PSYC of S&G Test 1
Sex Verification in Competition includes
1) Visual/physical inspection 2) Chromosomal Testing 3) Hormonal Testing 4) Current status
Addressing sex differences requires 3 qualities:
1) biology 2) discrimination 3) other (preferences, expectations, confidence)
Maximalist Approach
A tendency to emphasize differences between members of different sex groups, and view them as qualitatively different.
Minimalist Approach
A tendency to emphasize similarities between members of different sex groups.
Hypothesis
A testable prediction about the outcome of a study, stated in terms of variables tested
experiment
A type of research design in which a researcher systematically manipulates one or more independent variables to observe whether this causes changes or more dependent variables
Which group would be least likely to recognize the influence of sex and gender in daily life? A) Cisgender men B) Black women C) People who are genderqueer D) Transgender men
A) Cisgender men
When Terri Conley asked Blacks, Asians, Americans, and Latinos about their attitudes toward White women she found that people of color stereotype white women as _______. A) Dumb and sexually easy B) Intelligent and beautiful C) bossy and condescending D) nitpicky and conscientious
A) Dumb and sexually easy
congenital adrenal hyperplasia
Females exposes to androgen in the womb get male genitalia and female repro orgs. Can identify as male or female.
XYY (Jacob's Syndrome)
Fertile, tall, high testerone, tend to end up in prison, stronger
Third Wave Feminism
Focuses on how sex, race, class, gender identity, and sexual orientation interact to shape people's experiences. Includes marginalized people and promotes sex-positivity, reproductive justice, environmental justice, prison reform, and a living wage
Qualitative
Researchers collect in-depth, non-numerical information in order to understand participants' subjective experiences within a specific context (case studies, interviews, and focus groups)
Transnational Feminism
Seeks to alleviate the discrimination and suffering of girls and women across national boundaries. Focuses on issues such as poverty, health, gender violence, and educational access.
T/f: sex differences in brain structures do not necessarily imply a stronger role of nature than nurture in causing these differences.
True
Telomeres degrade faster in men
True
The longevity gap (women living longer than men) has decreased
True
The more a person endorses communal goals, the less interest they have in STEM careers
True
sex-gender correspondence
the extent of which gender identity matches assigned sex (cis, trans, a, nonbinary)
Generalizability
the extent to which the findings of a study would apply beyond the sample in the original study to the larger population
intelligence
the general capacity to understand ideas, think abstractly, reason, solve problems, and learn
self-fulfilling prophecy
the interpersonal process in which a perceiver's expectation about a target influences the target's behavior in such a manner that the target's behavior fulfills the perceiver's expectation
Gender
the meanings that people give to the different sex categories including traits, experiences, roles, stereotypes, etc. Commonly associated with sex
prototype
the most typical cognitive representation of a category; with social groups, the prototype is the cultural default for representing the group
Chromosomes
the organized units of genes inside the cells of all living organisms.
structural power
the power to shape societies and social systems
genital ridge
the precursor to female or male gonads (ovaries & testes). It appears identical in genetic female and male embryos
intersectional invisibility hypothesis
the prediction that people with multiple subordinate identities are noticed less than those with one subordinate identity
The most frequent cause of death for women in the US is heart disease but doctors less of test and treat heart disease in women
True
While presentation differs, women do not express more emotion than men
True
Women tend to report more negative emotions than men but do not report being less happy than men
True
(T/F) Boys are probably better at spatial tasks bc of experience with video games etc
True, but these differences also appear in infancy, so doesn't fully explain
T/F: Genetically female persons (XX) who get exposed to high levels of androgen in utero can have male-typed genitalia at birth and are sometimes raised as boys
True. This is CAH
There are 46XY males assigned as females who at adolescence secrete large amounts of androgen and thereby have testes descend and their clitoris grows to become a penis True False
True: they don't have enough androgen when born but around adolescence they begin to grow male sex organs
T/F: while many women believe they'd confront a person who treated them sexistly, most actually wouldn't
True; attributional ambiguity makes it hard to know if the comment was sex-based or not
gender discrimination
Unjust treatment based solely on one's sex, sexual orientation, or gender identity
Socialist Feminism
Views the gendered division of labor, capitalism, and the value put on men's work in the public sphere as disadvantaging women. Seeks economic independence for women
gene by environment interaction
when a genetic effect on a trait or behavior emerges only under certain environmental circumstances or when the environmental effect on a trait or behavior depends on a person's genetic makeup
Rank-order accuracy
which sex differences are larger than others?
