencing disequilibrium

As a first-grade teacher reads a book about penguins in Antartica, she points to Antartica on a globe. Six-year-old John seems really puzzled. "How come they don't fall off the earth?" he asks. From Piaget's perspective, John can best be described as:

Give assessment tasks that require meaningful understanding of the material.

As a teacher, you want your students to use effective information processing strategies as they study classroom subject matter. You consider reasarch about the effects of classroom assessment tasks on learning, and you conclude that you should:

myelination

As children grow older, many of their neurons begin to transmit messages more rapidly than they did in the early years of life, thanks to:

Bobby's current understanding of language builds upon his previous basic learning of language from the sensorimotor stage.

Bobby is 3 years old and in the pre-operational state. He is speaking in complete sentences and picking up on the grammar of his native language. Which is the following statement that is consistent with Piaget's theory?

The students in a cooperative learning group debate different ways of solving a difficult math problem.

Which one of the following best illustrates how sociocognitive conflict might promote cognitive development?

Alphabetizing five names as you hold them in memory

Which one of the following best illustrates the "working" aspect of working memory?

It gives students the message that classwork is an unpleasant task.

Which one of the following is the major reason why assigning extra schoolwork is not an appropriate punishment for classroom misbehavior?

People often fill in information that they do not actually sense.

Which one of the following is the most accurate statement about how people perceive the world around them?

The conditions under which the behavior should be exhibited

"The student will correctly point to the location of all fifty states." This statement is missing one of the three recommended components of behavioral objectives. Which component is missing?

4 groups of 3 circles each.

1. Julia sees a set of twelve circles arranged like this: O O O O O O O O O O O O Using Gestalt principles, we can predict that Julia will perceive them as:

Thorndike's original law of effect

A child who was once spanked for running into a busy street no longer runs into the street. This can best be explained by which one of the following?

forebrain

After a severe head injury, Mary has exceptional difficulty setting goals and in other ways planning her actions. Without knowing anything else about Mary's injury, you might reasonably conclude that it affected her

counterconditioning

After being bitten by a neighbor's dog, Kathy is now afraid of the puppy her family has just adopted. Kathy's father gives Kathy a hot fudge sundae; then, while she is happily eating it, he brings the puppy about fifteen feet from where she is sitting. On each successive day, Kathy gets another ice cream treat, and her father brings the puppy a little close than he did on the previous day. Eventually Kathy is able to pet and enjoy the new puppy. Kathy's father is using a procedure known as:

Stimulus generalization

After repeatedly being hugged by her father when he comes through the door, Julie begins to smile when she hears a key turning to open the door by any person. Julie's behavior can be explained by

The learner has no opportunity to learn that the situation is not longer aversive.

An avoidance behavior of a previously aversive situation is particularly different to extinguish because:

knowledge

An instructional objective that requires students to recite a definition exactly as it has been presented is at the ______ level in Bloom's taxonomy.

A relatively stress-free environment

Bandura proposes that three of the following conditions are necessary for modeling to occur. Which one is not necessary?

CAR, DOG, BUN

Based on findings from verbal learning research, which list of 3-letter syllables should be easiest to learn?

By interacting with more experienced people who mediate their understandings

Central to Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development is the idea that children increasingly make better sense of their world:

Children believe the stories that younger children make up

Children's misconceptions about the world may come from a variety of sources. Which one of the following is not a likely source that theorists have identified?

The order in which various logical thinking capabilities emerge is consistent with the sequence that Piaget proposed.

Choose the statement below that most accurately reflects recent research findings concerning Piaget's theory of cognitive development

A list of five miscellaneous household objects

Considering current views regarding the capacity of working memory, which one of the following sets of information could be held entirely in working memory?

Can define the general meaning most of the vocabulary words but cannot necessarily remember the original definitions verbatim

Corey understands the general meanings of 20 new vocabulary words, but to prepare for an upcoming quiz, he also memorizes the specific definitions his teacher has provided on a study guide. Two weeks later, he is given a surprise quiz on those vocabulary words. Considering research findings described in the text, we would expect that Corey:

Lowering blood sugar level to counteract the effect of the drug has become a conditioned response to the "bathroom" stimulus.

David is addicted to a drug that increases his blood sugar level, temporarily giving him more energy. David always takes this drug in the bathroom. He finds that he becomes tired when he enters the bathroom and also that he needs more and more of the drug to maintain the same high energy level. From the perspective of classical conditioning, which one of the following is the most likely explanation of David's increasing addiction to the drug?

Punishment II

DeeDee is upset that she has been taken off the basketball team because of a failing grade in her history class. The consequence of DeeDee's failure in history is an example of:

retrieval

During a lecture on World War II, Mr. Cochran tells his class about some of the major leaders of the countries involved in the war. He then asks Kathy to identify the leader of Great Britain during World War II, and she correctly responds, "Winston Churchill." At the time she answers the question, Kathy is exhibiting:

Thinking and reasoning

During the elementary and secondary school years, much of the brain's development occurs in regions of the brain that are largely responsible for

"By studying people's responses to various stimuli, we can draw inferences about thought processes that may underlie those responses."

Early behaviorists argued that because thinking cannot be observed, it cannot be studied objectively and scientifically. How would a cognitive psychologist be most likely to respond to this argument?

The use of maintenance rehearsal

Eunice has had trouble remembering the formula for calculating the area of a circle, so she is saying it to herslf over and over again as her teacher passes out a geometry test. Eunice is demonstrating:

an irrelevant feature

For the concept hexagon, "large" can best be classified as:

a correlational feature

For the concept nurse, "female" can best be classified as:

Dana has always been one of the top students in her class

For which of the following students would behaviorist approaches to instruction be least helpful?

explicit vs. implicit memory

If you know how to wrap a present, you can probably describe the process to someone else. But if you know how to skip rope, you may have difficulty explaining what you do to someone else. The difference between these two kinds of knowledge can best be characterized as a difference between:

Salivate to a simple stimulus such as a light or bell

Ivan Pavlov conducted a series of studies that led him to propose his theory of classical conditioning. In these studies, Pavlov observed how a dog learned to

It is organized as a hierarchy

Jacob knows that lions and tigers are both members of the cat family, and that cats and dogs are all mammals. Which one of the following statements best describes the information Jacob has stored?

Goal directed

James is 6 months old. He likes the feel of his thumb in his moth; therefore, whenever his thumb comes close to his face he places his thumb in his mouth. James' action is characteristic of _________ behavior, which dominates the sensorimotor stage

images

Knowing what famous people look like reflects knowledge that is encoded in long-term memory as:

It moves information from the sensory register into working memory.

Learning theorists often emphasize the importance of attention in the learning process? From the perspective of the dual-store model of memory, why is attention so important?

visuospatial sketchpad

Look at this word:KITEWithout turning your head, try to imagine how the word would look if it were rotated 180°. To perform this task successfully, you would need to make considerable use of that part of your working memory known as the:

assimilation

Louis receives a new soccer ball and begins to dribble it in the same way he dribbles his basketball. His dribbling of the new ball reflects Piaget's notion of:

personal significance

Marnie attends very closely to the English teacher's lecture because she knows she must pass her English course in order to graduate. Marnie's attentiveness demonstrates the effect of ________ on attention

They expand the capacity of working memory

Mnemonics probably facilitate memory in a number of ways. Which one of the following is not a potential advantage of mnemonics?

Donna says nothing at the time, but she correctly recites the French word for "pen" the next day.

Mr. Fremont tells his French class, "La plume means 'pen.'" Which one of the following students in his class is exhibiting Toman's notion of latent learning?

The "reinforcer" is presented before the response.

Mr. Smart tells his students that they can do whatever they want for the first ten minutes of class but must then turn their attention to the day's assignment. The students are delighted with their ten minutes of free time but they don't attend to the assignment when it's time to do so. From an operant conditioning perspective, what mistake has Mr. Smart made?

failure to store

Nora was thinking about something else the day her teacher explained the difference between the words between and among, so she has trouble using these two prepositions correctly. Nora's problem "remembering" the difference between the words can probably best be explained as:

verbal mediation

Norman is studying Chinese and needs to remember that the word for "exit" is chu, so he remembers the sentence The choo-choo train is exiting from the station. Norman's technique illustrates the use of:

Children will think more logically about a topic when they have acquired relevant knowledge and experiences related to the topic.

Only one of the following conclusions can be derived from recent research regarding Piaget's thory of cognitive development. Which one?

Amy knows she is a good singer

Only one of the following definitely illustrates high self-efficacy. Which one?

