psyc chapter one, two, and three
Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939) believed that most of human behavior is caused by dark, unpleasant, unconscious impulses clamoring for expression.
Natural Selection
(Charles Darwin) an evolutionary process in which organisms that are better adapted to the environment will survive and importantly produce more offspring
longitudinal designs
(longitudinal research) involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time
what does pseudoscience mean?
(pseudo means fake.) refers to information that is couched in scientific terminology but is not supported by sound scientific research.
curiosity
wanting to know what something is and why it is that way.
What did James call the natural flow of thought?
"stream of consciousness"
Wilhelm Wundt
(1832-1920) german philosopher- physician, integrated philosophy and the natural sciences to create the academic discipline of psychology. At the heart of Wundt's experiment was the idea that mental processes could be measured. This notation ushered in the new science of psychology. Wundt and his collaborators concentrated on discovering the basic elements or "structures" of mental processes. Their approach was called structuralism
William James
(1842-1910) From his perspective the key question for psychology is not so much what the mind is but what the mind is for. Jame's view eventually was named functionalism.
Freud's theory
(1924)- was the basis fort he therapeutic technique that he called psychoanalysis which involves an analyst's unlocking a persons unconscious conflicts by talking with the individual about his or her child hood memories as well as the individuals dreams, thoughts or feelings
the scientific method is compromised of these 5 steps:
1. observing some phenomenon 2. formulating hypotheses and predictions 3. testing through empirical research 4. drawing conclusions 5. evaluating the theory.
currently ___ divisions in the American psychological association each focusing on a specific subfield of psychology.
56
What is behavior?
Behavior is everything we do that can be directly observed
biology and psychology
a branch of knowledge that deals with living organisms and vital processes. a branch of biology that deals with the functions and activities of life or of living matter (such as organs, tissues, or cells) and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved.
a prediction is
a specific expectation for the outcome of a study.
surveys and interviews
a survey presents a standard set of questions, or items, to obtain peoples self-reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic.
theories are
a testable set of propositions that describe something important about the world and allow scientists to make predictions.
what is a theory?
a theory is a broad idea or set of closely related ideas that attempts to explain observations. Theories tell us about the relations between variables on a conceptual level.
a cross-sectional design is
a type of correlation study in which variables are measured at a single point in time. Observations from this single measurement are them compared
cognitive approach
according to cognitive psychologists, the human brain houses a "mind" whose mental processes allow us to remember, make decisions, plan, set goals, and be creative.
John Watson and B.F. Skinner
allowed behaviorism to dominate psychological research during the first half of the 20th century.
what is the value of descriptive research?
allows researchers to get a sense of a subject of interest, but it cannot answer questions about how and why things are the way they are.
a hypothesis is
an educated guess that derives logically from a theory. (is an expectation that can be tested)
a variable is
anything that can change
sport psychology
applies psychology's principles to improving sport performance and enjoying sport participation
objectivity
applying the empirical method to learn about the world
event-cotingent responding
asks participants to complete a report each time they engage in a particular behavior
what does thinking objectively mean?
being open to evidence
what are the 7 approaches that represent the intellectual back-drop of psychological science?
biological, behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, cognative, evolutionary, and sociocultural
community psychology
concentrates on improving the quality of relationships among individuals , their community, and society at large
what is the value of correlational research?
correlations allow us to use one variable to predict a person's score on another
note that longitudinal designs differ from cross-sectional designs in that
cross- sectional designs measure the variables only once.
social psychology
deals with people's interactions with one another, relationships, social perceptions, social cognition and attitude.
functionalism
deals with the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individuals adaptation to the environment.
the goals of psychological science are to _______, ______ and ________ _____________.
describe, predict and explain behavior
Skinner
emphasized that psychology should be about what people do, their actions and behaviors and should not concern itself with things that can not be seen, such as thoughts, feelings and goals
humanistic approach
emphasizes a person's positive qualities, the capacity for positive growth, and the freedom to choose one's destiny.
behavioral approach
emphasizes the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants.
psychodynamic approach
emphasizes unconscious thought, the conflict between biological drives and society's demands and early childhood family experiences
using the _________ ________ means gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data and logical reasoning.
empirical method
sociocultural approach
examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior.
researchers in cognitive psychology and sensation perception are sometimes called
experimental psychoiogists
biological approach
focus on the body, especially the brain and nervous system
observation
for observations to be effective, they must be systematic. You must know whom you are observing, when and where you will observe, and how you will make the observations.
what is the empirical method?
gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning. (being objective involves seeing things as they are, not as we would like them to be. )
the scientific method is
how psychologist gain knowledge about mind and behavior.
the cognitive approach then emphasizes the mental processes involved in knowing:
how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think and solve problems.
by itself descriptive research cannot prove what causes some phenomenon but it can reveal
important information about peoples beliefs and attitudes.
what is positive psychology?
is a branch of psychology that emphasizes human strengths. research in positive psychology centers on topics such as hope, optimism, happiness and gratitude.
health psychology
is a multidimensional approach to human health that emphasizes psychological factors, lifestyle, and the nature of the health care delivery system.