Narrative Research
written documents, texts
hegemonic masculinity
a culturally idealized version of manhood that reinforces men's control over women
Autism Spectrum Disorder
a developmental disorder typically characterized by sensory sensitivities, repetitive behaviors, and difficulty with speech and social interaction
Latinx
a gender-neutral term referring to someone of Latin American heritage
dyslexia
a learning disability by impairments in reading, including difficulties with word recognition and spelling
Mansplaining
a man explains to a woman something that she already know for corrects her in front of others to demonstrate that he has more expertise
Variance
a measure of how far the scores in a distribution vary, on average, from the mean of the distribution
standard deviation
a measure of how far the scores in a distribution vary, on average, from the mean value of the distribution; the square root of variance
constructivist-ecological perspective
a model asserting that gender development occurs through a dynamic and reciprocal interaction between children and their surrounding contexts
ex post facto design
a non experimental design in which groups of people who differ on a participant variable (eg sex) are compared on some dependent variable
Mini-puberty
a period from birth to about 6 months in which boys experience surges in testosterone and girls experience surges in testosterone and estrogen
equality
a principle in which each individual is treated the same, regardless of background
effect size
a quantitative measure of the magnitude and direction of a difference between groups or of the strength of a relationship between variables
quasi-experimental
a researcher identifies pre-existing participant groups and assigns them to different levels of an independent variable. Can include person-by-treatment and ex post facto designs. Because of the lack of full random assignment, these designs have reduced experimental control. Cause-and-effect conclusions are limited.
experimental
a researcher manipulates an independent variable, randomly assigns participants to different conditions, and measures their standing on a dependent variable
person-by-treatment
a researcher takes pre-existing participant groups, randomly assigns them to different levels of at least on independent variable, and compares them on one or more dependent variables. Due to incomplete, random assignment, these designs have moderate experimental control. Cause-and-effect conclusions are possible, but limited.
Matrilineal Society
a society in which descent & inheritance come through the mother's kinship line
matrilocal society
a society in which husbands typically live near their wives' families
patrilineal descent
a society that traces descent through the father's kinship line and passes inheritance down from fathers to their offspring
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items.
Allele
a variant form of a gene
mental rotation ability
ability to rotate an object in one's mind
General intelligence predicts
academic, job performance, and health
Rank-order accuracy
accuracy regarding the relative sizes of sex differences across different domains
reflexity
acknowledging that the values of a researcher play a role in the design, findings, and interpretations of a study
Intersectionality
an approach that examines how social categories and the advantages associated with them interact so shape people's life experiences and opportunity (can be sex, gender, race, class, age...)
Where of the following is represented by the d statistic?
an effect size statistic that expresses the magnitude and direction of a difference between group means in standardized units
achievement motivation
an individual's need to meet goals and accomplish tasks
Postpositivism
an orientation that views empirical investigation as a useful method for acquiring knowledge but recognizes its inherent biases and values
High power emotions
anger & disgust
Unidimensional conceptualization
assumes masculinity and femininity are polar opposites, and an individual can't possess both at once
Pansexual
attraction to people of all sexes and genders
gender stereotypes
attributes associated with different sexes
privelege
automatic, unearned advantages associated with belonging to a dominant group
collective action
behavior enacted on behalf of a group with the goal of improving conditions for the entire group
Cross-sex behavior
behavior that is strongly associated with a sex group other than one's own
generic beliefs
beliefs about categories as wholes, without reference to numbers or proportions
statistical beliefs
beliefs about categories that involve numbers or proportions
diamond
biased interaction model; biology impacts temperament, and temperament influences gender conformity
Intersex
biological components of sex (chromosomes, hormones, internal/external genitalia) do not consistently fit either the typical male pattern or the typical female pattern
biosocial constructionist theory
biological differences between M&W lead to sex-based labor divisions in society which then shape roles, skills, and stereotypes
Cisgender
birth sex and psychological identity align
Transgender
birth sex and psychological identity do not align
Hormones
chemical substances in the body that regulate bodily function such as digestion, growth, and reproduction
gender schema theory
children develop gender schemas that help them interpret info. Range from schematic to schematic
social learning theory
children learn gender beliefs through operant conditioning and imitation
effort-based learning
emphasized in East Asia, where students are expected to put effort into subjects regardless of personal interest
evolutionary psychology
explains human behavior in terms of genetically heritable adaptations that evolved because they helped ancestral humans survive and reproduce
intersexual selection
features get passed down beaucse they gave an animal a comparative advantage against same-sex animals for access to mates
sexual selection
features that increase the likelihood of mating get passed down through genes
Agender
feel internally ungendered
gender fluid
gender identity shifts or changes flexibly rather than remaining constant
gender constancy
gender not influenced by clothing, appearance, occupation
Gender self-socialization model
gender views are all cognitive associations that differ in strength
psychologists agree that intelligence consists of several separate yet correlated components. This is named ____________
general intelligence
Complete Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
genetic males who typical identify as females infertile, no period, female gentialia and internal testes
partial androgen insensitivity syndrome
genetic males, can be male or Female variations in fertility, big clitoris or small penis
gender schematic
having a tendency to use gender as a salient schema for understanding the world
X-linked diseases
hemophilia, muscular dystrophy, fibroids
gender intensification hypothesis
hypothesis that gender role socialization pressures increase during adolescence, resulting in increases in adolescents' gendered self-views
double standard of aging
idea that women's social value declines with age as their beauty and sexual appeal fade while men's value increases with age as their life experience and social status increase
Alice Eagly
identified difference between sex and gender. Sex = categorizes people Gender = gives meanings to sex categories
devlopmental in-group theory
identify their own identity group as more positive and learn that gender is an important social group
Ethnography
immersion within a culture or subculture
sex typing
in social learning theories, the processes by which individuals acquire gendered behavior patterns
gender identity
individual's psychological experience of their gender and how they identify as man, woman, nonbinary, or genderqueer
gender role attitudes
indivual's beliefs of roles
Genitalia
internal and external reproductive organs
Rhoda Unger ___
introduced the term gender
Asexual
lack of desire for sex or sexual partners
Education Debt
lack of investment in the education of low-income and racial minority students that leads to different educational experiences and outcomes based on race and income.