Similarity

People are more likely to perceive this configuration of shapes: %%%% # # # # $ $ $ $ & & & & as four rows rather than as four columns. Which one of the following Gestaltist concepts best accounts for this phenomenon?

Both boys will remember the same amount if they process the information in the same way.

Peter and Paul are both listening to the same lecture. Peter is trying to learn the information being presented so that he can remember it later on. Paul is listening closely but not necessarily trying to remember it. From a levels-of-processing perspective, we would predict that:

Schemes based primarily on perceptions and behaviors

Piaget's sensorimotor stage is characterized by:

construction in retrieval

Randall is trying to remember how to spell the word separate. He retrieves the first three letters (S E P) and the last four (R A T E) and assumes that the fourth letter must be E because he usually pronounces the word like this: "SEP-ER-ATE." Randall's process of remembering how to spell the word (in this case, incorrectly) illustrates the use of:

High-ability students are the primary beneficiaries of mastery learning approaches

Research indicates that mastery learning approaches are superior to traditional instruction in several ways. Which one of the following conclusions should not be drawn on the basis of research on mastery learning?

High-ability students are the primary beneficiaries of mastery learning approaches.

Research indicates that mastery learning approaches are superior to traditional instruction in several ways. Which one of the following conclusions should not be drawn on the basis of research on mastery learning?

under stimulus control

Sharon has learned that her language arts teacher answers her questions willingly but that her biology teacher discourages questions. Sharon therefore asks questions in language arts but not in biology. In behaviorist terminology, Sharon is:

It reached working memory

Susan is introduced to Jerry. She immediately smiles and says, "Hello Jerry." A minute later, she wants to introduce Jerry to her friend Mary, but she cannot remember his name. Based on this information, how far in Susan's memory system did Jerry's name get?

Language based learning could not be described by the behaviorist perspective alone.

The basis for verbal learning theory came from which of the following research discoveries?

Encourages educators to address higher-level skills as well as factual knowledge

The major advantage of using Bloom's taxonomy in developing objectives is that the taxonomy:

Repeatedly stating that the task at hand is difficult

Three of the following are examples of scaffolding. Which of the following is not?

Different theories may be applicable in different situations

The texbooks's perspective regarding various theories of learning is that:

Have several different activities going on simultaneously.

The textbook recommends a number of ways in which to increase students' attention in class. Which one of the following is not recommended?

An emphasis on how knowledge is organized

The theories of Edward Tolman and the Gestalt psychologists were similar with respect to one of the following alternatives. Which one?

Researchers can study mental events only by abandoning objectivity.

Three of the following are assumptions that underlie contemporary cognitive theories of learning. Which one is not such an assumption?

David usually struggles with his geography exams, but he recently got high scores on two occasions when he wore a Denver Broncos sweatshirt to school. He now wears his Broncos sweatshirt whenever a geography test is scheduled.

Which one of the following best illustrates Skinner's concept of superstitious behavior?

After walking around campus for a few days, you learn where buildings are in relation to one another.

Which one of the following best illustrates Tolman's notion of a cognitive map?

"I'm catching more tadpoles today, but I don't know if it's because I'm using a larger container to catch them or because I'm working in a different part of the frog pond."

Which one of the following statements reflects a concern about the separation and control of variables?

Adults pass along to children the ways in which their culture interprets events

1. Eight-year-old Julie lives in a rural area where many people are farmers or in some other way make their living through agriculture. After a lengthy summer drought, it begins to rain heavily one day in late July. "Thank goodness!" Julie hears her father exclaim. "Our prayers have finally been answered!" Julie makes a mental note of the cause-effect relationship her father has implied-in particular, that prayer can lead to rain. This situations illustrates Vygotsky's belief that:

The chili

1. Jacob is suffering from a mild case of flu and, as a result, is feeling a bit nauseous. He decides that he needs to eat something to keep up his strength, so he gets out of bed, puts on a heavy sweater to keep himself warm, heats up a bowl of leftover chili, and settles down in an easy chair to watch a television game show while he eats. A few days later, after Jacob has recovered from the flu, one of the stimuli in the situation just described elicits a feeling of nausea. With the phenomenon of associative bias in mind, choose the stimulus that is most likely to elicit nausea.

One reinforcer does not reinforce behavior for every learner.

1. Mr. Berk gives extra credit to each of his students who pick up 5 pieces of trash in the classroom before the bell rings at the end of the day. Despite the fact that most of the students pick up 5 pieces of trash before the end of the day, some students never participate in the cleanup. Which of the following statements explains why some students do not participate in the cleanup at the end of the day.

Mr. Benito teachers the concept reptile by focusing his students' attention on pictures of dinosaurs-animals that the students especially enjoy studying

1. Three of the following teachers are following recommended practices for teaching concepts. Which one is not?

"Calculating the volume of a sphere is similar to a procedure you learned last month--calculating the area of a circle

1. Which one of the following statements best illustrates prior knowledge activation in a geometry lesson?

stimulus intensity

A classroom of talkative students immediately quiets down and pays attention when the teacher yells, "Listen to me!" quite loudly. The students' sudden attentiveness to the teacher demonstrates the effect of __________ on attention.

A classroom in which a cooperative spirit of helping one another learn prevails.

A community of learners can best be described as:

Expect that this consequence will follow their good behavior

A guest speaker is coming to Mr. Fisk's third-grade classroom, and he wants his students to treat the speaker with courtesy and respect. He decides to give his students 15 minutes of free time if they show appropriate behavior during the guest's visit. From the perspective of social cognitive theory, Mr. Fisk's reinforcement is likely to work only if his students:

Yes

A mother takes her daughter to the grocery store and slips a can of tuna into her purse, yet tells her daughter that she herself should never shoplift. Judging from what research tells us about "practicing versus preaching," is the daughter likely to shoplift on a later occasion?

Practicing for a long time all at once is more effective than practicing for short periods on different occasions

A number of learning principles emerged from early verbal learning research. Which one of the following statements contradicts what verbal learning theorists found?

Practicing for a long time all at once is more effective than practicing for short periods on different occasions.

A number of learning principles emerged from early verbal learning research. Which one of the following statements contradicts what verbal learning theorists found?

Enactment and visual imagery

A physics teacher asks her students to draw a picture to illustrate the forces at work when someone throws a ball into the air. This strategy should do two things to help students remember the forces involved. In particular, it should encourage students to engage in both:

behavioral momentum

A physics teacher wants her students to work on several difficult physics problems that involve calculating velocity, acceleration, or time using the formula v=a x t. The teacher first has her students work on a few easy problems involving the formula. She then presents the more difficult problems; when she does so, she finds that her students are reasonably persistent in working at the problems, and most of them eventually solve the problems correctly. By using the easy problems to promote persistence in her students during the more difficult ones, the teacher is, in behaviorist terminology, using the concept of:

A statement that describes how a particular factor affects learning

A principle of learning can best be characterized as:

People sometimes imitate a behavior many hours after they have observed it.

A problem with trying to explain modeling solely from an operant conditioning perspective is that:

Types of knowledge to which those processes might be applied

A revision of Bloom's taxonomy published in 2001 (described in the textbook) can help teachers consider not only the various types of cognitive processes that should be encouraged but also the:

chaining

A ski instructor is teaching a class of beginning skiers how to do a snowplow turn. She first teaches her students to stand with the fronts of their skis together and the backs of their skis far apart. She then has her students bend their knees slightly and lean forward in this "snowplow" position. After the students can do these two things successfully, the instructor has them add more behaviors to the sequence: gliding across the side of a gentle slope in a snowplow, putting their body weight on the downhill ski, gradually turning downhill, and so on. The instructor praises her each time they successfully add a new movement to the sequence. In behaviorist terminology, the procedure that the ski instructor is using can best be described as:

It reached the sensory register

A stands in front of the class explaining the process of evolution. Ellen is sitting in the front row, but her mind is on the fight she had with her best friend just before class. Based on this information, how far in Ellen's memory system did Mr. Wagner's lecture get?

expectations

A student reads the statement, "To be or not to be, that is the quastion," and fails to notice the typographical error in the word question. This proofreading error can best be explained by considering the role of in long-term memory storage.

Provide instructional materials that students can use only by working together

A teacher wants to encourage her students to work cooperatively with one another as they study classroom subject matter. If she were to use the concept of a setting event to encourage such cooperative behavior, she would:

An explanation of the underlying processes through which learning occurs

A theory of learning can best be characterized as:

High self-esteem

According to Piaget, three of the following are essential for cognitive development. Which one is not?

