PSYC 367 Exam 1 Review

What did the Eaton and Enns' meta-analysis of studies of male-female differences in motor activity level find?

*proposed that children who are more active receive more attention from their caretaker* Found that just under 1/2 a standard deviation difference --> VERY SIMILAR! (at the EXTREME end of higher activity --> more males --> more hyperactive males)

What did Lockhead and Hall's study of the effect of status and role expectations on the emergence of leaders in mixed-sex groups find?

*provided women with task experience to build task specific expectations of competence before placing them in mixed sex groups to work on the task* Found that men were 4-7 times more likely to emerge as leaders UNLESS women had been given opportunity to develop competence on task ahead of time. If given opportunity beforehand --> women were more active than other groups; rated 1st or 2nd in leadership behaviors in all groups. If women have expertise in given area --> tend to become leaders.

What are some examples of androcentrism in science as discussed in lecture?

1. "man" and nature -man is separate from nature and destined to control nature. -"Mother Nature" --> males dominate females 2. only 39% women become psych faculty (less likely to go to grad school- get married, have kids, etc.); (less likely to reach 10 year, less likely to get to full professor status). 3. scientist stereotype: male, lab coat, obsessed with science & experiments, not emotional, no love life.

What are the three ways in which psychologists have attempted to deal with these problems of experimenters' gender?

1. Counter balance participant sex with researcher sex. 2. Minimize demand characteristics (don't make it easy for participants to figure out what you're trying to study). 3. Be aware that these problems happen & might influence results.

What are the three questions that need to be addressed in the search for truth?

1. How well have you measured reality? 2. How might we have altered or produced facts by studying them? 3. How do our own backgrounds/biases influence how we construct reality?

What are the advantages of meta-analytic studies?

1. Info about average strength of the relationship between gender and a particular behavior. 2. Info about what other variables are affecting relationship (age, situations, settings).

What are the disadvantages of meta-analytic studies?

1. Meta-analysis is only as good as the studies that went into it --> quality of studies/bias findings (only choose some, OR studies themselves are bias). 2. If studies selected are overrepresented of a bias situation, the results will be biased. 3. The person doing the analysis themselves must interpret the results (that person has their own biases --> influences their interpretations).

What are the two questions that research tends to focus on?

1. What are the differences/similarities between men/women? 2. Why do these differences exist?

What are the three basic questions that psychological research on gender centers on?

1. What do we know about similarities/differences between women and men? 2. Where does that knowledge come from? 3. How is that knowledge shaped, limited by cultural perceptions of masculinity and femininity?

In therms of data analysis, what has been the focus of the majority of studies on sex and gender and what are the problems with this focus?

Alpha bias --> may ONLY be focused on the DIFFERENCES and ignore the similarities, even when they find them. More likely to publish studies with differences and reject those with more similarities (don't look at distribution of scores).

What is Eagly's argument for gender differences in influeceability?

Any sex difference that may exist not that woman are more likely to. Men are more concerned with appearance of how influenceable they are --> don't want to appear that they can be influenced (not masculine, not independent). Many men have higher status than women. Higher status expected to be influencer, not someone who is being influenced.

What reasons did Karen Horney provide for why a girl might reject the feminine role?

Argued that not due to penis envy, but vaginal injury. May be caused to guilt of masturbation. Wanted to shift focus to female anatomy vs. male anatomy.

What was Saul Rosenweigh's argument regarding the influence of the experimenter's sex on studies of gender?

Argued that sex is a personal quality of the experimenter that can introduce errors of personality influence in the lab. Depending on male/female experimenter --> act differently for same experiment.

Explain how a self-fulfilling prophecy may influence findings.

Become what you think you should become.

Describe Pleck's gender-role strain theory.

Believed that masculinity had to do with role expectations rather than which parent to identify with (if male didn't have father figure growing up, would identify with mother instead). Social construction of masculinity (aggression/no emotion); strict expectations.

What is the Interactionist view?

Blending nature with nurture --> mixture of biology & environment shape behavior.

How does the Oedipus complex work in boys?

Boys develop an intense attachment to mother & want to possess her sexually. Begin to see father as rival for mother's love and affection. Boy doesn't want to accept these feelings; starts ejecting feelings onto father; father begins to feel jealous toward son because son is a rival.

What influences what is seen as acceptable evidence for a theory?

Depends on how well it meshes with current beliefs. Theory that what people generally believe are more likely to be accepted, without question; If theory goes against general beliefs, more likely to be scrutinized and people demand more evidence.

When are gender differences in influenceability more likely to be found?

Easier to influence women than men.

How does the sex of the participant potentially effect the results?

Females are more likely to comply with demand characteristics than men. May act in accordance to what you think the experimenter wants you to act.

What did Helen Thompson find in her research on gender differences?

Found little to no difference of gender (bell curve: men & women overlapped significantly).

What are the findings of gender differences in empathy?

Found that females' average scores were almost a full standard deviation above males (self-report). Most studies --> find no gender differences in reports of sympathy or concern OR physiological responses.

What were Hyde's meta-analytic findings regarding gender differences in aggression?

Found that gender differences accounted for 5% of the variation of aggression; other 95% due to something other than gender. Just 1/2 a standard deviation between men and women averages (a lot of overlap with distributions). Conclusion --> a lot more variation within sex than between sex; most relatively nonviolent.

What were the findings from Margaret Mead's research?

Found that many gender differences are societally based, NOT biologically predisposed.

What were Eagly and Carli's findings regarding the influence of male researchers and what was their explanation for their finding?

