PSYCH 001 Midterm 3
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
An index of intelligence computed by dividing a child's estimated mental age by the child's chronological age, then multiplying number by 100
Biological basis of morality
Brain regions involved in moral reasoning: 1. prefrontal cortex (important for capacity of morality) 2. amygdala and insula (associated with emotional responses and are active during moral judgments
Speed of mental processing
By measuring the electrical activity of brains in response to the presentation of stimuli, researchers have found that highly intelligent people's brains work faster than less intelligent people's brains
Michael Tomasello
Found that the early social interactions between infant and caregiver are essential to understanding other people and being able to communicate with them through language
Functional fixedness
In problem solving, having fixed ideas about the typical functions of an object. to overcome functional fixedness, the problem solver needs to reinterpret an object's potential function
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts people use to make decisions -efficient but not necessarily accurate -four common heuristics that bias decision making: 1. relative comparisons (anchoring and framing) 2. availability 3. representatives 4. affective
Kohlberg's stage theory
- devised a theory of moral judgment that involved 3 main levels of moral reasoning: 1. preconventional level 2. conventional level 3. post - conventional level
psychometric approach
- to measure intelligence -focuses on how people perform on standardized tests that assess mental abilities -focuses on achievement and, separately, aptitude -ex: Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale, Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale
Imprinting
-a form of primitive bonding seen in some species of animals *origins of attachment (Harlow) showed that infants bond with surrogate mothers because of bodily contact, not nourishment
Synaptic pruning
-a process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not are lost -when a child's environment does not stimulate his or her brain, very few synaptic connections will be made making the brain less sophisticated and able to process complex information
Feeling
-a subjective experience of the emotion, such as feeling scared, but not the emotion itself
Emotion
-an immediate, specific negative or positive response to environmental events or internal thoughts
stereotype threat
-apprehension about confirming negative stereotypes related to one's group
Francis Galton
-believed that intelligence was related to the speed of neural responses and the sensitivity of the sensory/ perceptual systems -intelligence was related to the efficiency of the brain as well as keen to the perceptual skills
secondary emotions
-blends of primary emotions -ex: remorse, guilt, submission, shame, love, bitterness, jealousy
Common cognitive skills in humans and apes
-concept formation -insight -problem solving -culture *apes can use signs meaningfully but lack human syntax, the structure of actually formulating sentences
Moods
-diffuse, long-lasting emotional states that do not have an identifiable object or trigger
Speech production's path
-during first months of life, newborns' actions generate all their sounds -3-5 months - they begin to coo and laugh -5-7 months - they begin babbling, using consonants and vowels -from 7-8 months - they babble in syllables -by 1st yr, infants around the world are saying first words from 18-24 months, children begin to put words together and their vocabularies start to grow rapidly
primary emotions
-emotions that are innate, evolutionarily adaptive and universal (shared across cultures) -ex: anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, surprise, contempt
Assessing intelligence
-for a psychologist test to be acceptable, it must fulfill three criteria: 1. validity 2. reliability 3. standardization
oxytocin
-hormone related to social behaviors including infant.caregiver attachment --> plays a role in maternal tendencies
Nature vs. Nurture Debate
-how do genetic inheritance (nature) and experience (nurture) influence our development
Wernicke's area
-important for speech comprehension -when Wernicke's area is damaged, patients develop receptive aphasia, in which they have trouble understanding the meaning of words
Broca's area
-important for speech production -located in left hemisphere -when Broca's area is damage, the patient develops expressive aphasia which means they generally understand what is said to them and can move their lips and tongues, but cannot form the words or put one word together with another to form a phrase
The Cannon-Bard theory
-information about emotional stimuli is sent simultaneously to the cortex and the body and results in emotional experience and bodily reactions respectively -the mind is quick to experience, while the body is much slower, taking at least a second or two to react -according to this theory, the information from an emotion producing stimulus is processed in subcortical structures, the subcortical structures then send information separately to the cortex and the body and as a result people experience 2 separate things at roughly the same time: an emotion produced in the cortex and physical reactions produced in the body
Schachter-Singer two factor theory
-label applied to physiological arousal results in the experience emotion -proposed that the physiological response to all emotional stimuli was essentially the same, which they called undifferentiated physiological arousal --> the arousal was just interpreted differently, depending on the situation and given a label
Whorfian hypothesis
-language determines the way one thinks -language conveys information and this influences thought -suggests that our use of words and syntax can influence and even guide thought process -critics contend that Wharf overstated his case: evidence indicates that language influences but does not completely serve as the main factor
Linguistic relativity theory
-language determines thought -you can think only through language -problematic: theory means that those w/o language are incapable of thought
Accommodation
-learning process that builds cognitive development -the process by which we create a new schema or drastically alter an existing schema to include new information that otherwise would not fit into the schema
Assimilation
-learning process that builds cognitive development -the process by which we place new information into an existing schema
Memory