Corinna's teacher gives her a good grade on her paper because it was neatly written, but Corinna doesn't realize that "neatness counts."

According to social cognitive theorists, learning is unlikely to occur in one of the following situations. Which one?

Encourages the learner to pay attention

According to social cognitive theorists, reinforcement affects learning because it:

A community of learners

According to the textbook, technology based collaborative learning programs have many benefits. Which one of the following is least likely to be a benefit?

Both things are in working memory at the same time

According to the textbook, we will form a connection between a new piece of information and something we already know only if:

Both things are in working memory at the same time.

According to the textbook, we will form a connection between a new piece of information and something we already know only if:

Together, brain development is shaped by genetic and environmental factors throughout the life span.

According to the textbook, which one of the following conclusions is most true regarding factors that influence brain development?

Acquiring the cognitive tools of one's culture enables youngsters to live and work more effectively

After explaining what sines and cosines, a high school math teacher shows students how they might use these concepts in constructing a large building. Which one of the following principles does this scanario best illustrate?

encoding specificity

Albert grew up in Germany but now lives in England. He recalls more about his childhood in Germany when he's speaking German than when he's speaking English. Which one of the following concepts best explains this fact?

Praise her for only some of her completed assignments

At the beginning of the school year, Mr. Webber is concerned that Frances rarely does her independent seatwork. He begins praising Fransces for each seatwork assignment she completes, and by January she is completing her assignments regularly. To make sure that the behavior continues in the years to come, what would behaviorists tell Mr. Webber to do now?

conditioned stimuli; unconditioned response

At the dentist's office, Teresa has a painful experience that leaves her tense and fearful. The next time her mother brings her to the dentist's office, Teresa begins to get tense and anxious. In this situation, the dentist and dentist's office are _____; Teresa's fear of pain is a(n) _______.

Focusing one's cognitive processes on certain stimuli in the environment

Based on the textbook's discussion you might best think of attention as being a process of

Focusing one's cognitive processes on certain stimuli in the environment

Based on the textbook's discussion, you might best think of attention as being a process of:

Behaviorism focuses on external behavioral changes; cognitivism focuses on internal mental changes.

Behaviorists and cognitivists tend to focus on different aspects of learning. Which one of the following statements best describes this difference?

Immediately after she watches her teacher demonstrate how to use a microscope, Debbie uses it correctly and is praised by her teacher for doing so.

Below are four situations in which a behavior is being imitated. Only one of them can be explained from an operant conditioning perspective. Which one?

Mr. Kennedy is positively reinforcing him for the distracting behaviors.

Bill's behaviors in Ms. Kennedy's class are really distracting to other students. For example, he whispers to the boy beside him when Ms. Kennedy is giving directions on how to do any assignment. He flings paper clips at a girl across the room. He makes strange grunting noises that a few classmates find amusing. Ms. Kennedy glares at him or admonishes him whenever he behaves in a distracting way, yet his inappropriate behaviors are increasing rather than decreasing. Which one of the following interpretations of this situation best explains why Bill's behaviors are increasing?

Betty thinks, "The word describes me...I have a bubbly personality."

Considering research described in the textbook regarding meaningful learning, which one of the following students is most likely to remember what the word effervescent means?

Social cognitive

Contemporary cognitive theory asserts that humans are actively involved in their own learning. This assertion is most closely aligned to which theory?

Explain how people interpret and remember the events they experience

Contemporary information processing theories of learning can best be described as theories that

the clinical method

Dr. Bauer asks 9-year-old Anne to divide a pitcher of lemonade equally between two glasses, one each for her and her friend Kate. The two glasses are different shapes, with Anne's being tall and thin and Kate's being short and wide. After Anne pours the lemonade, Dr. Bauer says to her, "Look, the lemonade in your glass is higher than the lemonade in Kate's glass. Did you give yourself more than you gave Kate?" "No," Anne replies, "my glass is skinnier." Dr. Bauer continues to ask Anne questions to determine how well she understands that height compensates for width in this situation. Dr. Bauer's strategy can best be described as illustrating:

Mr. Andrews puts all of the information students will need to know for the exam on the board and instructs the students to copy it into notes

Each of the following teachers is reviewing materials their students will need to know for the upcoming final exam. Three of the following teachers are reviewing in a way that is sensitive to their students cognitive load capacity? Which teacher is not?

Mr. Andrews puts all of the information students will need to know for the exam on the board and instructs the students to copy it into notes.

Each of the following teachers is reviewing materials their students will need to know for the upcoming final exam. Three of the following teachers are reviewing in a way that is sensitive to their students cognitive load capacity? Which teacher is not?

Ms. Caro reminds her students that she will be testing them on the material they are studying.

Each of the teachers below has students with misconceptions about the material they are studying. Three of the teachers are using strategies that should help their students correct these misconceptions. Which teacher is not using an effective strategy for changing misconceptions?

Brenda is watching the evening news on television while she studies for an exam.

Each of the women below is engaging in two activities simultaneously. Considering contemporary views of attention, identify the woman who should have the greatest difficulty doing both things at once.

Alex assumes that the men looked at a menu before ordering

Four boys read this line from a story: "The two men entered the restaurant and ordered hamburgers." Which one of the boys is clearly using a script while reading the story?

She is actively thinking about and interpreting the results of her actions.

Four-year-old Becky is playing with blocks, stacking them one on top of another until the towers eventually tumble, and then stacking the blocks again. Which one of the following best reflects Piaget's view of how Becky is probably learning in this situation?

Pragnanz

Frank sees an egg-shaped ball that he later "remembers" as being perfectly round. Frank's mistaken recollection is an example of the Gestalt principle of:

It gives them a means for symbolically thinking about objects and events.

From Piaget's perspective, why is language critical for children's cognitive development?

Younger students haven't aquired proportional reasoning.

From Piaget's perspective, why might it be wise to postpone the teaching of complex fractions until middle school or high school?

Different cultures pass along somewhat different cognitive tools

From Vygotsky's perspective, why do cultural differences exist in people's cognitive abilities?

Different cultures pass along somewhat different cognitive tools.

From Vygotsky's perspective, why do cultural differences exist in people's cognitive abilities?

Bob is proud of the fact that he always keeps a promise

From the perspective of social cognitive theory, which one of the following children most clearly reflects a key ingredient of self-regulation?

They reduce the amount of information we need to acquire in order to make sense of a situation

From the textbook's perspective, what is a key advantage of developing schemas and scripts?

Initially know more about the topic being studied than the adults do

Generally speaking, adults learn and remember more easily than children do. The reverse is true, however, when the children:

underestimate; overestimated

Given current research findings, Piaget's theories seem to have infant's cognitive abilities and adolescent's cognitive abilities.

Recognizing human forms in a Picasso painting

Given how the left and right hemispheres of the brain typically specialize, which one of the following activities would be most heavily dependent on the right hemisphere?

Realizing that "That blonde is really hot" has at least two possible meanings

Given the roles that the right hemisphere typically plays in language comprehensions, which one of the following tasks would rely most heavily on the right hemisphere?

As a network of neurons spread across multiple brain regions

Given what psychologists believe to be true about how information is typically stored in the brain, how is the concept dog probably represented in your brain?

Long-term memory is organized as a network

Gretchen thinks about Christopher Columbus, which reminds her of Spain, which in turn reminds her that she needs to do her homework for her Spanish class. Which one of the following statements best explains Gretchen's train of thought?

Due to retroactive inhibition, Harry will get a lower grade on the quiz than Sam.

Harry and Sam are both taking French; Harry is also taking German, but Sam is not. Harry and Sam learn these French vocabulary words in their French class: head-la tete eye-l'oeil mouth-la bouche The following day, Harry learns these German vocabulary words in his German class: head-der Kopf eye-das Auge mouth- der Mund A week later the two boys are given a French vocabulary quiz in which they are asked to give the French words for head, eye, and mouth. Other things being equal, findings from verbal learning research would lead us to predict that:

Humans can benefit from their experiences

Human beings undoubtedly learn more during the course of a lifetime than any other species on earth. The major result of this capacity to learn is that:

Humans can benefit from their experiences.

Human beings undoubtedly learn more during the course of a lifetime than any other species on earth. The major result of this capacity to learn is that:

higher-order conditioning

If students associate failure with punishment, and then associate playing sports with failure, they may begin to fear playing sports through a process of:

Both by classroom events and by what students themselves do

If we consider the concept of reciprocal causation, we must conclude that students' experiences in the classroom are influenced:

An apple pie is cut into 4 pieces. A blueberry pie of the same size is cut into 12 pieces. How many pieces of blueberry pie do you need to have the same amount as 3 pieces of the apple pie?