gender aschematic
lacking the tendency to use gender as a salient schema for understanding the world
D value .66-1.00
large
discrepancy accuracy
magnitude?
precarious manhood hypothesis
manhood is a precarious social status that is hard to earn and easy to lose. 1) manhood requires social achievements 2) not being masculine means you can lose ur status 2) risky behavior helps one look manly
gender traits
masculine, feminine, androgynous
D value 0.36-0.65
medium
NOMAS
men against sexism, also looks into men's psychological and physical health
status legitimizing beliefs
meritocratic. Make hierarchy seem fair and legitimate. just world
Sexism
negative attitudes and behavior toward a person based on their sex, combined with institutional and cultural practice that support the unequal status of different sex categories
hostile sexism
negative, antagonistic attitudes toward women who violate traditional gender role norms
Focus group
open-ended questions, group format, moderator
participant's bias
participants respond the way they think the researcher expects
One of the best predictors of actual mate selection is __________________
partner homogamy
Two predictors of marital happiness
perceived equity of 1) decision making and 2) labor divisions
Parent-child interaction
phenomenon in which a parent and child mutually influence one another and therefore jointly contribute to the child's development
Masculinity
possession of physical and psychological attributes typically associated with men
feminity
possession of physical and psychological attributes typically associated with women
Gender stability
sex remains largely constant across time
low power emotions
shame & sadness
gender stereotypes
shared beliefs about the traits, qualities, and tendencies associated with different sex categories
D value 0.11-0.35
small
modern sexism
socially acceptable form of sexism consisting of a denial that women still face gender discrimination, coupled with resentment toward women who seek social change
motherhood mandate
societal expectation that women should have children and invest significant time and energy in raising them
Boys outperform girls on every spatial ability except ___________
spatial location memory (probably bc women were foragers)
Whorfian hypothesis
structure of a language determines people's perceptions. Includes generic masculine, diminutives, and unnecessary labeling
benevolent sexism
subjectively positive but patronizing attitudes toward women who conform to traditional gender role norms
When psychologists report discovering sex differences on some variable (e.g. optimism), what do they typically mean by this?
t's unlikeIy this instance occurred due to chance
Generalization
tendency to assume that a new member of a category has the same qualities as other category members
Female deficit model
tendency to view sex differences as arising from something that women lack
One limitation of correlational designs is ______
the 3rd variable problem
Who found that cognitive abilities can be grouped by verbal, quantitative, and spatial abilities?
the Thurstones
verbal fluency
the ability to generate words
spatial relations
the ability to perceive, understand, and remember relations between objects in three-dimensional space
spatial location memory
the ability to remember the location of objects in physical space
Heternormative
the assumption that "normal" sexuality is heterosexual
Power
the capacity to determine one's own and other people's outcomes
sex differentiation
the complex processes that unfold as sex-undifferentiated embryos transition into individuals with male, female, or intersex internal and external genitalia
XO/Turner's Syndrome
Female, infertile, short, female genitalia, undeveloped sex organs,
Men and women show no differences in how they define and show love in a romantic context
True
T/F: Gender stereotypes are endorsed just as strongly today as they were in the mid-1980s
True
T/F: female sex is the biological default. Those without a SRY gene develop ovaries
True
T/F: qualitative methods are considered scientific
True
Down Syndrome
A genetic disorder characterized by physical growth delays, mild to moderate intellectual impairment, and distinct physical features
within-group variance
A measure of how spread out the values are among people within the same group (or within the same condition of an experiment)
participant variable
A naturally occurring feature of research participants (e.g., sex, personality, or nationality) that is measured in a study rather than manipulated.
