Psych 101 Chapter 7
Intrapersonal intelligence
Ability to access personal feelings and motivations, and use them to direct behavior and reach personal goals (Key component of personal success over time)
Spatial intelligence
Ability to perceive the relationship between objects and how they move in space (Choreographer, sculptor, architect, aviator, sailor)
Interpersonal intelligence
Ability to understand and be sensitive to the various emotional states of others (Counselor, social worker, salesperson)
Logical-mathematical intelligence
Capable of seeing numerical patterns, strong ability to use reason and logic. (Scientist, mathematician)
Language Development for Children
Children begin to learn about language from a very early age (Table 7.1). In fact, it appears that this is occurring even before we are born. Newborns show preference for their mother's voice and appear to be able to discriminate between the language spoken by their mother and other languages. Babies are also attuned to the languages being used around them and show preferences for videos of faces that are moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken language versus videos that do not synchronize with the audio
impulse to use a heuristic occurs when???
Different types of heuristics are used in different types of situations, but the impulse to use a heuristic occurs when one of five conditions is met (Pratkanis, 1989): -When one is faced with too much information -When the time to make a decision is limited -When the decision to be made is unimportant -When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision -When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is the most common learning disability in children. An individual with dyslexia exhibits an inability to correctly process letters. The neurological mechanism for sound processing does not work properly in someone with dyslexia. As a result, dyslexic children may not understand sound-letter correspondence. A child with dyslexia may mix up letters within words and sentences—letter reversals, such as those shown in Figure 7.17, are a hallmark of this learning disability—or skip whole words while reading. A dyslexic child may have difficulty spelling words correctly while writing. Because of the disordered way that the brain processes letters and sound, learning to read is a frustrating experience. Some dyslexic individuals cope by memorizing the shapes of most words, but they never actually learn to read
Language Development
Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a language would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a second language as adults, this might seem to be true. However, young children master language very quickly with relative ease. B. F. Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam Chomsky (1965) criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined. The use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction and appears to follow a very similar pattern in children from vastly different cultures and backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that we are born with a biological predisposition to acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011). Moreover, it appears that there is a critical period for language acquisition, such that this proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life; generally, as people age, the ease with which they acquire and master new languages diminishes (Johnson & Newport, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).
Dr. Tom Steitz
Sterling Professor of Biochemistry and Biophysics at Yale University, has spent his career looking at the structure and specific aspects of RNA molecules and how their interactions could help produce antibiotics and ward off diseases. As a result of his lifetime of work, he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009. He wrote, "Looking back over the development and progress of my career in science, I am reminded how vitally important good mentorship is in the early stages of one's career development and constant face-to-face conversations, debate and discussions with colleagues at all stages of research. Outstanding discoveries, insights and developments do not happen in a vacuum" (Steitz, 2010, para. 39). Based on Steitz's comment, it becomes clear that someone's creativity, although an individual strength, benefits from interactions with others. Think of a time when your creativity was sparked by a conversation with a friend or classmate. How did that person influence you and what problem did you solve using creativity?
triarchic theory of intelligence
Sternberg's theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical
The Bell Curve
a graph in the general shape of a bell in which results of intelligence tests follow. in psychological testing, the graph demonstrates a normal distribution of a trait, in this case, intelligence, in the human population.
problem-solving strategy
a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies have different action plans associated with them (Table 7.2).
representative sample
a subset of the population that accurately represents the general population. If, for example, you measured the height of the women in your classroom only, you might not actually have a representative sample. Perhaps the women's basketball team wanted to take this course together, and they are all in your class. Because basketball players tend to be taller than average, the women in your class may not be a good representative sample of the population of American women. But if your sample included all the women at your school, it is likely that their heights would form a natural bell curve.
Functional fixedness
a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for. During the Apollo 13 mission to the moon, NASA engineers at Mission Control had to overcome functional fixedness to save the lives of the astronauts aboard the spacecraft. An explosion in a module of the spacecraft damaged multiple systems. The astronauts were in danger of being poisoned by rising levels of carbon dioxide because of problems with the carbon dioxide filters. The engineers found a way for the astronauts to use spare plastic bags, tape, and air hoses to create a makeshift air filter, which saved the lives of the astronauts.
Working backwards
a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result.
cultural intelligence
ability with which people can understand and relate to those in another culture. sometimes referred to as cultural competence
Arthur Jensen
administered IQ tests to diverse groups of students, and his results led him to the conclusion that IQ is determined by genetics. He also posited that intelligence was made up of two types of abilities: Level I and Level II. Level I is responsible for rote memorization, whereas Level II is responsible for conceptual and analytical abilities. Level I remained consistent among the human race. Level II, however, exhibited differences among ethnic groups (Modgil & Routledge, 1987). Jensen's most controversial conclusion was that Level II intelligence is prevalent among Asians, then Caucasians, then African Americans. Robert Williams was among those who called out racial bias in Jensen's results
Crystallized intelligence
characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and recall information, you are using ____________________
Analytical intelligence
closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations. Sternberg says that ______________ is demonstrated by an ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast. Use this in solving a challenging math problem and understanding classic novel
What are Learning Disabilities?
cognitive disorders that affect different areas of cognition, particularly language or reading. It should be pointed out that learning disabilities are not the same thing as intellectual disabilities. Learning disabilities are considered specific neurological impairments rather than global intellectual or developmental disabilities. A person with a language disability has difficulty understanding or using spoken language, whereas someone with a reading disability, such as dyslexia, has difficulty processing what he or she is reading.