-long term memory is less affected by aging than working memory -older people often need more time to learn new information, but once they learn it, they use it as efficiently as younger people do -the elderly are better at recognition than at retrieval tasks -elderly show less activation in left hemisphere, brain areas known to support memory and greater activation in right hemisphere, areas that do not aid memory
Prototype Model
-model on how people form concepts -based on "best example": when you think about a category, you tend to look for a best example for that category. -once you have the prototype, you categorize new objects based on how similar they are to the prototype
Exemplar model
-model on how people form concepts -proposes that any concept has no single best representation
Savants
-people that have minimal intellectual capacity in most domains,, but at a very early age, each savant shows an exceptional ability in some "intelligent" process -case example: Kim Peek
Frontal lobes
-play an important role in working memory and other cognitive skills, typically shrink as people grow older
Restructuring
-problem solving technique that consists of representing the problem in a novel way
First Amygdala Pathway "Quick and Dirty"
-processes sensory information nearly instantaneously -travels quickly through the thalamus directly to the amygdala for priority processing
Amygdala
-processes the emotional significance of stimuli and generates immediate emotional and behavioral actions -has developed over the course of evolution to protect animals from danger -brain structure most important for emotional learning, as in the development of classically conditioned fear responses -people with damage to the amygdala do not show classical conditioning of these fear associations -information reaches amygdala along two separate pathways: 1) quick and dirty 2) slower path
Erik Erikson
-proposed a theory of human development that emphasized age-related psychosocial challenges and their effects on social functioning across the lifespan -thought of identity development as composed of 8 stages -characterized each stage as having a major developmental challenge or "crisis" to be confronted -8 stages: 1. infancy 2. toddler 3. preschool 4. childhood 5. adolescence 6. young adulthood 7. middle adulthood 8. old age
Noam Chomsky
-proposed that humans are born with an innate capability for language -came up with concept of "universal grammar"
Fluid intelligence
-proposed type of intelligence by Raymond Cattell -being able to understand abstract relationships and think logically without prior knowledge -declines steadily as you grow older
Crystallized knowledge
-proposed type of intelligence by Raymond Cattell -knowledge acquired through experience -grows steadily throughout adult years
Insula
-receives and integrates somatosensory signals from the entire body -involved in subjective awareness of bodily states, such as sensing your heartbeat -emotions produce bodily responses -insula is particularly active when people experience disgust or observe facial expressions of disgust in other people
Second Amygdala Pathway "slower"
-slower, but leads to more deliberate and more thorough evaluations -sensory materials travel from thalamus to the cortex where the information is scrutinized in greater depth before it is passed along to the amygdala
Framing
-tendency to emphasize the potential losses or potential gains from at least one alternative in decision making
theory of mind
-the ability to understand that other people have mental states that influence their behavior -children's development of theory of mind appears to coincide with the maturation of the brain's frontal lobes
Working memory
-the active processing system that holds information for use in activities such as reasoning
Developmental psychology
-the study of changes, over life span, in physiology, cognition, emotion and social behavior
Robert Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
-theorized three types of intelligence: 1. analytic= mental steps or "components" used to solve problems 2. creative= use of experience in ways that foster insight 3. practical=ability to read and adapt to the contexts of everyday life
James-Lange theory
-theory for how emotional processes work -asserted that a person's interpretation of physical changes lead that person to feel an emotion -"we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble" -people perceive specific patterns of bodily responses and, as a result of that perception they feel emotion
Descriptive theories
-theory that explains decision-making -focuses on actual choices rather than ideal ones -people often show biases in decision making
Normative theories
-theory that explains decision-making -people always select the choice that yields the largest gain -drawback: people are not always rational decision makers and don't always make the "optimal" decision -expected utility theory - people make decisions by considering the possible alternatives and choosing the most desirable one
avoidant attachment
-type of insecure attachment -children with this do not get upset or cry at all when the caregiver leaves and may prefer to play with the stranger rather than the parent during their time in the playroom
ambivalent attachment
-type of insecure attachment -may cry a great deal when the caregiver leaves the room but then be inconsolable when the caregiver tries to calm them down upon return
Empathy
-type of moral emotion -arises from understanding another's emotional state and feeling what the other person is feeling or would be expected to feel in the given situation
Sympathy
-type of moral emotion -arises from feelings of concern, pity or sorry for another
Dynamic systems theory
-view that development is a self organizing process, in which new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions b/t a biological being and cultural and environmental contexts
Anchoring
-when making judgments, people rely on the first piece of information they encounter or on information that comes most quickly to mind
Conscious strategies
1. Algorithm (guideline that if followed correctly will always yield a correct answer) 2. working backward 3. finding an appropriate analogy
Types of mental representations
1. analogical (compares 2 things that are similar in some way) 2. symbolic (no systematic relationship to the object it names)
Infants are prepared to learn through:
1. imitation is the baby's first social interaction 2. perception 3. memory
Two approaches to decision making
1. maximizing - seeking to identify the perfect choice among a set of options 2. satisficing - seek to find a "good enough" choice that meets their minimum requirements
