PSYC100: WS-02

What is the research evidence that controlled processes can become automatic processes? Be prepared to describe Schneider & Shiffrin's methodology and results.

Target letters flashed in front of subjects in two ways. First, they changed every 100 flashes, which required conscious attention and controlled cognition. The other method involved the target letters remaining the same, and flashes lasted several thousand times, shifting the process into an automatic one for subjects.

What is the advantage of being able to allocate cognitive resources to different tasks?

A central concept to cognitive psychology is that motivation determines allocation - the importance of information (sensory, like touch, or factual, like a set of statistics) determines what proportion of your available resources will be consumed about it. Examples: If you are running from a bear, the sensation of being thirsty is hardly important enough to pay attention to. If you are interested in politics, you might listen closely to a debate and reach a judgment based on the quality of each candidates' arguments. If you are not so interested (low motivation) or are distracted by homework (high cognitive load), you might only think about their appearance, manner of speaking, and how the crowd reacts to their speech... things that are easily processed in an automatic, subconscious way.

What is the stroop task? How does it relate to controlled vs. automatic processes?

A great example of how our controlled and automatic processes operate at the same time as you can see in this case, an automatic process interferes with a controlled process.

Who was Clever Hans and why is his story a good example of why scientists who study animal intelligence have to be so careful with their methodology?

A horse who responded to questions requiring mathematical calculations by tapping his hoof. It was eventually discovered (in 1904) by Oskar Pfungst that the horse was responding to subtle physical cues or as Ray Hyman puts it "Hans was responding to a simple, involuntary postural adjustment by the questioner, which was his cue to start tapping, and an unconscious, almost imperceptible head movement, which was his cue to stop." The horse truly was clever, not because he understood human language but because he could perceive very subtle muscle movements. It is often the case that animals are thought to show evidence of linguistic abilities that they do not possess. And humans are thought to be capable of grasping psychic messages when they are just sensitive to the unconscious signaling of others.

What are mnemonics? The resource below provides a number of examples, but we don't expect you to memorize each. Instead, be prepared to define the word mnemonic and provide at least two examples of how they can help you memorize something.

Acronym: an invented combination of letters with each letter acting as a cue to an idea you need to remember. Acrostic: an invented sentence where the first letter of each word is a cue to an idea you need to remember. Rhyme-keys: Memorize key words that can be associated with numbers (one-bun); Create an image of the items you need to remember with key words. (A bun with cheese on it will remind me of dairy products.) Loci method: Imagine placing the items you want to remember in specific locations in a room with which you are familiar. Keyword method: Select the foreign words you need to remember, then identify an English word that sounds like the foreign one. Now imagine an image that involves the keyword with the English meaning of the foreign word. Image-name technique: invent a relationship between the name and the physical characteristics of the person. Chaining: Create a story where each word or idea you have to remember will cue the next idea you need to recall.

What is amnesia? Distinguish the difference between: Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia.

Amnesia is a condition where there is a loss of memory. Retrograde amnesia: Refers to the inability to remember things prior to the onset of memory loss. Someone with a head injury may have no memory of a couple hours prior to the accident, while someone else might forget their name or identity, but is perfectly able to form new memories. In some cases people with such a condition might go on to form completely new lives. Anterograde amnesia: Refers to an inability to form new memories, even though memories from the past remain intact. Individuals with Alzheimer's disease may remember childhood and their life several years ago, but may not remember who their family members are today or what they did five minutes ago.

How do people conserve mental load by using heuristics? Be prepared to define, give examples of, and distinguish between:

Availability Heuristic: The easier it is to think of instances of something, the more often we assume that thing occurs. For example, are there more murders or suicides? Are planes more dangerous than cars, we do hear about more plane crashes, don't we? Representative Heuristic: Applies to judgments about which category something belongs in. For example, you might look at the way someone is dressed and make instant judgments about their intelligence, friendliness, and sexual preference.

How does an IQ score relate to the concept of g?

Because it is meant to represent a baseline of intelligence among individuals, even though the individual items in the test measure different forms of reasoning and problem solving.

What do psychologists mean when they theorize about g?

Charles Spearman (1863-1945) called general intelligence the g factor, some core level of basic intelligence that underlies all other specific abilities.

What is chunking and why does it increase the amount of information you can store in STM?

Chunking allows the brain to automatically group certain items together, hence the ability to remember and learn better. Because short term memory is limited to Miller's Magic Number, it is a lot harder to memorize one 10-digit number (9495214716) than it is to remember five 2-digit numbers (94-95-21-47-16). Chunk things together into meaningful units can help you encode and store information.

