psyc exam 2 review

Why does reconstruction of memory occur (and what could possibly affect the process of reconstruction)?

reconstruction of memory occurs when the brain is unable to recall some specific element of a memory and is forced to fill in the gap with information from other similar memories/situations. In addition to other similar memories/situation, several things other things could effect reconstruction of a memory, including: demand characteristics (suggestions from others); how questions are framed to us; source monitoring errors; and time from memory formation to retrieval.

Describe a general pattern of sleep stages and how it changes across the night.

sleep stages progress from stage 1 to stage 5. REM (stage 5) occurs about every 90 minutes. 1st episode of REM = the end of the first cycle. after the 1st cycle, REM is followed by stage 1. Stages 3 and 4 decrease during the night as your body prepares to wake. the last cycles of the night are comprised of alterations between stage 2 and REM.

Which types of amnesia occur naturally to everyone?

source amnesia and infantile amnesia

What can you do to minimize jet lag's effect?

take melatonin supplements or travel from east to west, which is easier because it causes less of a disruption in the circadian rhythm of the body.

What is taste aversion, and why is it a "special case" of CC?

taste aversion is the development of an extreme aversion to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction. It is considered special case in CC because the aversion develops after only one bad experience, and doesn't need repeated pairing. In addition one will not experience an extinction if the acquisition isn't repeated.

Can you identify and describe the three phenomena associated with Construction/Distortion of memory discussed in class?

3 phenomena associated with construction/distortion of memory (which based on the constructive processing view. This is the view that memories are literally built or reconstructed from the information stored away during encoding. each time the memory is retrieved there is the possibility of being incorrectly or more clearly reconstructed) are: Source monitoring, which is the search for the origin of specific memories; Reality monitoring: which is the attempt to determine if your memory is based in reality or or your internal thoughts (e.g. imagination); and, Re-constructive memory: since we are unable to always remember everything about an event, your brain tries to fill in the gaps with rational thinking. For example if you cant remember what you had for breakfast on Tuesday, your brain might just say well I usually have toast so that must be what I had on that Tues.

What is the relationship between source monitoring and reality monitoring?

A person can't determine if a memory is based in reality (reality monitoring) unless they determine the source of the memory (source monitoring)

What is the difference between prototype & exemplar (can you give me an example of each)?

A prototype consists of defining characteristics of a concept. For example defining a car by saying it is an object with four wheels, and an engine. An exemplar, on the other hand, is a particular example of the concept. For example, instead of defining the car as above, you say that cars are like a Chevy Cavalier.

What other terms do psychologists use to refer to different types of reinforcement and punishment?

Positive reinforcement has no other names. Negative reinforcement is also call active avoidance or escape learning. Positive punishment is also called passive avoidance. and negative punishment is also called omission training.

What's the age difference in they circadian cycle, and what is causing the difference?

Young adults tend to be night or neutral people, while older adults tend to be morning people. This difference is due to the difference in the amount of sleep each age group needs.

What happens if you keep being deprived of REM sleep?

Your brain produces more REM when deprived.

Can you describe (with an example) context-dependent vs. state-dependent memory?

a context dependent memory is a memory strongly associated with the location at which it was initially acquired, for example lessons learned during a lecture in school might be easier to recall during a test if said test was in the same room as your lecture. a state dependent memory is a memory that is strongly associated with the mood or state of mind you were in when you initially acquired it. for example when your spouse does something that makes you happy, you might find yourself thinking about all the stuff they do that makes you happy.

Do you remember which schedule of reinforcement is the most effective to maintain a desirable response for a longer period of time?

a varying schedule is most effective, especially a variable ratio reinforcement schedule.

Why is REM called "paradoxical" sleep?

because although the brain is quite active, the body is essentially paralized to avoid injury that might occur if the body was capable of movement without conscious thought.

What is Korsakoff's syndrome, and to which type of amnesia is it related the most?

memory loss of the past, but is not amnesia, caused by heavy drinking for long periods of time. associated with retrograde amnesia.

Do you remember different phenomena involved in the phases of CC?