If we look at cognitive development from Piaget's perspective we would expect a child in the concrete operations stage to have the greatest difficulty with which one of the following questions

Occasionally remind them that they will get a bigger reward if they wait for an hour or two

If you wanted to encourage kindergartners to delay gratification, research indicates that an effective strategy would be to:

Vygotsky's

If you were interested in how a child's culture influences cognitive development, you would be most likely to consider approach to cognitive development.

Presenting a definition that identifies defining features

If you were teaching students a new concept, which strategy would be most effective?

"It's a bit vague in its explanations of how development occurs."

If you were to criticize Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development in a way that contemporary theorists sometimes do, which one of the following would you be most likely to say?

a token economy

In Mr. Medeiros's classroom, students are given play money each time they turn in an assignment; they receive additional amounts of money if the assignment is turned in on time and if it is done correctly. At the end of each week, students can use their "money" to purchase special privileges (free time, field trips, etc.). Mr. Medeiros' approach to teaching can best be characterized as:

An organized group of similar thoughts or actions

In Piaget's theory, a scheme can best be described as:

By giving themselves directions about the things to do and in what order, children guide themselves through complex tasks.

In Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, what important role does inner speech play?

"Why is it cooler near the ocean on a hot summer day?"

In a science lesson on heat, Ms. Jones explains that heat is the result of molecules moving back and forth very quickly and that gases are heated more quickly than liquids. The following day, she asks her class the following four questions. Which one is a higher-level question?

Responses can be learned even when they are not reinforced.

In a series of experiments, Tolman investigated the role of reinforcement in learning. Which one of the following conclusions emerged from his research?

Students retold the story in a way that made little sense

In an early investigation of memory, Frederic Bartlett asked students to read a story called The War of the Ghosts and then on later occasions asked them to recall the story. Bartlett made a number of observations about how students' recollections of the story were different from the story itself. Which of the following was not one of his observations?

use of schemes

In her first trip to the zoo, 7-year-old Latisha notices that leopards have paws very similar in shape to her cat Snowball's paws. She also notices that leopards walk in much the same way that Snowball does. Latisha starts to wonder if perhaps leopards are cats. Latisha's thinking illustrates Piaget's idea that thought is characterized by:

Provides remedial work for students who need it

In programmed instruction, a branching program is different from a linear program in that a branching program:

Alma expects to do well in science this year

In social cognitive theorists' conceptualization of reciprocal causation, which one of the following is the best example of a person factor?

Alma expects to do well in science this year.

In social cognitive theorists' conceptualization of reciprocal causation, which one of the following is the best example of a person factor?

An adaptive process that allows children to deal more efficiently with their environment

In the human brain, a great deal of synaptic pruning occurs in early childhood. This pruning appears to be:

Because all of his teddy bears are brown, 2-year-old Harry thinks that all bears are brown

In which of the following situations is a child most likely to be learning a concept through a buildup of associations?

Rachel is born with a cataract in her left eye that is surgically removed when she is 8 years old.

In which one of the following situations should we be most concerned about missing a critical period in a person's development?

goal directed

James is 6 months old. He likes the feel of his thumb in his mouth; therefore, whenever his thumb comes close to his face he places his thumb in his mouth. James' action is characteristic of behavior, which dominates the sensorimotor stage

Organize the signs into three groups: people, animals, and things

Jeff wants to remember the twelve signs of the zodiac: Aries (ram), Taurus (bull), Gemini (twins), Cancer (crab), Leo (lion), Virgo (virgin), Libra (balance), Scorpio (scorpion), Sagittarius (archer), Capricorn (goat), Aquarius (water carrier), and Pisces (fish). He does not necessarily want to remember them in any particular order. Considering research results described in the textbook, which one of the following techniques will maximize Jeff's chances of remembering all twelve?

In the categories organized by the words' meanings

Jennifer was given a random list of 20 words to study. Jennifer was then asked to recall as many of the words as she could remember in a free recall task. Consistent with verbal learning research, which of the following orders is Jennifer most likely to recall the words in?

Jim will be a bit careless when he works with his hands, so he will frequently make silly little mistakes.

Jim has a high sense of self-efficacy regarding his ability to work with his hands. Based on this information, we would predict three of the following from social cognitive theory. Which one would we not necessarily predict?

Jenny, because her studying was distribute over time.

John and Jenny are both taking the same math test on Friday. John studies for 6 hours on Thursday. Jenny studies for 2 hours per day on Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday. According to research consistent with the verbal learning theory, which student should perform better on the math exam and why?

Adolescents' pre-frontal cortices are still not fully developed and will not be until their late teens and early twenties.

John is an adolescent who makes impulsive decisions (e.g., ditching school) and engages in risky behavior (e.g., driving well over the speed limit). His behavior can best be explained by which of the following?

long-term memory

John learned the capitals of all 50 US states when he was a child. As an adult, he can no longer recall or recognize any of the 50 state capitals. However, he relearned the capitals faster than Jenny who did not learn the state capitals as a child. John's relearning suggests that the information regarding the state capitals remained in his __________ from the time he first learned them as a child.

It will probably enhance his self-efficacy, because it communicates the message that he has the ability to write a good poem.

John's teacher gives him constructive criticism about how to improve the poem he has just written. According to the textbook's discussion of social cognitive theory, what effect is such criticism likely to have on John's self-efficacy for writing poetry, and why?

acclimation

Luana is taking her first course in psychology. With regard to her knowledge of psychology, Luana is probably in Alexander's __________ stage in the development of expertise:

She has an internal set of standards regarding right and wrong behavior, and she feels guilty when she violates those standards.

Maria is what social cognitive theorists would describe as a self-regulating individual when it comes to her moral behavior. Given this information, which one of the following descriptions best describes Maria's moral behavior?

Construction in storage

Maria moved to this country several months ago. She has been studying English as a second language but still has much to learn about the language of her new homeland. One day her teacher tells the class, "Bring an empty coffee can to school tomorrow for a project we're going to do." Maria hears only two familiar words--"coffee" and "school"--and guesses that her teacher is saying that students should not drink coffee at school. Maria's misinterpretation illustrates which one of the following?

The middle planets (e.g.,Mars, Jupiter)

Mark needs to learn the planets of the solar system listed in the order of their proximity to the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. If we consider the serial learning curve, which planets will probably be the most difficult for Mark to learn?

Self-reinforcement

Mark often comes to school wearing sandals instead of sneakers on days he has physical education. He is getting angry with himself regarding his chronic forgetfulness about appropriate footwear. His teacher suggests that he treat himself to an hour of television only on days when he has remembered to wear sneakers. Mark's teacher is suggesting that Mark use:

Passive avoidance learning

Martin went to two or three school dances but felt uncomfortable and self-conscious at them. Martin no longer goes to school dances. His lack of attendance is an example of:

Undergeneralization

Maureen vehemently denies that trees are plants. Her understanding of what a plant is reflects which of the following errors?

the pegword method

Melissa has an ingenious method for remembering the member countries of the NATO alliance. Using words that rhyme with the numbers 1, 2, 3, and so on, she forms a visual image of each country interacting with a word that rhymes with a number. For example, she pictures a huge bun (which rhymes with "1") sitting on top of Big Ben (Great Britain), a shoe (a rhyme for "2") with a tiny Canadian Mountie (Canada) perched on its toe, a tree (a rhyme for "3") with numerous Statues of Liberty (United States) growing from its branches, and so on. Melissa's technique illustrates the use of:

They expand the capacity of working memory.

Mnemonics probably facilitate memory in a number of ways. Which one of the following is not a potential advantage of mnemonics?

David wears the same style of clothing his friends wear, even though he's never been reinforced for doing so.

Modeling is often facilitated by memory codes. Three of the following are examples of such codes. Which one does not specifically illustrate a memory code?

Correct Luke scratches his mosquito bites, even though his mother continually asks him not to, because it makes them feel better.

Models can influence an observer's behavior in a number of ways. Which one of the following behaviors is least likely to be the result of modeling?

Mr. Graydos describes Dr. Heimlich's medical background and his motivation for developing the procedure.

Mr. Graydos wants to teach a group of people how to perform the Heimlich maneuver. Three of the following strategies should help his students learn the maneuver more effectively. Given what we know about teaching procedural knowledge, which strategy is least likely to be effective in helping students learn the procedure correctly?