Reproductive cells have ...
23 unpaired chromosomes
interaction effect
A pattern in which strength or direction of the association between an independent variable and a dependent variable differs as a function of another independent variable
Equity
A principle in which each individual is treated fairly, by taking background into account
Intersexuality
A condition in which biological components of sex (chromosomes, hormones, genitals, and internal and external sex organs) do not consistently fit the typical male pattern or the typical female pattern.
Androcentrism
A cultural ideology that defines men and their experiences as universal, and treats women and their experiences as deviations from the male norm
quasi-experiment
A design that mimics the appearance of a true experiment but in which the researcher lacks control over one or more manipulations
Scientific Method
A process by which researchers conduct systematic studies in order to test hypotheses derived from theory
meta-analysis
A quantitative technique that allows researchers to integrate research findings across a large collection of individual studies
person-by-person treatment design
A quasi-experimental design involving at least one participant variable and at least one true independent variable with random assignment
mixed methods approach
A research approach that combines both qualitative and quantitative methods within the same study or same program of research
ex post facto
A researcher compares pre-existing participant groups on 1 or more dependent variables. Cause-and-effect relationships cannot be determined due to lack of random assignment and low experimental control, resulting int he reverse causation and 3rd variable problems.
Correlational
A researcher measures people's standing on continuous participant variables and examines the strength and direction of the association between them. Cause-and-effect relationships cannot be determined due to lack of random assignment and low experimental control, resulting in the reverse causation and 3rd variable problems
Familialism
A set of collectivistic social values that promote loyalty, support, and interdependence among family members
patrilocal society
A society in which wives typically live near their husbands' families.
heritability estimate
A statistic that specifies the proportion of total population variance in a given trait that is due to genetic differences among the people in the population. Heritability estimates can range from 0-100%
Based on both atypical and typical chromosomal patterns, what relationship appears to exist between chromosomal patterns and gender identity? A) The presence of a Y chromosome strongly predicts a male gender identity B) The presence of an X chromosome strongly predicts a female gender identity C) The presence of a third chromosome predicts male gender identity D) People with atypical chromosomal patterns tend to identify as female
A) The presence of a Y chromosome strongly predicts a male gender identity
Which of the following if the best example of a status legitimizing belief? A) Women are low in agency but high in warmth B) People of color face undue discrimination in the hiring process C) Rich people are usually born into their wealth D) People have unequal access to education opportunities
A) Women are low in agency but high in warmth
Research shows that parents and young adults emphasize different criteria for determining when adolescents become adults. For example, parents might place more emphasis on _______ whereas young adults are more likely to emphasize ...) A) avoiding juvenile misbehavior; getting married B) finishing college; having children C) biological changes; refraining from binge drinking D) having children; biological changes
A) avoiding juvenile misbehavior; getting married
According to evolutionary psychology in what contexts should sex differences emerge? A) in domains in which women and men historically faced different adaptive problems B) for behaviors that are rewarded differently for men and women by cultures C) in traits that only helped males or females attract as many mates as possible D) for capacities that helped detect predators and immediate threats in the environment
A) in domains in which woman and men historically faced different adaptive problems
______ power manifests by shaping how society operates in determining which groups of people have access to resources. A) structural B) relational C) dyadic d) partilineal
A) structural
a) The average performance of ADOLESCENT boys on standardized test exceed that of girls and b) boys consistently outperform girls when it comes to school math grades.
A) true B) False. Swap Em
A key theme in the third wave of the women's movement is ______. A. a rejection of the idea that all women experience a common oppression B. further inclusivity, extending to concern over men's issues C. a move toward collecting more qualitative data that better captures the experiences of women D. a focus on women living in the rural south
A. a rejection of the idea that all women experience a common oppression
While on average women are rated more highly than men on traits such as _____, men are rated more highly on ____. A) Effectiveness: competitiveness B) Emotional sensitivity: cooperativeness C) competence: agreeableness D) kindness; assertiveness
D) kindness; assertiveness
Glick and Fiske
Ambivalent sexism, male ambivalence
d statistic
An effect size statistic that expresses the magnitude and direction of a difference between group means, or of the strength of association between variables, in standardized units
Scientific Positivism
An orientation that emphasizes the scientific method and proposes that objective and value-free knowledge is attainable through empirical investigation.