meta-analysis
is a statistical procedure that summarizes a large body of evidence from the research literature on a particular topic. it allows researchers to conclude whether a result is consistant in the literature and to estimate the magnitude of the relationship between variables.
descriptive research
is about describing some phenomenon -- determines its basic dimensions and defining what this thing is, how often it occurs and so on. it can help identify problems, such as the spread of a disease or the frequency of negative outcomes, such as violent crime.
developmental psychology
is concerned with how people become who they are, from conception to death
cognitive psycholgy
is the broad name given to the field of psychology that examines attention, consciousness, information processing and memory.
correlation coefficient
is the degree of relation between two variables. (represented by the letter r)
forensic psychology
is the field of psychology that applies psychological concepts to the legal system.
learning
is the intricate process by which behavior changes in response to changing circumstances.
clinical and counseling psychology
is the most widely practiced specialization in psychology. clinical and counseling psychologists diagnose and treat people with psychological problems..
cross-cultural psychology
is the study of culture's role in understanding behavior, thought and emotion.
environmental psycholgy
is the study of the interactions between people and their physical environment
neuroscience
is the study of the structure , function, development, genetics, and biochemistry of the nervous system.
a study is correlational when
it relies on measuring variables to see how they are related.
conceptual replication
means doing the study with different methods or different types of samples.
the empirical method
means gaining knowledge by observing objective evidence. In empirical research, we learn about the world by conducting systematic inquiries, collecting data, and analyzing the information.
what is introspection?
means looking inside our own minds. it relies entirely on the persons conscious reflection.
scientist who study ________ and ________ address research questions such as how individuals persist to attain a difficult goal and how rewards affect the experience of motivation
motivation / emotion
descriptive research methods include
observation, surveys and interviews and case studies
case study
or case history is an in depth look at a single individual. (case studies are performed mainly by clinical psychologist when, for either practical or ethical reasons, the unique aspects of an individual's life cannot be duplicated and tested with other individuals.)
those who study _________ _________ are interested in the physical process that underlie mental operations such as thinking and memory.
physiological psychology
critical thinking
process of reflecting deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence.
an operational definition
provides an objective description of how a variable is going to be measured and observed in a particular study. (establishing an operational definition ensures that everyone agrees on what a variable means)
as a _______, psychology uses systematic methods to observe human behavior and draw conclusions.
science
those who study ________ and ________ focus on the physical systems and psychological processes that allow us to experience the world.
sensational / perception
theories make sense of
some aspect of human behavior and allow us to extrapolate into different circumstances and domains to think about what we should expect. Those expectations are hypotheses and predictions.
clinical psychologist
specialize in studying and treating psychological disorders
humanistic psychologist
stress that people have the ability to control their lives and are not simply controlled by the environment.
what is correlation research?
tells us about the relation between two variables. the purpose of correlation research is to examine whether and how two variables change together.
evolutionary approach
that uses evolutionary ideas such as adaptation, reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific human behaviors
what is structuralism
the focus on identifying the structures of the human mind.
Sigmund Freud
the founding father of the psychodynamic approach, theorized that early relationships with parents shape and individuals personality.
what is critical thinking?
the process of reflecting deeply and actively, asking questions and evaluating the evidence. (means asking ourselves how we know something. critical thinking reduces the likelihood that conclusions will be based on the unreliable personal beliefs, opinions and emotions. )
western philosophy
the rational investigation of the underlying principles of being and knowledge and the nature of thought and behavior, including the possible link between the mind and the body.
psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. as a science, psychology uses systematic methods to observe human behavior and draw conclusions.
psychopathology
the scientific study of psychological disorders and the development of diagnostic categories and treatment for those disorders.
what is one particular problem with surveys and interviews?
the tendency of participants to answer questions in a way that will make them look good rather than in a way that communicates what they truly think or feel.
what are mental processes?
the thoughts, feelings, and motives that each of us experiences privately but can not be observed directly.
experience sampling method (ESM)
to assess people in their natural settings. EMS studies involve having people report their experiences in a diary a few times a day
what are the goals of psychological science?
to describe, predict, and explain behavior
altruism
unselfish concern for other peoples well being and free will
science is defined not by _____ it investigates but by ____ it investigates
what ; how
a correlation cannot tell us
which variable is the cause and which is the effect
those studying psychology of ______ consider the psychological, social, and cultural influences on women's development and behavior.
women
CORRELATION IS NOT
causation
industrial and organizational psychology
centers on the workplace- both workers and the organizations that employ them
school and educational psychology
centrally concerns children's learning and adjustment in school
skepticism
challenging whether a supposed fact is really true
such a third variable is also called a
confound
personality psychology
considers personality, consisting of the relatively enduring characteristics of individuals
remember ---
correlation means only that two variables change together. at times some other variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two others. researchers refer to this circumstance as the third variable problem.
direct replication
means doing the study precisely as it was conducted the first time.
Information processing
the ways that the human mind interprets incoming information, weighs it, stores it and applies it to decision making