1. Acquisition: the process of conditioning a neutral stimulus (NS) to become a CS through the repeated pairing of the NS with the UCS. 2. Extinction: presentation of the CS is no longer followed by the presentation of the UCS and so the CS stops producing the CR. 3. Spontaneous Recovery: after extinction, if the CS is presented again a brief and weaker CR will occur. 4. Reconditioning: after extinction reconditioning will occur faster with less pairings of the CS and UCS.

List the four key elements of Observational Learning.

1. Attention: in order to learn one must be able to pay attention to their surroundings. 2. retention or memory: in order to learn one must be able to retain what they have observed. 3.imitation: in order to learn one must be able to imitate what they see. 4. motivation: there must be a reason you are motivated to learn a behavior you are observing.

Can you identify five types of schedule of reinforcement and describe what they are (with an example)?

1. Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: reinforcer is presented after every successfull response. for example money every time you mow the lawn. 2. Fixed Interval reinforcement schedule: reinforcer is presented after a fixed amount of time has passed, regardless of responses. For example getting paid every week instead of on commission. 3. Variable Interval reinforcement schedule: reinforcer is presented after an unknown and varying amount of time, regardless of responses. For example pop quizes. 4. Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule: reinforcer is presented after a certain and fixed number of responses. For example, getting paid on commission when you make a certain number of sales. 5. Variable ratio reinforcement schedule: reinforcer is presented after an unknown and varying number of responses has occurred. For example gambling at a slot machine, or just gambling in general.

Name 11 types of sleep disorders

1. Nightmares- dreams which cause fear during sleep, 2. REM behavior disorders- disorder in which the mechanisms that usually prevent the body from moving during REM do not work and as a result people can act out their dreams and nightmares; 3. Night Terrors: a state of panic experienced while sound asleep; 4. Insomnia: the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep. 5. Sleep Apnea: a person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more during sleep. 6. Narcolepsy- REM sleep attacks that occur throughout the day. 7. Restless Leg Syndrome- uncomfortable sensations in the legs causing movements and loss of sleep. 8. Nocturnal leg cramps- painful cramps in calf or foot muscles. 9. Hypersomnia- excessive daytime sleepiness. 10. enuresis- bedwetting 11. circadian sleep disorders- disturbances in the sleep-wake cycle

Can you identify two types of reinforcement and describe what they are (with an example)?

1. Positive Reinforcement- is the reinforcement of a response/behavior by the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable consequence. like getting money for good grades 2. negative reinforcement- increase of certain behaviors to get rid of what you don't want. like taking pain killers, or coming home on time to avoid getting grounded.

Can you identify two types of punishment and describe what they are (with an example)?

1. Positive punishment: the punishment of a response/behavior by the addition, application, or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus. Like getting spanked for being rude. 2. Negative punishment: the punishment of a response/behavior by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus. Like getting your driving privileges taken away for coming home after curfew.

What are some problems associated with punishment?

1. Punishment is more difficult than reinforcement because it tries to weaken an already learned behavior (which is difficult because learned behavior is relatively permanent) whereas reinforcement is merely strengthening an already learned behavior. 2. Punishment is often only a temporary solution until fear of the punishment has been forgotten. 3. Positive punishment can be severe and is often misused, which can easily lead to abuse. 4. severe punishment may cause the person to avoid the punisher, thus causing the wrong behavior to be learned. 5. severe punishment can promote lying to avoid punishment, again the wrong lesson. 6. severe punishment can create fear and anxiety, which is not conducive to learning. 7. hitting provides a successful model of aggression. 8. Negative punishment teaches what actions to avoid, but not which actions to engage in instead.

How can you make punishment more effective?

1. Punishment must be prompt or the correlation between punishment and the undesired behavior will not be understood. 2. Punishment must be consistent both in its use and its intensity. 3. Punishment must fit the crime. It must not be overly severe or to weak. 4. Punishment must be combined with alternative and correct behavior. 5. It must be perceived as justified. This is difficult because most people don't believe they should be punished.

Can you give me some counter-evidence for each theory of the purpose of sleep?