Nonbinary / Genderqueer
An umbrella term for people who fall outside the sex and gender binaries and identify as neither man nor woman
stereotype threat
Anxiety individuals feel when concerned that their behavior or performance might confirm a negative group stereotype
Punishment
Any response following a behavior that decreases the likelihood of the behavior occurring again
Reinforcement
Any response following a behavior that increases the likelihood of the behavior occurring again
Liberal Feminism
Asserts that men and women should be treated equally because they are equal in characteristics and ability. Supports legislation that removes barriers for women and leads to greater opportunity.
cultural/difference feminism
Asserts that there are fundamental differences between men and women. Advocates that the qualities of women be as valued and respected as the qualities of men.
Status Incongruity Hypothesis
Assumption that gender role violating women are viewed negatively because they are seen as too dominant, while gender role violating men are viewed negatively because they are seen as too low in status. These perceptions violate the gender status hierarchy, and make people uncomfortable.
Which of the following pieces of evidence has been found in support of sex ratio theory? A) Women's mate preferences are more selective when men outnumber them B) Men show more relationship commitment when they outnumber women C) Women marry younger when they outnumber men D) Women have more sexual partners when they are outnumbered by men
B) Men show more relationship commitment when they outnumber women
Which of the following is an example of stereotype threat? A) participants rating a Black male as more threatening and intimidating than a white male B) a female performing worse in an online video game following a reminder that few women play the game C) police officers targeting suspects based on race D) feelings of anxiety that result from being in the presence of racial outgrips
B) a female performing worse in an online video game following a reminder that few women play the game
The complex series of processes that unfolds as embryos transition into an individual with male, female, or intersex genitalia is called _______ A) sex selection B) sex differentiation C) gender assignment D) tenderization
B) sex differentiation
Which of the following is the best example of nurture influencing nature? A) naturally artistic parents exposing their children to arts at an early age B) the finding that girls who experience higher family stress tend to have an earlier age of menstruation C) the relationship between violent media exposure in childhood and aggression in adulthood D) a genetically shy person deliberately choosing quieter environments
B) the finding that girls who experience higher family stress tend to have an earlier age of menstruation
Radical Feminism
Believes that patriarchy must be dismantled. Seeks to rid society of rid society of rigid gender roles and oppression of women
gut-brain axis
Bidirectional communications that take place between the brain and the gastro tract
Which racial group is most likely to be a single parent?
Black women
Rhoda Unger (1979) argued for using "sex" to refer to the ___ aspects of being female or male while "gender" should be used when discussing the ___ aspects. A) Culturally constructed; biological B) Hormonal; culturally constructed C) Biological; culturally constructed D) Anatomical; hormonal
C) Biological; culturally constructed
Halpern and colleagues (2011) found what about the accuracy of gender stereotypes for cognitive tasks? A) Stereotypes accurately reflect the size of sex differences but not the direction B) People tend to overestimate the size of sex difference in cognitive abilities C) Gender stereotypes about cognitive abilities are largely accurate for direction D) Stereotypes are accurate for boys cognitive abilities but not for girls
C) Gender stereotypes about cognitive abilities are largely accurate for direction
Using "sex" to refer to biological differences between men and women and "gender" to refer to the culturally constructed differences is problematic for which of the following reasons? A) Biology has too small of an influence to warrant its own term. B) It overemphasizes the role of socialization and cultural forces. C) It is difficult to pinpoint the precise influence of biology and culture in sex differences. D) The terms sex and gender fail to account for issues related to intersectionality.
C) It is difficult to pinpoint the precise influence of biology and culture in sex differences.
Mastic and Conley (2016) discovered that members of the LGBTQ community hold unique stereotypes about heterosexual men and women. For example, heterosexual men were stereotyped as ____ white heterosexual women were stereotyped as ______. A) appearance obsessed; intolerant B) unintelligent; ignorant C) macho; hyper feminine D) efficient; caring
C) Macho; hyper feminine
John Money's optimal sex policy at John Hopkins University reflected his belief that ______. A) gender identity is primarily driven by genetic sex B) gender identity doesn't begin forming until adolescence C) social factors can override any role that biology plays in gender identity D) physical appearance may not be consistent with assigned sex
C) Social factors can override any role that biology plays in gender identity
Which of the following has been shown to contribute to the attributional ambiguity of discrimination? A) encountering evidence in an aggregated format B) whether the source of the discrimination is male or female C) embedding discriminatory sentiments in humor D) the presence of bystanders
C) embedding discriminatory sentiments in humor
XXX (Triple X Syndrome)
Female Fertile; taller than average; female-typical internal and external anatomy
There is some disagreement over which part of the definition of sexism? A) whether stereotypes that do not result in discrimination count as sexism B) whether conscious prejudice is a necessary component of sexism C) whether groups with greater structural power (ie men) can be victims of sexism D) the sex-based discrimination perpetrated by and targeting women is sexism
C) whether groups with greater structural power (ie men) can be victims of sexism
Intersexuality refers to instances where ______. A. gender identity transcends multiple sex categories B. people feel sexual attraction to others regardless of their gender identity C. biological components of sex do not fit the typical male/female pattern D. there is a mismatch between anatomical and psychological gender
C. biological components of sex do not fit the typical male/female pattern
Big 5 Personality Dimensions
CANOE: the 5 primary dimensions that underlies differences in personality Conscientiousness Agreeableness Neuroticism Openness to Experience Extraversion
Black feminism/womanism
Calls out the exclusion of Black women and other women of color from mainstream feminism and recognizes that race, gender, and class intersect to shape experiences
cognitive development theory
Children learn gender beliefs as they mature cognitively through gender identity -> stability -> constancy. This understanding helps children learn gender roles & stereotypes
sex binary
Conceptualization of sex as consisting of two opposite and nonoverlapping categories, such as male or female.