Having the students watch other girls successfully change the oil and the air filter

Mr. Limpitlaw wants to increase his female students' self-efficacy for mastering simple car maintenance procedures. He can best do this by:

differential rate of low responding

Mr. McDonald wants his favorite students to ask him for help on their geometry problems only after they have tried to solve the problems independently for at lease five minutes. Mr. McDonald should reinforce students' help-seeking behavior on a _________ schedule.

Recency effect

Mrs. Pike's class is learning to spell twenty new words. They learn 5 words per day for four days (Monday through Thursday). On Friday the students are given a spelling test on all 20 words. When Mrs. Pike is grading the tests, she notices that most students remembered the words that were taught on Thursday, but not on Monday through Wednesday. Which verbal learning principle can explain Mrs. Pike's spelling test results?

Brian is receiving intermittent rather than continuous reinforcement

Ms. Hernandez is concerned about Brian, a student in her high school chemistry class who rarely interacts with other students. Ms. Hernandez decides to smile at Brian on those occasions when she happens to notice him talking with another student. Yet after three weeks she sees little change in his behavior. Based on this information, which one of the following is definitely wrong with Ms. Hernandez's approach?

Associate those principles with as many real-life situations as possible

Ms. Iwata has a long-term goal for her science students--to consider what they have learned about science as they deal with issues and problems in their daily lives. Which one of the following teaching strategies will best help her students retrieve relevant scientific principles in situations where the principles might be applied?

Associate those principles with as many real-life situations as possible.

Ms. Iwata has a long-term goal for her science students--to consider what they have learned about science as they deal with issues and problems in their daily lives. Which one of the following teaching strategies will best help her students retrieve relevant scientific principles in situations where the principles might be applied?

They have been punished for doing so

Ms. Jefferson promises her students special treats if they turn in their homework assignments the next day. But the following day Ms. Jefferson forgets to bring the treats she promised. From the perspective of social cognitive theory, what has just happened to the students who turned in their homework assignments?

She would think about the problem for a while and, once she realized that a square was a kind of rectangle, be able to solve the problem.

Ms. McDevitt's class has learned how to calculate the area of a rectangle. Ms. McDevitt then asks Teresa how to calculate the area of a square. Which one of the following alternatives best describes the Gestalt perspective of how Teresa would solve this problem?

Describing the difference between latitude and longitude

Ms. Villanueva has her students engage in a variety of activities in her middle school geography class. Three of the activities described below are authentic activities. Which one is not an authentic activity?

Putting Nadia in in-school suspension

Nadia is an only child who lives on a ranch that is located many miles from the homes of other children. Although she enjoys being with her peers at school, she is often physically aggressive toward them. School personnel have made many small attempts to curb Nadia's aggression (for example, they have scolded her, kept her in from recess, and put her in a time-out situation) but always without success. They are now thinking about taking more drastic measures. According to the textbook, which one of the following is most likely to be effective?

consolidation

Naomi wakes up several hours after a severe blow to her head has rendered her unconscious. She can remember nothing about events leading up to the incident, reflecting the importance of ________ in learning and memory.

Ricky's own long division skills will improve because he will internalize the instruction he gives Lucy.

Nine-year-old Ricky has recently learned how to solve long division problems, and he still struggles with especially difficult problems. At his mother's request, he helps his 8-year-old sister Lucy with the same long division problems she must do for her math homework From the persepctive of Vygotsky's theory, which one of the following is most likely to result?

increasing assocations with other things we know

Occasional review of previously learned material helps our memory for that material by:

formal operations

Olivia understands why 3/4 and 9/15 are equivalent fractions. Based on this information, Olivia is probably in Piaget's stage of development.

Amy knows she is a good singer.

Only one of the following definitely illustrates high self-efficacy. Which one?

Mr. Bancroft helps students identify important ideas in their textbooks.

Only one of the following teachers is applying contemporary memory theory. Which one?

social constructivism

Over the course of history, science has continued to evolve as new data emerge and scientists offer new ideas to explain those data. This continuing process of change in scientific thinking over the years best reflects the idea of:

Amy, a girl of similar ability, tells her that a little cheating now and then is perfectly acceptable.

Pamela is an average-ability high school student who is having difficulty in her chemistry class. She is beginning to think she should cheat on the next chemistry exam. Four of Pamela's classmates give her advice. Judging from Bandura's findings on how people adopt standards for their own behavior, to which classmate is Pamela most likely to listen?

Each stage involves forms of thought qualitatively different from those of other stages.

Piaget has described four stages of cognitive development. Which one of the following is an accurate statement about Piaget's view of these stages?

Justin is constantly grabbing objects and pulling them toward himself.

Piaget spoke of egocentrism as a characteristic of preoperational thought. Three of the following are examples of egocentrism as Piaget defined it. Which one is not an example of preoperational egocentrism.

Piaget studied children rather than nonhuman species

Piaget's ideas were largely ignored by American psychologists until the 1960s. three of the following are probable reasons why this was so. Which one is not a likely reason

Embodiment

Researchers have found that when we human beings think about performing a particular physical skill (e.g., using scissors, dribbling a basketball), we activate some of the same brain regions that we use when actually executing that skill. Which one of the following concepts best reflects this research finding?

Maybe, although the change may simply be due to physiological maturation.

Reynelds has trouble tracing a complex shape with a pencil when she is in kindergarten, but she can do it quite well by the time she is in second grade. Is this an instance of learning?

repression

Robert does not recognize the police officer that came to the door last month to tell him that his dog had been killed by a car. Robert's lapse of memory can probably best be explained in terms of:

preoperational

Roger is shown two piles of sand and says that each pile has the same amount. However, when one pile is flattened with a shovel, he now claims emphatically, "The flat pile has less sand." Based on this information, Roger is probably in Piaget's stage of development

"Round" is a feature of the concept circle

Salience of features affects the ease with which people are likely to learn a concept. Which one of the following best illustrates a salient defining feature?

"Spell the words until you know them all perfectly, and then continue to practice spelling them several more times."

Sarah needs to learn how to spell 40 words for a spelling test tomorrow. Sarah wants to perform as well as she possibly can on the test. Based on findings from verbal learning research, which one of the following would be the best advice to give Sarah?

People's descriptions of how they remember information.

Several sources of evidence have been used to address the question of whether working memory and long-term memory are separate entities. Which one of the following is not a source of evidence that has been used for this purpose?

Self-monitoring

Several students in Mr. Samber's class have. Trouble keeping themselves on task during independent seatwork assignments. Mr. Samber gives each of these students a piece of paper on which they are to make a check mark every time they find themselves doing something other than their assignment during seatwork time. Mr. Samber is using which one of the following techniques for changing behavior

Modeling and vicarious reinforcement

Sharon knows that Kathy frequently completes her assignments long after they are due. She has noticed that their teacher willingly accepts Kathy's late assignments because Kathy always has a creative excuse for turning them in late. Sharon begins to do the same thing-she turns in assignments past the due date and makes up excuses for why she is late. Sharon's increase in excuse-making is due to:

Yes. Occasional failures interspersed among frequent successes teach students that perseverance pays off.

Should students ever be allowed to fail at classroom tasks? According to social cognitive theorists, the answer is:

Children model aggression only when the model is the same sex that they are.

Social cognitive theorists have studied the role of modeling on aggressive behavior. Which one of the following conclusions cannot be drawn from their research?

Correct through observations of others

Social cognitive theory can best be characterized as being concerned with learning:

The duration of working memory

Successful retrieval of information from long-term memory depends on three of the following factors. On which one does retrieval not depend?

Dorinda is popular and feminine

Tammy has trouble getting dates, so she begins to observe how other students attract boys. The four girls below have all had a date within the last week. Without knowing anything about Tammy, but using criteria proposed by social cognitive theorists, choose the girl whom Tammy is most likely to model.

Mr. Carmen verbally describes how different elements are made up of different numbers of neutrons, protons, and electrons.

The following four junior high school science teachers are teaching the concept molecule to their students. In each classroom, some of the students are at Piaget's formal operations stage and others are at the concrete operations stage. In which classroom are the concrete operational students most likely to have difficulty understanding?

Cora studies 30 pictures at an art museum, The following day she is asked to identify them from among 60 pictures.

The four students described below are using visual imagery to try to remember information. Considering what theorists and researchers say about the strengths and weaknesses of visual imagery, only one student is likely to remember this information accurately. Which one?