1. Repair and Restoration Theory: fails to explain why when we get older we experience a decline and eventual disappearance of REM as well as a decrease in the amount of sleep needed. 2. Evolutionary: It may be true that you conserve energy, but by sleeping while preditors hunt, you are more vulnerable to attack.

What are the two main theories that explain the purpose of sleep, and how do they explain the purpose?

1. Repair and Restoration Theory: states that we sleep to allow our body time to recover from the exertions of the day. 2.Evolutionary or Energy Conservation or Adaptive theory: states that animals and humans develped different sleep patterns to avoid being present during their preditor's hunting time, which is usually at night, and to conserve energy, which helps them to avoid dangers

Can you identify and describe four types of conditioning?

1. Trace conditioning: presentation of the CS comes first and is separated from the presentation of the UCS by a brief lapse of time 2. Delay conditioning: presentation of the CS comes first and is overlapped by the presentation of the UCS. 3. Simultaneous conditioning: presentation of the CS and UCS happens at the exact same time for the exact same duration. 4. Backwards conditioning: presentation of the UCS comes first and is followed by presentation of the CS.

Do you remember the sequence of those phenomena involved in the phases of CC?

1. acquisition 2. extinction 3. spontaneous recovery 4. reconditioning

Describe 2 theories of why we dream

1.Freud's interpretation: dreams as wish fulfillment- he believed that conflicts, events, and desires would be represented in symbolic forms in dreams. included 2 elements. the manifest content, and the latent content. 2. The Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis: states that dreams occur as a result of the brains need to interpret random signals from the cortex, which occur while sleeping, absent the use of vision. Because of this lack of vision, the brain synthesizes an explanation for these signals using memories and other stored information.

Can you describe the components of classical conditioning, and come up with an example of each component?

1.Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): stimulus that elicits an unlearned response. (for Pavlok's dogs this was food) 2.Unconditioned Response (UR); an unlearned or reflex response to the UCS. (for pavlok's dog it was salivating) 3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a formerly neutral stimulus that elicited no response is now a CS , it now elicits a conditioned response after the repeated pairing of a NS with an UCS. (for pavlok's dogs it was the metronome) 4. Conditioned Response: the response to the conditioned Stimulus (for pavloks dogs it was salivating)

What is "consolidation"?

Consolidation is the transferring process from the short-term to the long-term memory.

Levels-of-processing principle: How does this principle relate to how well you learn new concepts?

How easily you can learn and retrieve a memory depends on the number and types of associations you form with that memory.

What do you need to do in order for consolidation to happen?

In order to consolidate information, one must rehearse the info in a meaningful or elaborative manner.

What implications does the construction/distortion of memory have on the quality of eyewitness testimony?

It pretty much means that eyewitness testimony is subjective to the eyewitness and as such should not be the basis of one's guilt.

Can you explain why you experience jet lag?

Jet lag is caused when the body's internal clock is not the same as the time zone you are physically in. This upsets our circadian rhythm and causes the body to have to reset its internal clock.

how is the circadian cycle maintained?

Light is the key

Procedural memory: Can you describe it with an example?

Memories for skills that people know how to do, like tying shoes and riding a bicycle. they also include emotional associations, habits, and simple conditioned reflexes that may or may not be in conscious awareness, which are often very strong memories

Can you describe the two types of effects related to serial position curve/effect ?

Primacy effect: refers to our general tendency to remember the initial item better. Recency effect: refers to our general tendency to remember the most recent item better.

Interference: can you describe the types of interference and how they work (with an example)?

Proactive interference is the tendency of old information to interfere with the retrieval of new information. Like moving and finding yourself driving to your old house one day after work. retroactive interference is the tendency of new information to interfere with the retrieval of old information. Like trying to remember an old address, but only being able to come up with your new address.

What's the difference between NREM and REM (what happens in NREM & REM)?

REM is stage 5 of the sleep cycle and it includes Rapid Eye Movement and high levels of brain activity in the form of beta waves(which are usually only present when awake), and most dreams are reported in this stage. In addition, the body is paralyzed during REM. NREM include stages 1-4 of the sleep cycle do not include rapid eye movement, or high levels of brain activity, and the body is not restrained.

What is the possible function (purpose) of REM sleep? Where does the supportive evidence come from?