moral development divisions
1. moral reasoning (depends on cognitive processes 2. moral emotions
Brain development necessities
1. myelination 2. new synaptic connections
components of emotion
1. physiological process 2. behavioral response 3. feeling that is based on cognitive appraisal of the situation and interpretation of bodily states
Human physical development progression
1. prenatal period 2. infancy 3. childhood 4. adolescence 5. adulthood
Charles Spearman
=viewed general intelligence (or g) as a factor that contributes to performance on any intellectual task -people can differ in the specific skills that enabled them to perform better on some tasks than others
Problem
A person has a problem when he or she has no simple and direct means of attaining a particular goal
Puberty brain
A teenager's limbic system (reward and emotion center of brain) tends to mature more quickly than their frontal cortex and so teenagers are likely to act on impulses
emotional intelligence
a form of social intelligence that emphasizes the abilities to manage, recognize and understand emotions and use emotions to guide appropriate thought and action 4 components of EI: 1. perceive emotion - recognize emotions in faces, music and stories 2. understand emotion - predict emotions, how they change and blend 3. manage emotion - express emotions in different situations 4. use emotion - utilize emotions to adapt or be cretive
Aphasia
a language disorder that results in deficits in language comprehension and production -extensive damage to the left hemisphere can cause global aphasia - where the person cannot produce or comprehend language -the right hemisphere also contributes to language in processing the rhythm of speech and interpreting what is said
Scripts
a scheme that helps direct behavior over time within a situation -dictates appropriate behaviors and sequence in which they occur
Positive activation state
a state that appears to be associated with an increase in dopamine
Negative activation state
a state that appears to be associated with an increase in norepinephrine
attachment
a strong emotional connection that persists over time and across circumstances -separation anxiety appears around 6-8 months
Language
a system of communication using sounds and symbols according to grammatical rules
Teratogens
agents that harm the embryo or fetus (ex: drugs, alcohol, bacteria, viruses and chemicals)
Universal grammar
all languages based on humans' innate knowledge of a set of universal and specifically linguistic elements and relationships
Circumplex model
emotions are plotted along two continuums: 1. valence - how negative and positive they are 2. arousal - how arousing they are; describes physiological activation (such as increased brain acitivity
Lev Vygotsky
emphasized social relations over objects in thinking about cognitive development - your thoughts are based on the language you have acquired through your society and through your culture
Affective heuristic
expectations for how decisions will change affective (or emotional) states in the future are powerful forces in decision making
Postconventional level
highest level of moral reasoning, people's responses center around complex reasoning about abstract principles and the value of al life -is defined by a "social contract" generally agreed upon for the public good; is based on abstract ethical principles that determine one's own moral code
Benjamin Whorf
hypothesized that language reflects how people think. culture determines language which determines how people form concepts and categorize objects and experiences -came up with Linguistic relativity theory
"Use it or lose it"
if you don't use that brain function, you lose it -the body and mind start deteriorating slowly at around age 50 -brain's frontal lobes shrink proportionally more than other brain regions -after age 70, dementia increases with each year of life
Facial feedback hypothesis
if you mold your face muscles to mimic an emotional state, you activate the associated emotion, not the other way around
Jean Piaget
introduced idea of cognitive development in 4 stages: 1. sensorimotor 2. pre-operational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational -Piaget proposed that new schemes are formed during each stage of development -believed that each stage builds on the previous ones through 2 learning processes (1. assimilation 2. accommodation) -however, her theory leaves little room for cultural differences
Schemas
knowledge of how to behave in each, different setting used because: 1. common situations have consistent rules 2. people have specific roles within situational contexts
Loss aversion
people are more generally concerned with costs than with benefits
Preconventional level
people classify answers in terms of self interest or pleasurable outcomes -avoids punishment, gains reward -children under the age of 9 are mostly in this level
Conventional level
people's responses conform to rules of law and order or focus on others' disapproval -gains approval and avoids disapproval -defined by rigid codes of law and order -as children get older, they begin to think in this direction
Mental sets
problem solving strategies that have worked in the past
socioemotional selectivity theory
proposed by Laura Cartensen who said that as people grow older they perceive time to be limited and therefore adjust their priorities to emphasize emotionally meaningful events, experiences and goals
BF Skinner
proposed that children learn language through a system of operant reinforcement
Cognitive psychology
study of mental functions such as intelligence, thinking, language, memory and decision making --> studies cognition
Limbic system
subcortical brain regions involved in emotion. -used mainly in a rough descriptive way rather than as a means of linking brain areas to specific emotional functions -most important parts of the limbic system are the insula and the amygdala
Insight
sudden realization of a solution to a problem -brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when insight strikes, it activates the right temporal cortex
Representative heuristic
tendency to place a person or object in a category if the person or object is similar to our prototype for that category
Intelligence
the ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly and adapt to environmental challenges
Availability heuristic
the general tendency to make a decision based on the answer that comes most easily to mind
separation anxiety
when infants cannot see or are separated from their attachment figures or are left iwth babysitters, they become very distressed