Theories enable objective, unbiased reporting of research findings

Theories are advantageous in several ways. Three of the following describe advantages of learning theories. Which one does not?

Theories enable objective, unbiased reporting of research findings.

Theories are advantageous in several ways. Three of the following describe advantages of learning theories. Which one does not?

Susan likes the brother

Theorists conceptualize propositions as abstract entities but usually describe them in terms of words. This sentence: Susan gives her brother a big kiss reflects several propositions that are likely to be stored in long-term memory. Three of the statements below reflect propositions contained within the sentence. Which statement does not reflect a proposition contained within the sentence?

Mr. Conrad, a junior high school soccer coach, asks his players to practice passing the ball to one another as they run down the field, then openly praises those players who are passing skillfully

These four teachers claim to be practicing principles from cognitive psychology. Based on the following information, which one is not?

Mr. Byers suggests, "Let's play some background music while I show you how to use the dipstick to measure your oil level."

Three of the following alternatives depict situations in which a teacher is facilitating the retention component of modeling. Which one does not depict such a situation?

Peer-group discussions promote more rapid learning of classroom subject matter.

Three of the following are benefits of peer interaction in the classroom. Which one is not a typical benefit of peer interaction?

Most animals can survive for months without food.

Three of the following are common misconceptions that elementary or secondary students are likely to have. Which one is not commonly found?

Adult males waiting for a light to change at a street corner

Three of the following are examples of communities of practice. Which of the following is not?

Abigail cries when she steps on a sharp pebble

Three of the following are examples of learning. Which one is not?

To learn how to drive a car with a standard transmission, Bart practices the various parts of the task (e.g., steering, shifting, and braking) separately.

Three of the following are examples of mnemonics. Which one is not a mnemonic?

Students all try to master the same topic

Three of the following are likely to enhance the effectiveness of a community of learners. Which one is least likely to be helpful?

Students who believe that there is a single "right" perspective on any issue are more likely to participate than students who realize that several perspectives may all have legitimacy.

Three of the following are potential drawbacks to instructional techniques that depend heavily on student discussion. Which one is least likely to be a drawback?

People learn by making mental associations between new information and their existing knowledge.

Three of the following are principles of learning. Which one is a theory of learning rather than a principle?

Punish frequently to get the point across

Three of the following are recommended practices when using punishment to reduce an inappropriate behavior. Which one is not recommended?

Groups consist of several students of similar ability.

Three of the following are typical elements of effective cooperative learning sessions. Which one is not typical of such sessions?

Measuring the levels of various hormones and other substances in the blood

Three of the following describe methods that researchers commonly use to determine how the human brain probably functions. Which one is not a commonly used method to study the brain?

Andrea discovers that she does well on her weekly spelling tests only when she wears her lucky necklace.

Three of the following experiences should promote higher self-efficacy. Which one probably won't?

People's behaviors are always the direct results of the environments in which they live.

Three of the following ideas are integral parts of social cognitive theory. Which one is not?

Debby learns that "2 plus 2 equals 4" and repeats this fact to herself over and over again until she knows it perfectly.

Three of the following illustrate the Gestalt notion that "the whole is more than the sum of its parts." Which one does not reflect this idea?

Although it's a school night, Dean play video games until well past his usual bedtime. As he becomes more tired, he finds it increasingly difficult to concentrate on what he's doing.

Three of the following illustrate various ways that learning might be reflected in a person's behavior. Which one of the following changes does not necessarily reflect learning?

The more information it contains, the less room it has for new material.

Three of the following statements are accurate descriptions of long-term memory. Which one is not necessarily accurate?

Cognitive development is better characterized as a series of seven (rather than four) general stages

Three of the following statements are consistent with neo-Piagetian perspectives of cognitive development. Which statement is not?

High levels of toxic substances (e.g., lead, pesticides) have their greatest negative impact after puberty

Three of the following statements are consistent with research finding about factors that influence brain development. Which statement has not been supported by research?

"Okay, class, it's time to put your reading assignment away so that we can begin today's geometry lesson."

Three of the following statements are examples of possible advance organizers for a geometry lesson. Which statement is not an advance organizer as the term is typically defined?

Students benefit from inquiry learning activities only when they're given total control over the topic to study and how to study it

Three of the following statements are true about inquiry learning as an instructional strategy. Which statement is false?

Students benefit from inquiry learning activities only when they're given total control over the topic to study and how to study it.

Three of the following statements are true about inquiry learning as an instructional strategy. Which statement is false?

Punishment has a more pronounced effect on behavior than reinforcement does.

Three of the following statements reflect contemporary perspectives of instrumental conditioning and reinforcement. Which one does not?

Most formal operational capabilities emerge 2-3 years earlier than Piaget suggested.

Three of the following statements reflect contemporary views of Piaget's stages. Which statement is not accurate?

Mr. Adamson tells his students that, with practice, they will be able to do complicated long division problems in their heads.

Three of the following teachers are practicing principles from contemporary memory theory. Which teacher is not?

Mr. Donaldson takes his students on an all-day field trip to the art museum

Three of the following teachers are providing scaffolding to help their students learn. Which one is not necessarily providing scaffolding?

Mr. Donaldson takes his students on an all-day field trip to the art museum.

Three of the following teachers are providing scaffolding to help their students learn. Which one is not necessarily providing scaffolding?

A second-grade teacher encourages students to speculate about possible explanations regarding why kites of different shapes fly differently

Three of the following teaching practices are consistent with Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Which one is not?

Concepts invariably lead to more appropriate response to the environment

Three of the statements below describe advantages of concepts. The fourth is an incorrect statement about concepts. Which one is incorrect?

Mr. Morris has students discuss a topic about which they know almost nothing.

Three of the teachers below are using strategies consistent with the textbook's recommendations for holding class discussions. Which teacher is using a strategy that is not consistent with the textbook's recommendations?

continuous reinforcement

Tiffany is a hyperactive child who rarely sits still for more than 30 seconds at a time. Ms. Garcia decides to use positive reinforcement to help Tiffany learn to sit quietly in her seat during class time. Which one of the following approaches will bring about the fastest change in Tiffany's behavior?

Relatively ineffective

To learn how to spell rhinoceros, Paula repeats the letters of the word over and over again without really thinking about what she is saying. Considering research findings about the effectiveness of rehearsal, we can predict that Paula's strategy will be:

The generation effect

To pass the time one day, Keisha multiples 2 by 2 by 2... and so on, on her calculator. She observes that the products increase in size more dramatically with each calculation. A few weeks later, when her math teacher explains what it means for something to increase exponentially, Keisha realizes that she has already discovered this idea on her own, and she remembers it better as a result. Which one of the following concepts best cahracterizes Keisha's enhanced understanding of an exponential increase?

It reached long-term memory

To prepare for his test on Tuesday morning, Harvey studied on Monday night. He remembered the information long enough to do well on the test on Tuesday but could not remember it for a surprise quiz a week later. Based on this information, how far in Harvey's memory system did the information get

It reached long-term memory.

To prepare for his test on Tuesday morning, Harvey studied on Monday night. He remembered the information long enough to do well on the test on Tuesday but could not remember it for a surprise quiz a week later. Based on this information, how far in Harvey's memory system did the information get?

the keyword method

To remember that the capital of Maine is Augusta, Bart pictures a lion with a gust of wind blowing through its mane. Bart's technique illustrates:

a superimposed meaningful structure

To remember the four states that come together at a single point (Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah), Marcia remembers "CANU" (pronounced like "canoe"). Marcia's technique illustrates the use of:

He reinforced a response the same way for several trials, then abruptly changed the type or amount of reinforcement.

Tolman was interested in examining the role of expectations in behavior. Which one of the following statements most accurately describes the method he used to study expectations?

Lower her rate of reading mystery novels

Tracy enjoys reading mystery novels and reads at least two a week. Her mother wants to encourage Tracy's reading and so begins to pay her daughter one dollar for each completed mystery novel. Considering research the extrinsic reinforcement of intrinsically reinforcing activities, we would expect Tracy eventually to:

They know how to make the gesture, but they are unlikely to make it in class.

Trudy makes an obscene gesture in class, and the teacher punishes her severely. Other students in class observe both the gesture and the punishment. Based on social cognitive theory, what can we guess about what those students have learned and how they are likely to behave in the future?