resource control
Controlling the creation or distribution of essential and desirable goods such as money, land, food, and other valued commodities.
Based on research studying the influence of parents in gender socialization, which of the following findings would you NOT expect to find? A) Children raised by same-sex parents are less likely to endorse certain gender stereotypes B) Mothers estimate that their sons can crawl down steeper slopes than their daughters C) Parents assign girls more household chores than boys D) Parents are less flexible in allowing girls to pursue behavior associated with the other sex
D) Parents are less flexible in allowing girls to pursue behavior with the other sex; (actually, they're more able than boys)
Which of the following explanations of the origins of gender stereotypes is the most consistent with evolutionary psychology? A) People associate men with competitive and dominant traits because of their high social status in society B) Men are prone to risk taking because society rewards risky behavior in men more than women. C) People infer women are nurturing because they observe them caring for children more than men D) People associate men with assertiveness because such traits facilitated man's likelihood of reproducing
D) People associate men with assertiveness because such traits facilitated man's likelihood of reproducing
Which of the following outcomes would NOT be consistent with the precarious manhood hypothesis? A) Men are more likely than women to expect losing their job will affect their reputation B) Men engage in more public displays of risky behavior C) Men who experience job loss as emasculating experience increased anxiety D) When women feel they are seen as "less of a woman," they report greater depression
D) When women feel they are seen as "less of a woman," they report greater depression
Sex difference in gendered self-views are larger in cultures that have more gender equality. Which of the following is consistent with this finding? A) Men are less communal than women but this difference is smallest in European countries B) Women are more aggressive than men in countries low on gender equality but are less aggressive than men in countries high on gender equality C) Men score higher on assertiveness than women, but only in countries low on gender equality D) Women score higher than men on warmth and this difference is largest in the west
D) Women score higher than men on warmth and this difference is largest in the West
Which of the following best describes the relationship between benevolent and hostile sexism? A) negatively correlated B) unrelated C) culturally dependent D) complementary
D) complementary
Cognitive theories differ from social learning theories in that cognitive theories focus more on ______. A) the external forces that influence children's identities and behaviors B) individual level attitudes than group level stereotypes C) top-down processes rather than bottom-up processes D) the internal, mental changes children undergo as they understand their world
D) the internal mental changes children undergo as they understand their world
Lotze et al. (2019) found that compared to women, men tend to show greater volume in the left amygdala (a part of the limbic system involved in processing and expressing emotions, especially fear). What can be concluded from this finding? A) Sex differences in fear expression are more driven by nature than nurture B) Men to have better memories of highly emotional experiences C) Men will generally feel more afraid than women D) this finding alone is not indicative of any meaningful sex differences in emotional experiences
D) this finding alone is not indicative of any meaningful sex differences in emotional experiences
Some social understandings of sex and gender show a great deal of cultural variability, such as ______. A. the tendency to view women as more warm, moral, and appearance oriented B. the acceptance of patriarchal versus matriarchal societies C. stereotypes of men as more physically aggressive D. the acceptability of third sex/gender options
D. the acceptability of third sex/gender options
John Money
David Reimer
Matriarchal
Describes a societal structure in which women/mothers occupy the leadership positions in the society and control how it operates.
What best describes Alice Early and colleagues' findings from a meta-analysis on sex differences in leadership effectiveness?
Diff in male dominated/female dominated contexts
(T/F) Countries with greater gender equality show smaller sex differences in verbal abilities
False
T/F: In the past decade, neuroscientists identified structural sex differences in the brain and linked them definitively to specific psychological sex differences.
False
T/F: the contents of gender stereotypes tend to vary a lot from one culture to another
False
Women have greater natural parenting skills.