How do sociobiologists explain the similarities and differences between the cognitive capacities of various species?

Comparative cognition is the scientific study of thought and intelligence in non-human species. Specific cognitive capacities evolved because they provided the particular species with some advantage when it comes to staying alive and having offspring. We cannot judge all other species' intelligence against our own, we have to understand the similarities and differences across species in the context in which each species survived. For example, if hiding food was advantageous (as it still is for squirrels), we would expect those with better "mental maps" and memories to survive and reproduce.

What is the difference between Automatic and Controlled cognition? Describe this in terms of intention, awareness, control and effort.

Controlled cognition requires conscious, control and effort. For example, when someone inexperienced drives a car, their awareness needs to increase. Automatic cognition requires little or no conscious guidance. Our brain has limited resources, so if we are engaged in a difficult controlled process (e.g., trying to memorize a long series of numbers), we will not have the power to do other intensive mental tasks (e.g., have an intelligent conversation). That is, one task interferes with another. However, we would still be able to carry out several automatic processes (e.g., recognizing the face of someone you know) because they do not really require any mental resources.

What causes us to forget?

Decay - it is possible that the information has dissolved over time and is lost forever. Much like the information in our sensory information decays rapidly, information we do not access frequently might be lost permanently. Interference - sometimes it is hard to encode information correctly or to recall it efficiently because our brain is processing something else at the same time. One thing interferes with the other. For example, you might not be able to recall something that you studied just before hearing some terrible news - all of the thinking you did about the bad news might interfere with the information you just encoded. Insufficient priming - the memory might be stored correctly, but you may not have enough activation to locate it and move it from long term to short term memory. For example, if you are trying to remember someone's name, it might be helpful to run through the letters in the alphabet. Once you get to "S", you might have triggered the memory by adding in the right prime to your efforts. Disorganization - it is also possible that the information is stored, but that you cannot find it due to some error in the manner the information was organized in storage. So it might not be gone, it might just be hard to access. Have you even tried to remember something, and then all of a sudden minutes or even hours later, it just pops into mind?

What is the difference between decay and a failure to retrieve memory?

Decay is when information is lost because it has not been retrieved in a certain amount of time. Failure to retrieve memory can occur because of interference, insufficient priming, disorganization, or even decay.

What is elaborative rehearsal and why does it help you remember things? How is it related to schemas and priming?

Elaborative rehearsal involves forming associations with other meaningful things. The more associations you form when you encode the information, the more likely you are to encode, store, and retrieve the information later. This is known as elaborative rehearsal, because you elaborate on the information to add complexity and meaning. Creating links in the schema, an enlarging it.

What is emotional intelligence?

Emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize your emotions, understand what they're telling you, and realize how your emotions affect people around you. It also involves your perception of others: when you understand how they feel, this allows you to manage relationships more effectively. Concerns the extent to which you are aware of and can effectively adjust to your emotions and those of others. The extent to which you have a high or low level of emotional intelligence (EQ) might have profound implications for how well you can regulate your own behavior and get along with other people.

What are the three processes of memory? That is, what has to happen in order to store and use information?

Encoding: The process we use to transform information so that it can be stored, it means transforming the data into a meaningful form such as an association with an existing memory, an image, or a sound Storage: Holding onto the information, a physiological change must occur for the memory to be stored. Retrieval: Bringing the memory out of storage and reversing the process of encoding. In other words, return the information to a form similar to what we stored.

How can we explain why being in the same state facilitates recall in terms of the Encoding Specificity Hypothesis and how the contextual primes might increase the accessibility of information.

Endel Tulving proposed the Encoding Specificity Principle, according to which memory performance depends on the similarity between the information comprising a memory trace and the information available at recall. When we are encoding an event into memory, the memory trace is made up of details about the event (who was there, what they said, etc), but also of the context in which the event occurred. Context in this sense is a broad term, encompassing elements such as where and when the event happened, who else was there, and also thoughts and feelings we had while experiencing the event. These internally-generated thoughts and feelings are likely to be influenced by many factors. For example, was it dark or light, warm or cold, noisy or quiet, were we happy or sad, drunk or sober, etc. All these elements are bound together to form the memory trace relating to that event.What Tulving realised was that this isn't the whole story, however. According to the encoding specificity principle, the context we are in when we try to retrieve a memory can also have a substantial impact on our likelihood of successfully accessing the correct memory trace. Specifically, the chances of retrieval success are directly determined by the overlap between the encoding and retrieval contexts. Thus, bizarre as it may seem, if we are drunk at encoding, our subsequent memory will be more successful if we are also drunk at retrieval.