More likely to fight in the future

Two boys are fighting on school grounds. Fighting is against school rules, and the boys know this. Even so, a teacher who sees them lets them continue to fight rather than punishing them for doing so. From the perspective of social cognitive theory, these boys will be:

Functional analysis

Vanessa frequently complains of getting terrible headaches and so ends up at the nurse's office several times a week. Yet two different physicians have been unable to find a cause for Vanessa's headaches, and Vanessa's parents report that their daughter rarely has headaches at home. Vanessa is falling further and further behind in her schoolwork, so Vanessa's teacher and parent meet with the nurse and school psychologist to brainstorm possible solutions to Vanessa's problem. The school psychologist suggests that the teacher keep track of the occasions when Vanessa complains about a headache. Two weeks later, the teacher reports that all of Vanessa's complains occur just before a test or difficult assignment. Suddenly the teacher and parents begin to suspect that perhaps Vanessa complains of headaches as a way of getting out of having to do difficult assignments. Here we see the initial steps in a process known as:

shaping

Warren has earned himself a reputation for being the class clown. His teacher, Ms. Washington tries to ignore Warren when he tells jokes in class. But sometimes Warren tells a joke so funny that Ms. Washington laughs in spite of herself. Rather than decreasing his joke-telling, Warren begins telling even more outrageous jokes. Inadvertently, Ms. Washington is modifying Warren's joke-telling behavior trough:

the fan effect

What device did Benjamin Franklin invent to help people read better? It may take you a long time to think of the answer--bifocal lenses--because Ben was responsible for so many other inventions as well. In this situation, your lengthy retrieval time can best be explained in terms of:

Remember her experiences in France as occurring in essentially the way that she previously described them to her roommate

When Gianna returns to college after a summer touring France, she tells her roommate about her many experiences. She does not always remember them accurately, however, so she fills in the gaps in her memory with logical details about how things "must" have happened. Several weeks later, she is telling another friend about her trip. Gianna will probably:

Exemplars

When Mary thinks about what a dog is, several very different-looking animals come to mind, including greyhounds, German shepherds, cocker spaniels, and Chihuahuas. Which one of the following views of concept learning best characterizes Mary's knowledge of the concept dog?

Positive-practice overcorrection

When Rochelle has an on-the-road lesson as part of her driver education class, she fails to stop at a school crossing zone, as is required by law. Her instructor has her drive around the block several times and stop each time at the crossing zone. He also insists that, once she has stopped, she must wait at least eight seconds before proceeding. The instructor's strategy illustrates the use of _______ as a way of bringing about behavior change.

novelty

When a stray dog wanders into a classroom, all of the students stop their seatwork and watch the teacher try to coax the dog from the room. The students' attentiveness demonstrates the effect of _____ on attention

Learning processes occurring within the organism cannot be studied scientifically

When behaviorists describe an organism as a "black box," they mean that:

Learning processes occurring within the organism cannot be studied scientifically.

When behaviorists describe an organism as a "black box," they mean that:

Cognitive processes that affect storage and retrieval of information

When memory theorists talk about control processes, they are talking about:

Mastering one's native language

Which of the following best exemplifies experience-expectant plasticity?

Beth does not like to read, but knows it is important, so she solely attends to reading for twenty minutes a day.

Which of the following children best illustrate the use of effortful control?

"Monkey see, monkey do."

Which of the following common sayings best reflects the basic premise underlying social learning theory?

A multiple-choice exam because it allows the learner to compare the correct answer with misconceptions

Which of the following formative assessments is most likely to promote cognitive change?

Parts of the hindbrain are involved in regulating heart rate.

Which of the following is the best example of the central nervous system (rather than peripheral nervous system) at work?

Disequilibrium and ZPD

Which of the following pairs of concepts reflects the general idea that challenge is important for cognitive development?

It has been the dominant perspective in learning research only in the past six or seven decades.

Which of the following statements best describes the history of contemporary cognitive theory?

A neuron fires only when its electrical charge reaches a particular level

Which of the following statements most accurately describes a neuron's threshold of excitation?

A neuron fires only when its electrical charge reaches a particular level.

Which of the following statements most accurately describes a neuron's threshold of excitation?

People may engage in a previously prohibited behavior if they see someone else being reinforced for that behavior.

Which one of the following alternatives best describes the disinhibition effect that social cognitive theorists describe?

Christina knows that practice will make her a better softball player. Even so, she doesn't think she's coordinated enough to make the varsity team

Which one of the following alternatives illustrates the impact of an efficacy expectation

As they sip their milkshakes at a local diner, two friends recall and talk about various scenes from a scary movie they've just seen at the movie theater.

Which one of the following alternatives is the best example of a socially construction memory?

Students in a biology class collect samples of local pond water, evaluate them for bacteria content, and report their findings to the city health department.

Which one of the following alternatives is the best example of service learning?

A child revises existing schemes to better understand new phenomenon

Which one of the following best describes Piaget's notion of equilibration?

By sending chemical substances across a tiny gap between them

Which one of the following best describes how neurons transmit messages to one another?

They fire both when a person makes a particular response and observes someone else make that response.

Which one of the following best describes mirror neurons?

Learning involves changes in synapses and possibly also involves the growth of new neurons and astrocytes.

Which one of the following best describes psychologists' current beliefs about the brain and learning?

An overabundance of neurons emerges early in prenatal development, but about half of the neurons die before birth.

Which one of the following best describes the growth of neurons during the prenatal period?

Learning how to read

Which one of the following best exemplifies experience-dependent plasticity?

Donna revises her understanding of what clouds are like when she studies them in science.

Which one of the following best illustrates Piaget's concept of accommodation?

When Mick falls down and sprains his ankle, Rachel says, "That must be your punishment for you for calling me nasty names yesterday."

Which one of the following best illustrates a worldview at work?

"Mr. Alexander puts the words force, gravity, velocity, acceleration, and time on the chalkboard; he then draws lines between pairs of related words and describes the relationships.

Which one of the following best illustrates the use of a concept map?

Students in a history class spend the last five minutes of each class session in small, semester-long groups in which they can compare class notes and help one another with sources of confusion

Which one of the following best illustrates the use of base groups in cooperative learning?

Rich has trouble remembering this week's shopping list--detergent, antifreeze, cinnamon, watermelon, margarine--even though he could easily remember a 6-item list (nuts, milk, pears, salt, ham, stamps) last week.

Which one of the following best illustrates the word length effect?

You can remember something you hear for a second or two even though you weren't initially paying attention to it.

Which one of the following best reflects the use of the sensory register component of memory?

Five-year-old Harvey draws on the chalkboard with a large white crayon instead of with chalk.

Which one of the following clearly illustrates Piaget's concept of assimilation?

"Two heads are better than one."

Which one of the following common expressions best reflects the idea of distributed cognition?

"A penny for your thoughts."

Which one of the following common sayings best reflects the concept of introspection?

Having students make overt responses

Which one of the following educational practices is most clearly derived from behaviorist principles?

Two-year-old Jasmine looks for a favorite toy her father has just hidden in a box.

Which one of the following examples best illustrates Piaget's concept of object permanence?

Marcus forgets to keep the appointment he made with his teacher after school

Which one of the following examples best illustrates a problem with prospective memory?

Knowing how to create grammatically correct sentences in everyday conversation

Which one of the following examples best illustrates implicit rather than explicit knowledge?

Brigette works hard to keep her mind on her textbook as she reads.

Which one of the following examples best illustrates involvement of a central executive in the human memory system?

Laura asks herself, "Hmm, where did I put my social studies book?"

Which one of the following examples best illustrates symbolic thought as Piaget described it?

Danny and Emma are second graders who are working on their reading comprehension. Their teacher gives them a structured activity to do together to uncover the storyline of a new book.

Which one of the following examples best shows one or more students using a procedure known as scripted cooperation while studying?

Charlotte used to think that fire was an actual substance, but now she knows that it's a chemical

Which one of the following illustrates conceptual change?

Charlotte used to think that fire was an actual substance, but now she knows that it's a chemical change.

Which one of the following illustrates conceptual change?

Playing the role of a German soldier in the school play, Andy says his lines using a German accent similar to one he's heard in the movies a few times.

Which one of the following instances of learning can be explained more easily by social cognitive theory than by operant conditioning?

A cookie

Which one of the following is a primary reinforcer?

All information that enters long-term memory must first pass through the sensory register and short-term memory.

Which one of the following is an accurate statement about the dual-store model of memory?

When Lucas complains about a classmate who is picking on him, his teacher allows him to come in from recess on bitterly cold days.

Which one of the following is an example of negative reinforcement?

Samantha is very shy and socially withdrawn. Her teacher reinforces her with a smile whenever she interacts with her classmates.