False
sex differences in language use emerge consistently among cultures
False
T/F: Sex is shaped entirely by biological factors
False. Sex is caused by interactions between nature & nurture
In the absence of estrogen during embryonicc development, a person would be born anatomically a male True Fale
False: Androgen and MIS determine the sex
T/F: As people enter middle and later adulthood, gender becomes a less central part of the self
False: there is no evidence to degendering theory
in-group bias
Favoritism for one's own social group over other groups
cross-sex friendships
Friendships with people who do not share one's sex
Multidimensional Conceptualization
Gender can include traits + attitudes, roles, and interests that may not relate to each other
Stephen is studying sex differences in helping behavior but he only measures heroic or chivalrous types of helping behaviors. He concludes that men are far more likely to help than women. What is one possible critique of Stephen's study?
Heroic and chivalrous are male-gendered type descriptions of helping behavior
discrepancy accuracy
How large is the sex difference?
Gender Expression
How one expresses themself via dress, social behavior, and other outward factors (masculine, feminine, androgynous, nonbinary)
double jeopardy hypothesis
Hypothesis that individuals who belong to two or more subordinate groups face more discrimination than individuals who belong to only one subordinate group
third variable problem
In correlational research, the possibility that an unmeasured third variable (z) is responsible for the relationship between two correlated variables (x and y).
reverse causation
In correlational research, the possibility that the true cause-effect relationship between two variables is the reverse of what is initially assumed (aka as the directionality problem). Instead of x causing y, it is always possible that y causes x.
emerging adulthood
In western industrialized nations, the period of life between ages 18 and 25 when people transition to more adult roles and reponsibilities
Neurosexism
Interpreting the findings from neuroscience research in ways that reinforce gender stereotypes without valid supporting evidence
Daryl & Sandra Bem
Made sex inventory based on communal and agentic traits. Individual's could score high in both of these M/F categories
two-dimensional conceptualization
Male & Female trait scales that are uncorrelated (a person can present both high levels of M & F traits)
XXY (Klinefelter Syndrome)
Male, infertile. Small testicles and big breasts
Which gender suffers more psychologically after divorce?
Men
The Promise Keepers
Men's empowerment movement. Emphasis on godly life, the male position in the family, and heterosexual relationships.
cognitive abilities
Mental skills, such as paying attention, reasoning, remembering, solving problems, speaking, and interpreting speech.
quantitative methods
Methods in which researchers convert variables of interest into numbers and use statistical analyses to test hypotheses. Examples include experimental, ex post facto, quasi-experimental, and correlational designs.
Feminisms
Movements for the social, political, and economic equality of women and men or, according to bell hooks, movements "to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression."
Are there sex differences in achievement motivation?
No
Do women talk more than men?
No
Does the greater male variability hypothesis hold across all racial & ethnic groups?
No
sexual minority
Referring to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and other non-heterosexual sexual orientations
cultural ideologies
Overarching sets of beliefs and assumptions about groups that justify unequal social hierarchies.
intersectional invisibility hypothesis
People with multiple subordinate identities receive less than those with a single subordinate group identity, meaning they might escape more extreme forms of discrimination
Androgyny
Possession of high levels of both stereotypical male-typed and female-typed traits
Gender confirmation procedures
Procedures that transgender gender individuals sometimes seek to Brin their physical bodies into greater alignment with psychological identities (hormones, surgeries, speech therapy, and psychotherapy)
Genital reconstructive surgery
Surgery that alters the appearance, location, or function of genital tissue. Sought for numerous reasons, including transgender individuals may seek such surgery to bring the appearance or function of their genitalia into greater alignment with their psychological gender identity.
Who created the stereotype content model?
Susan Fiske
women-are-wonderful effect
Tendency for people to view stereotypes about women more favorably than they view stereotypes about men, accordingly, to view (traditional, gender-conforming) women very positively
Plasticity (neuroplasticity)
The ability of the brain to reorganize and adapt physically throughout life in response to life experiences and environmental factors
spatial visualization
The ability to represent and manipulate two- and three-dimensional objects mentally.
verbal reasoning
The ability to understand and analyze concepts, often tested with analogies or word problems. M>F
optimal sex
The binary (male or female) sex perceived to be most advantageous to assign to a newborn whose genitalia appear atypical at birth.
Microbiome
The complex system of microbial microorganisms that lives inside the human body
Between-group variance
The difference between the average values for each group in a study
Gender diagnosticity (GD) score
The estimated probability that an individual is male or female given the individual's gender-related interests. A GD score of .85 means that the individual has an 85% chance of being male and a 15% chance of being female.
social dominance orientation (SDO)
The extent to which individuals believe that inequality among social groups is right and fair because some groups should have more status than others.