REM might be related to the development of the CNS. Evidence of this can be found in the fact that infants spend over 50% of sleep time in REM, while adults spend only 25% of their sleep cycle in REM.

How do retrieval cues help you remember/recall a certain piece of information stored in your long-term memory?

Retrieval cues work under the principle of encoding specificity, which is the tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (such as surroundings or physiological state) that is available when the memory is formed is also available when the memory is retrieved. For example while taking a test if you hum a song you were listening to while studying, you might be able to remember what you were studying.

SPAR method: Make sure you can describe the four steps involved in the method.

S- survey: get an overview of the material p- process meaningfully: read the material carefully and think about how it relates to your other knowledge and experiences A- ask questions: use the review questions included with the material, or create your own and answer them. R- review: wait a day or so and retest yourself.

List the components of Memory System

Sensory Memory, Short term or Working memory, and long term memory

In general: Make sure you remember the duration & the capacity of each component of memory.

Sensory memory has the capacity to store whatever is seen or heard in an instant, and it endures for only a fraction of a second. Short Term or Working memory has the capacity to store 7(+ or - 2) items at a time, and it endures for about 20 seconds without rehearsal. Long term memory has what is essentially unlimited storage capacity, and can possibly endure for a lifetime.

Can you identify and describe four types of amnesia discussed in class?

Source amnesia: general forgetting; this type of amnesia effects everybody. Infantile amnesia: effects everybody and occurs because infants do not have a fully formed CNS and therefore do not have to ability to organize information into long term memories. Retrograde amnesia: you can't remember the past. This type of amnesia doesn't effect everybody. Anterograde amnesia: you can't store new information, because you lose the ability to consolidate information. doesn't happen to everybody

Can you tell the difference (with an example) between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination?

Stimulus Generalization is the extension of a CR from the original CS to similar stimulus. with pavlok's dogs, a clock might cause the dogs to undergo stimulus generalization. Stimulus discrimination is the process of learning to respond differently to two different stimuli. with pavloks dogs, they would eventually stop salivating to the clock when it was not followed by the presentation of UCS as is the case with the metronome.

Which one of the effects related to serial position curve/effect is generally stronger? What happens to those effects when the list of information gets longer?

The primacy effect is generally stronger, however, as a list grows so does the strength of the recency effect. Eventually, if a list gets long enough, the recency effect will become stronger than the primacy effect.

What is semantic network? How does this relate to the concept of retrieval cues?

The semantic network model of memory organization assumes that information is stored in the brain in connected fashion, with concepts that are related to each other stored physically closer to each other than concepts that are not highly related. This relates to retrieval cues directly. If you give the brain more associations (or cues) to the memory you are providing more retrieval cues as well as more concepts for the brain to organize into the semantic network.

Do you remember which type of conditioning is the most effective and which one is the least effective?

Trace Conditioning is the most effective followed by delay conditioning, which is followed by simultaneous conditioning, and least effective is backwards conditioning

What is the relative distribution of each stage of sleep?

during eight hours of sleep: 5% is spent in stage 1, 50% is spent in stage 2, 6% is spent in stage 3, 14% is spent in stage 4, and 25% is spent in stage 5 (REM stage).

What is the difference between episodic memory & semantic memory?

episodic memory is a type of declarative memory, arranged in chronological order, containing personal, autobiographical, information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events. semantic memory is a type of declarative memory containing general, abstract, knowledge of the world, such as language and information learned in formal education

What is an effective work shift that would minimize the negative impact of shift work?

in addition to melatonin supplements, it has been found that changing shifts according to the natural cycle of the day (e.g. from day to evening to night, instead of from day straight to night) has significantly reduced shift work sleep problems.

1. what is the circardian rhythm and how long is the circadian cycle in general?

the circadian rhythm is a persons sleep-awake cycle. It usually takes 24+ hours.

How do you increase the capacity of working memory?

through a method called Chunking, in which bits of information are combined into more meaningful units, or chunks. Another, less effective, method is maintenance rehearsal in which you repeat something you want to remember over and over in your head.

what is declarative memory?

type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known, the facts and information that make up knowledge.