Found that sex differences for influence ability is more frequently found when males are the researchers (not just because male researchers are of higher status); use same sex groups (just males/females grouped together). Suggest males choose topics that favor the interest and expertise of men. Men might design study/procedures in a way that make men feel more comfortable.

How do Freudian psychoanalytic theory and and evolutionary theories differ from social learning and social interaction processing theories in their take on these questions?

Freudian psychoanalytic theory and evolutionary theories --> end to state that male/female differences are a given and they are inevitable & try to explain WHY they're inevitable. Social learning and social interaction processing theories --> emphasize flexibility of culture & its culture that produces differences.

How do rewards influence gender differences in aggression?

Girls and boys would behave equally if rewarded equally. Reality --> rewards not equal for boys/girls. (differing norms) Boys expect more rewards, less punishment. Boys approve of aggression, but may be because they anticipate more of a reward for it. Girls not as inclined to show aggression (may be better at inhibiting behavior/emotions or be more in control of themselves).

What is essentialism?

Idea that gender differences and behavior stem from qualities that reside in you/that you possess; often tied to biological explanations.

What is social constructivism?

Idea that gender is something that is NOT composed of traits possessed by you, BUT RATHER something that occurs in interactions among people; social agreement that a certain behavior is or is not appropriate for a woman or man.

In Karen Horney's later work, what did she believe was the cause of behavior?

Later deviated from Freud's views & turned more toward cultural means: 1. Safety (inner safety/security) 2. Satisfaction Thought that child's social aspect affected this; not sexual drives. Some kids need to feel safe to feel satisfied, while others do not. (Leads to neurosis/feeling anxious or hostile). Believed men had womb envy and jealous of child bearing abilities.

How do situational factors influence altruism?

Men more likely to help in potentially dangerous situations or where active intervention is required (car breakdown, drowning).

How does the situation influence findings regarding gender differences in empathy?

Men who are training for or working for occupations that require nurturance or sensitivity (nursing) --> as good as women at decoding nonverbally expressed emotions. Men more likely to help when car breaks down, drowning, etc.

How does the Electra complex work in girls?

Penis envy (femininity begins when notice that boys have a penis & you want one). May lead to feelings of inferior/contempt for your own sex. Over time leads to general feelings of jealousy. Blames mom for lack of penis; will draw affection away from mom. Stop attempting masturbation (don't want anything to do with it).

According to Freud, when does the development of boys and girls diverge?

Phallic stage (3-6 years old)

The Power and Status theory is a Social Structural theory. How does it differ from Psychoanalytic/Identification theories?

Power and Status theory displays how males are led to different behaviors by being given more power and status than females. The Psychoanalytic/Identification theories show how masculinity has to do with role expectations of behavior.

What are Freud's views on homosexuality?

Progressive; argued that sexualities are opposites, but reside in all of us at a certain extent. Would argue that everyone has some homo and heterosexuality. Did not think it was a disorder, disadvantage, something to be ashamed of, a vice, or an illness. Considered it a normal variation of sexual function. Many great men in history and modern times are homosexual, so not a problem, disease, or disorder.

Is the alpha or beta bias the better approach?

Refuse to use one or the other; should be aware of true complexities of gender (not black & white); acknowledge there's bias and validity; some say ignoring the other side is the most dangerous thing you can do.

How does bias in data interpretation effect research on sex and gender? How is the Benbow study of math ability and example of this?

Research on mathematical performance in talented children --> found gender difference favoring males. Concluded difference must be biological --> hormones that lead to the difference (although never directly studied hormones). -we don't have faith that every single social emotional factor was controlled for, so it's extremely unlikely that every environmental issue had been addressed. -can NOT separate biology from environment (they are linked) --> extremely difficult to argue that behavior caused by JUST biology.

What are the difficulties in controlling for status in research studies on gender?

Researchers find it difficult to find high status jobs where women are the stereotype The stereotype status may be different than status achieved (male nurse/female physician).

What are the possible problems of choice bias?

Researches conclusions about behavior are based on analyzing isolated, easily measurable behaviors. May be responsible for findings of small differences in lab studies and large differences of other studies in different dimensions.

What were Eagly and Steffen's findings regarding the relationship between gender differences in aggression and normative expectations for male and female aggression?

Some aggressive behaviors had more differences in male/female participant ratings (if male were to slap --> male participants would receive less disciple, feel less guilt/anxiety afterwards). Most behavior differences occurred in the studies where meta-analysis found larger gender differences. Social norms are influences --> determine what is appropriate behavior for a man/woman.

What is the alpha bias?

Tendency to exaggerate differences.

What is the beta bias?

Tendency to ignore/minimize differences.

What is the social structural explanation for gender differences in behavior?

The social structural explanation for gender differences in behavior is that men develop more dominant behaviors as an accommodation to powerful positions; women develop subordinate behaviors with low-power positions.

How have perspectives on similarities/differences between men and women changed over time and what emphasis has never been expressed?

Thinking started as women being less developed than men. 1970s --> feminists --> began to demonstrate how men and women are similar in their abilities. Men and women are different --> POSITIVE --> different, but EQUALLY GOOD (reproductive).

What was the prevailing theory in the later part of the 19th century regarding educating women?

Viewpoint theory that it was dangerous to educate women to the same capacity and same way as men. Thought it might damage bodies to do so. Would damage energy means for reproduction; hinder menstrual abilities/child bearing abilities.

Discuss the findings of the success of women's and men's influence attempts.

Women much more successful at influencing other women and girls. Men tend to resist, in particular, influence attempts by women (especially direct, assertive women). If task is genderized/stereotyped (male task --> men assume leadership position and vise versa). If task is neutral, men typically resit influence attempts by women; women are not more likely to resist attempts by men.