In the absence of testosterone (androgen) during embryonic development, a person would be born anatomically a female? True False
True
Math anxiety leads to lower math achievement
True
Reproductive Justice
The human right to personal bodily autonomy, parenthood choices, and safe communities in which to raise children.
sex ratio
The number of men per woman in a given population or locale
dyadic power
The power to choose intimate partners and relationships, and to control the interactions and decisions that occur within those relationships
Math is more nurture verbal ability is more nature
True
Epigenetics
The study of the biological mechanisms that guide whether or not certain genes get expressed
social learning theories
Theories proposing that children learn gendered beliefs, behavior, and preferences by observing and imitating models and by receiving reinforcement and punishment from others
Parental Investment Theory
Theory proposing the sex that invests more in parenting (usually female) will be more selective in its choice of mates and will prefer mates who have social status and resources
(T/F) Most studies find negligible sex differences in scores of general mental ability
True
(T/F) Women are more nonverbally expressive than men
True
(True/False) :Modern sexism denies that gender discrimination still exists and affirmative action must be in place
True
47% of Americans will meet the diagnostic criteria for a mental disorder in their lifetime
True
As gender equality increases, gap in math ability decreases
True
As girl's level of education increases, the degree of poverty in the community decreases
True
In surveys, men generally report being in better health than women.
True
In the US, since the 1960s, both men and women have both increased the amount of time they spend on childcare
True
interest-based learning
Western culture, children are encouraged to channel their effort into the subjects they're interested in
Direction accuracy
Which sex exceeds the other?
Androgen Resistance Syndrome
XY, assigned as girls, don't menstruate correctly
Experimental methods in gender research can be especially challenging because _________
You can not ethically manipulation sex & gender variables, only perceived sex and gender
D value 0-0.1
close to zero
microaggressions
common, everyday insults and indignities directed toward members of subordinate social groups
agency
competence, assertiveness, competitiveness
Deaux/Lewis
components of stereotypes (Traits, Behavior, Occupations, Appearance
gender binary
conceptualization of gender as consisting of two opposite and nonoverlapping categories, such as masculine or feminine
differences of sex development (DSDs)
conditions present at birth in which sex development is atypical in terms of chromosomes, gonads, or anatomy
Dine Halpern
created biopsychosocial model which addresses a range of biological and environmental factors that contribute to cognitive performance
individualistic cultures
culture that value independence and self-reliance and prioritize individual goals and needs over group goals and needs (often in western cultures)
collectivistic cultures
cultures that value fitting in and group solidarity and prioritize group goals and needs over individual goals and needs (eastern cultures)
Machine Learning
data analysis that trains computers how to detect patterns, and learn from data, with minimal human intervention
Patriarchal
describes a societal structure in which men/fathers occupy the leadership positions in the society and control how it operates
attributional ambiguity
difficulty in attributing negative treatment to group-based discrimination when other possible explanations for the treatment are present
women rate a partner's ______ than men do and men rate a partner's _______ as more important
earning potential, attractiveness
Gonads
the sex organs (ovaries and testes) that produce sex cells (egg and sperm) and sex hormones (estrogen and testerone(
Genetics
the study of genes and how physical traits are inherited
personal-group discrimination discrepancy
the tendency for individuals to think that their social groups experience more discrimination than they do personally
system justification theory
the theory proposing that people are motivated to justify the sociopolitical system that governs them (even if it treats them unfairly) because doing so reduces uncertainty
genital tubercle
the undifferentiated embryonic structure that becomes the clitoris or the penis
Ambivalent Sexism Theory
theory proposing that gender relations are characterized by both negative (hostile sexism) and seemingly positive (benevolent sexism) attitudes toward women
Degendering theory
theory that gender becomes a less central aspect of the self as people age
social role theory
theory that gender stereotypes set from people's observations of the social and occupational roles that women and men typically perform
stereotype content model
theory that stereotypes about social groups fall along communion and agency dimensions and that groups may be seen as high or low on both dimensions
gender role attitudes
totalitarian to egalitarian
intersexual selection
traits passed down to give an animal an advantage by increasing its attractiveness to other-sex mates
gender prescriptions
traits that people believe women and men should have
Gender Proscriptions
traits that people believe women and men should not have
Men benefit from marriage more than women do
true
Men tend to talk more about objects
true
T/F: hippcampus + amygdala are larger in mlaes, whereas frontal cortex is denser in Females
true
women and men talk about the same amount
true
LBGTQ people have higher rates of internalizing/externalizing disorders
try
MRI
uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create high-resolution images of brain STRUCTURES
fMRI
uses magnetic fields and radio waves to map brain ACTIVITY
masculine generic
using masculine pronouns and nouns to refer to all people
d value > 1.0
very large
Girls outperform boys on every verbal ability except _________, and the greatest sex difference is found in _______
vocabulary, writing
Communion
warmth, connectedness, and kindness
gender
what attributes and experiences (traits, interests, roles, attitudes, stereotypes, socialization, practices) are associated with the different sex categories