Which one of the following is an example of reinforcing an incompatible behavior as a way of eliminating an undesirable behavior?

Connie sees her friend Maria scolded for chewing gum in class. She quickly takes her own gum out of her mouth.

Which one of the following is an example of vicarious punishment?

Alice notices that her friend Ellen gets extra attention from the teacher when she acts helpless. Alice begins to act helpless as well.

Which one of the following is an example of vicarious reinforcement?

Pulling your foot away from a painful object

Which one of the following is the best example of a reflex as psychologists define the term?

The word carpet

Which one of the following is the best example of a symbol as psychologists define the term?

Paula drops a stone and a paperclip from a second-story window. She sees that they reach the ground at the same time. "I know heavy objects fall faster," she says, "so I must have released the paperclip earlier than the stone."

Which one of the following is the best example of confirmation bias?

Corey learns Atlanta, Georgia by thinking, "The Atlantic Ocean is gorgeous."

Which one of the following is the best example of encoding in the process of learning state capitals?

Feeling good about your own generosity toward a less fortunate classmate

Which one of the following is the best example of intrinsic reinforcement?

Learning the capitals of European countries

Which one of the following is the best example of paired associate learning?

Learning the months of the year in order

Which one of the following is the best example of serial learning?

Doris is studying for a history test with the hope that she'll get an A on it

Which one of the following is the clearest example of a child working for an incentive?

Knowing that the word cat appears in speech more often than feline.

Which one of the following kinds of knowledge is least likely to be dependent on active, conscious processing to be learned? Base your choice on research findings presented in the textbook.

Knowing how to respond to different environmental condition

Which one of the following most accurately describes a production?

Knowing how to respond to different environmental conditions

Which one of the following most accurately describes a production?

Aaron is watching the teacher's face so intently that he doesn't notice what she is writing on the chalkboard.

Which one of the following most clearly illustrates the Gestalt principle of figure-ground?

Humans develop by participating in separate, but interacting systems

Which one of the following most closely defines Uri Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory?

Deciding whether bear rhymes with chair; thinking about how a bear and a dog are similar.

Which one of the following pairs illustrates two different levels of processing?

Realizing that things that are cars are also vehicles.

Which one of the following reflects class inclusion as Piaget described it?

Very young infants appear to have more knowledge of the physical world than they could have acquired from their own, limited experiences with objects.

Which one of the following research findings is most consistent with the concept of core knowledge as described in the textbook?

Feeling anxious around horses

Which one of the following responses is most likely to be learned through classical conditioning?

A student tries to make sense of a poorly written and confusing magazine article

Which one of the following scenarios best reflects the basic idea of individual constructivism?

Two students discuss possible interpretations of the proverb "A stitch in time saves nine."

Which one of the following scenarios best reflects the basic idea of social constructivism?

Barney looks up the correct spelling of the word fossil and closes the dictionary. By the time he finds a piece of paper on which to write the word, he has forgotten how to spell it.

Which one of the following scenarios reflects the typical duration of working (short-term) memory?

Most visual information lasts less than a second, with auditory information lasting slightly longer.

Which one of the following statements best characterizes the duration of the sensory register?

Children actively construct their own view of the world from their experiences with the environment.

Which one of the following statements best describes Piaget's view of how children aquire knowledge about the world?

Through their social interactions with other people, children acquire ways of mentally approaching and thinking about challenging tasks

Which one of the following statements best describes Vygotsky's concept of internalization?

Through their social interactions with other people, children acquire ways of mentally approaching and thinking about challenging tasks.

Which one of the following statements best describes Vygotsky's concept of internalization?

Learners can tackle complex tasks more successfully when they have familiar concrete tools to assist them in their efforts.

Which one of the following statements best describes a contextual view of learning?

What you are thinking about is activated; other things stored in your memory are in an inactive state.

Which one of the following statements best describes an activation model of memory?

A mutual understanding between two people that each one knows what the other one is seeing, thinking, or feeling.

Which one of the following statements best describes intersubjectivity?

Reprimands are more effective when they're brief and unemotional.

Which one of the following statements best describes research findings regarding the effectiveness of verbally reprimanding (e.g., scolding) children?

A single piece of information is stored in numerous places in long-term memory, with its retrieval and processing occurring at all locations simultaneously.

Which one of the following statements best describes the notion of parallel distributed processing?

People develop general belief systems about how certain aspects of the world operate

Which one of the following statements best describes the perspective known as theory theory?

As children grow older, their increasing working memory capacity enables them to think in qualitatively more sophisticated ways about particular content domains.

Which one of the following statements best illustrates a neo-Piagetian approach to cognitive development?

"Calculating the volume of a sphere is similar to a procedure you learned last month--calculating the area of a circle."

Which one of the following statements best illustrates prior knowledge activation in a geometry lesson?

The environment alters behavior, but behavior alters the environment as well

Which one of the following statements best illustrates the concept of reciprocal causation

They are often modified as new data emerge

Which one of the following statements is most accurate regarding theories of learning?

Humans communicate regularly with one another and, in doing so, pass along what they've learned to future generations.

Which one of the following statements provides the most credible explanation for the fact that human beings seem to surpass all other animal species in their thinking and learning capacities?

Organisms behave in order to attain particular goals.

Which one of the following statements reflects Tolman's notion of purposive behaviorism?

Providing some structure to guide students' explorations

Which one of the following strategies is most likely to help students learn from a discovery learning activity?

When assigning a lengthy research project, Mr. Barnett advises his students to break the project down into a number of smaller tasks and then to reinforce themselves after they complete each one.

Which one of the following strategies is most likely to promote self-regulation in students?

When Kristen reads, she recognizes words by sight and recalls their meanings instantaneously.

Which one of the following students is definitely demonstrating automaticity in word recognition?

Berta is beginning to learn basic woodworking techniques. She has trouble hammering a nail straight into a piece of wood unless her teacher stands beside her, helping her and reminding her of what to do

Which one of the following students is definitely working in his or her zone of proximal development?

Berta is beginning to learn basic woodworking techniques. She has trouble hammering a nail straight into a piece of wood unless her teacher stands beside her, helping her and reminding her of what to do.

Which one of the following students is definitely working in his or her zone of proximal development?

Mr. Baretta shows students how a new topic is similar to the things they already know, but also different in certain ways.

Which one of the following teachers is definitely keeping in mind Piaget's idea that assimilation and accommodation are both necessary for learning and cognitive development to occur?

Working with a small group, Mr. Bromley gives each student a chance to ask questions of other group members regarding a section of text they are reading.

Which one of the following teachers is using reciprocal teaching?

Ms. Donaldson gives students a quiz over the material that groups have studied; students get extra credit if everyone in their group scores high.

Which one of the following teachers is using the recommended appraoch to evaluate students' achievement in a cooperative learning situation?

Mr. Cordell overrates Cathy's gymnastic skills because she is head cheerleader.

Which one of the following teachers provides the best example of the halo effect?

Lectures that describe interesting scientific facts

Which one of the following would Piaget be least likely to advocate for elementary school children?

the misinformation effect

William is shopping at a convenience store when a man rushes in, shoots the store clerk in the arm, hurriedly cleans out the cash register, and then speeds away in a pickup truck. Later, a detective asks William to describe the woman who was waiting for the thief in the truck. The fact is, William didn't see a woman in the truck, but after the detective urges him to "think hard and try to remember her," he begins to recall seeing a blonde woman sitting in the passenger side of the truck. This situation illustrates:

The use of chunking

William is trying to remember his new nine-digit social security number, and he does so by thinking of its three groups of three digits each. William is demonstrating:

Appropriation

Xavier loves to write poetry. Often he uses techniques that his favorite poets use, but typically he modifies these techniques to better suit his own style. This situation illustrates which one of the following concepts in Vygotsky's theory

procedural vs. declarative knowledge

You know how to use long division to solve a math problem; you also know that 28 divided by 4 equals 7. The difference between these two pieces of knowledge can best be characterized as a difference between:

declarative vs. procedural knowledge

You know what a computer is, and you also know how to send an email message using a computer. This difference between these two kinds of knowledge can best be characterized as a difference between:

Closure

You perceive a shape as a rectangle even though two of its lines are too short to connect at one corner. Which one of the following Gestaltist concepts best accounts for this phenomenon?

Basic; Applied

___________ research examines learning in tightly controlled settings and ____________ research examines learning in real-world settings.

A student tries hard to earn the reinforcer his teacher has told him he will get for good behavior.

student tries hard to earn the reinforcer his teacher has told him he will get for good behavior.