What is Miller's magic number?

George Miller's classic 1956 study found that the amount of information that can be remembered in one exposure is between five and nine items, depending on the information. Applying a range of +2 or -2, the number 7 became known as Miller's Magic Number, the number of items which can be held in Short-Term Memory at any one time.

How might someone argue that there are actually many different types of intelligence?

Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences suggested that one person with strong logic-math and spatial-visual intelligence would be a chess expert while another person with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence would be an Olympic athlete. Critics point out, however, that the list could go on forever if we consider every way in which we might be different from each other.

Why might someone's EQ be as important, if not more important, than his or her IQ?

In a social world, the ability to regulate yourself and work effectively with others may have as much, or even more, to do with your success than your IQ. Psychologists are still debating how we can accurately measure EQ, but there is at least some research that suggests EQ is more predictive of success in relationships and at work than IQ.

What are some ways in which this bias can have harmful consequences?

Makes first impressions very significant, which can be harmful if they do not go well.

How did Kruglanski et al. (2002) demonstrate that seemingly objective judgments could be influenced by motivations subconsciously? Be prepared to describe the methodology and results of their study.

Maryland students were asked to describe their thoughts about either the the basketball team making it into the final four or when there was vandalism in College Park after Duke won. They were then asked to describe their feelings about either event, and the results were what were expected - feelings of pride and excitement for the inclusion, and feelings of disappointment and shame for the vandalism. Later, as a separate "mini-experiment" students were given two pieces of fabric and were asked which was of higher quality. One was red and one was purple, and unbeknownst to participants the two pieces were made of the same exact material. People who were asked about qualifying for the final four rated the red fabric as being the better one, while people who were asked about the vandalism preferred the purple fabric. Subconsciously, people who were more prideful preferred the red one because of its association with something they were proud of - UMD. Similarly, people who were motivated to distance themselves from the campus believed that the purple fabric was of higher quality. Their motivation to associate with, or distance themselves from, the campus identity subconsciously biased what they thought were honest, objective and rational judgments. It is important to stress that point - participants did not report thinking that their decisions were influenced by the earlier task, they actually thought one piece of fabric was better than the other.

What is the research evidence that we have state-dependent memory?

One aspect of state-dependent memory, and the idea that the plot of The Hangover is based on, is that if you experience an event in one physiological state (e.g., drunk), your memory for the event is likely to be impaired if you later try to remember it in another physiological state (e.g., sober). One of the first was by Donald Goodwin and colleagues, published in Science in 1969, who asked male volunteers to perform memory tasks that involved learning and remembering words while either sober or under the effects of alcohol. As displayed in the figure, Goodwin et al. found, as would be expected, good retention of the words if the volunteers had been sober at learning and sober at recall. Perhaps unsurprisingly, if volunteers were sober at learning but drunk at recall, their memory was relatively impaired. And, as illustrated in The Hangover, volunteers who were drunk at learning and sober at recall were also amnesic. The really interesting finding was that the group of volunteers who were intoxicated at learning (and we're talking a mean of 111 mg of alcohol per 100 ml of breath, or roughly 3 times the UK drink driving limit), and were similarly inebriated during the retention test, nevertheless recalled a comparable amount to those who had been sober on both occasions. As Goodwin et al. concluded, the results indicated "that learning which the subject acquires while he is intoxicated may be more available to him while he is intoxicated than when he is sober."

How is accessibility influenced by: Priming, Chronic Use, Emotional Impact? Be prepared to discuss how priming helps to retrieve information from memory.

Priming A prime is a stimulus that activates a related concept. Priming relates to how recently you've accessed a piece of information or have been in contact with a primne, which increases its accessibility for next time, "brings it to the top of the tank." Can make an entire schema more accessible. Chronic use? Frequency of access Emotional impact? Emotional significance definitely helps access it

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Rehearsing or repeating a certain thing enough times until it is encoded well enough to be stored and available for retrieval when it's needed.

What is a schema? What is the advantage of storing information this way?

Schemas are groups of information that are linked together because they are somehow related. For example, you have a "zoo" schema that contains all of the things you generally associate with the concept, like the animals, the enclosures, that time a chimpanzee threw something stinky at you and everyone on the school trip laughed. A collection of linked concepts. E.g. "Bird." Animal... Beaks, claws, flight, wings, defecation... Pigeons, cities, NYC, American, Eagles...

How would you describe each of the five dimensions of Emotional Intelligence?

Self-Awareness: They understand their emotions, and because of this, they don't let their feelings rule them. They're confident - because they trust their intuition and don't let their emotions get out of control. They're also willing to take an honest look at themselves. They know their strengths and weaknesses, and they work on these areas so they can perform better. Many people believe that this self-awareness is the most important part of emotional intelligence. Self-Regulation: People who self-regulate typically don't allow themselves to become too angry or jealous, and they don't make impulsive, careless decisions. They think before they act. Motivation: They're willing to defer immediate results for long-term success. They're highly productive, love a challenge, and are very effective in whatever they do. Empathy: Empathy is the ability to identify with and understand the wants, needs, and viewpoints of those around you. People with empathy are good at recognizing the feelings of others, even when those feelings may not be obvious. As a result, empathetic people are usually excellent at managing relationships, listening, and relating to others. They avoid stereotyping and judging too quickly, and they live their lives in a very open, honest way. Social Skills: Those with strong social skills are typically team players. Rather than focus on their own success first, they help others develop and shine. They can manage disputes, are excellent communicators, and are masters at building and maintaining relationships.

What is short-term memory (STM)?

Sensory information that is relevant to us at the moment or a memory we are thinking about are stored in short term memory, often referred to as working memory. Selective attention determines what information moves from sensory memory to short-term memory. STM is most often stored as sounds, especially in recalling words, but may be stored as images. It works basically the same as a computer's RAM (Random Access Memory) in that it provides a working space for short computations and then transfers it to other parts of the memory system or discards it. It is thought to be about seven bits in length, that is, we normally remember seven items. STM is vulnerable to interruption or interference. Working memory - An active process to keep it until it is put to use (think of a phone number you'll repeat to yourself until you can dial it on the phone). Note that the goal is not really to move the information from STM to LTM, but merely put the information to immediate use.

What is sensory memory?

Sensory memory allows our brain to take all of the information coming in from our sensory systems (e.g., eye, ears, nose) and hold on to it for a moment so that the information can be processed, organized, and interpreted. The sensory memory retains an exact copy of what is seen or heard (visual and auditory). It only lasts for a few seconds, while some theorize it last only 300 milliseconds. It has unlimited capacity. For example, if we flash an image to your eyes, your sensory memory maintains that image for a fraction of a second to give you more time to understand the information coming in from your eyes.

How do your motivations influence your judgment?

The confirmation bias is another example of motivated cognition because we want to be correct... and that motivation leads us to look for and remember information that confirms what we already believe. Start with this video, which provides an overview of the concept.

What is cognitive load and how does it explain why we cannot truly multitask?

The extent to which our mind is engaged in controlled processing is known as cognitive load... the more load we have at the moment, the less we are capable of thinking about.

What is Metcognition

The word metacognition means higher level cognition and refers to thinking about the thought process itself. A simple example of metacognition is double-checking. The reason for double-checking is to avoid costly errors. Carpenters have a saying that relates to this: "Measure twice, cut once."

What is cognitive accessibility?

Things are more accessible in your brain if they are used frequently.

What is long-term memory (LTM)?

This is relatively permanent storage. Information is stored on the basis of meaning and importance. The knowledge we store in LTM affects our perceptions of the world, and influences what information in the environment we attend to. LTM provides the framework to which we attach new knowledge. It contrasts with short-term and perceptual memory in that information can be stored for extended periods of time and the limits of its capacity are not known.

What are some things in your life that used to require effort but now happen automatically? Give at least two of your own examples that weren't mentioned in the reading or in class.

Tying shoes and typing on the keyboard.

What is confirmation bias and how might it influence you?

When you set out to get information that would confirm an unofficial hypothesis. A confirmation bias is a cognitive bias that applies to how we seek, interpret, and remember information. We tend to give weight to evidence that supports our beliefs. Also applies to how we remember information, i.e, we only remember good luck charms helping us be lucky.

How is the cocktail party effect an example of motivation determining allocation?

You are in a crowded room full of conversations and you are having one of your own, and then suddenly you hear someone else say your name in their conversation. Your brain was subconsciously eavesdropping the whole time, but the information did not seem important enough to interrupt you... until it detected your name. If someone is talking about you, it might be important enough to shift your resources over to that conversation.