Standard deviations
describe how data are dispersed in a population and give context to large data sets. The bell curve uses the standard deviation to show how all scores are dispersed from the average score (Figure 7.15). In modern IQ testing, one standard deviation is 15 points. So a score of 85 would be described as "one standard deviation below the mean." How would you describe a score of 115 and a score of 70? Any IQ score that falls within one standard deviation above and below the mean (between 85 and 115) is considered average, and 68% of the population has IQ scores in this range. An IQ score of 130 or above is considered a superior level.
Representative bias
describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you unintentionally stereotype someone or something; for example, you may assume that your professors spend their free time reading books and engaging in intellectual conversation, because the idea of them spending their time playing volleyball or visiting an amusement park does not fit in with your stereotypes of professors.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
describes a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence. You've already learned that there are many ways psychologists describe intelligence (or more aptly, intelligences). Similarly, IQ tests—the tools designed to measure intelligence—have been the subject of debate throughout their development and use.
Robert Sternberg
developed another theory of intelligence, which he titled the triarchic theory of intelligence because it sees intelligence as comprised of three parts: practical, creative, and analytical intelligence
Multiple Intelligences Theory
developed by Howard Gardner, a Harvard psychologist and former student of Erik Erikson. Gardner's theory, which has been refined for more than 30 years, is a more recent development among theories of intelligence. In Gardner's theory, each person possesses at least eight intelligences. Among these eight intelligences, a person typically excels in some and falters in others (Gardner, 1983). Table 7.4 describes each type of intelligence.
Sir Francis Galton
developed the first broad test of intelligence in the late 1800s.
Lewis Terman
groundbreaking study of gifted children that proved that people of high intelligence were NOT maladjusted like popular belief suggested. began a longitudinal study of over 1500 children with IQs over 135 (Terman, 1925). His findings showed that these children became well-educated, successful adults who were, in fact, well-adjusted.
Norming
involves giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups
mental set
is where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now.
Hindsight bias
leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn't. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way they did.
Dysgraphia
learning disability that results in a struggle to write legibly. The physical task of writing with a pen and paper is extremely challenging for the person. These children often have extreme difficulty putting their thoughts down on paper. This difficulty is inconsistent with a person's IQ. That is, based on the child's IQ and/or abilities in other areas, a child with dysgraphia should be able to write, but can't. Children with dysgraphia may also have problems with spatial abilities. Students with dysgraphia need academic accommodations to help them succeed in school. These accommodations can provide students with alternative assessment opportunities to demonstrate what they know (Barton, 2003). For example, a student with dysgraphia might be permitted to take an oral exam rather than a traditional paper-and-pencil test. Treatment is usually provided by an occupational therapist, although there is some question as to how effective such treatment is (Zwicker, 2005).
cognitive script
set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as an event schema. Because event schemata are automatic, they can be difficult to change. Texting while driving is dangerous, but it is a difficult event schema for some people to resist.
Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale
test oriented explicitly toward the skills required for schoolwork. Developed by Alfred Binet who believed that intelligence is best understood as a collection of various higher-order mental abilities that are only loosely related to one another- nurtured through interaction with the environment
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests
Creativity
the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities.
prototype
the best example or representation of a concept. For example, for the category of civil disobedience, your prototype could be Rosa Parks. Her peaceful resistance to segregation on a city bus in Montgomery, Alabama, is a recognizable example of civil disobedience. Or your prototype could be Mohandas Gandhi, sometimes called Mahatma Gandhi ("Mahatma" is an honorific title)
morphemes
the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning (e.g. "I" is both a phoneme and a _____________) Phonemes are combined to form these.
confirmation bias
the tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs. For example, if you think that your professor is not very nice, you notice all of the instances of rude behavior exhibited by the professor while ignoring the countless pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis.
Range of Reaction
the theory that each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on his or her genetic makeup. According to this idea, your genetic potential is a fixed quantity, but whether you reach your full intellectual potential is dependent upon the environmental stimulation you experience, especially in childhood.
divergent thinking
thinking "outside the box;" it allows an individual to arrive at unique, multiple solutions to a given problem. Creativity is often assessed as a function of one's ability to engage in ________________.
cognition
thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory. encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory.
Average IQ Score
100
IQ scores
130> Very superior/gifted (2%) 120-129 superior 110-119 high average 90-109 average 80-89 low average 70-79 borderline 69 and below extremely low (2.2%)
The Case of Genie
3-year-old girl who was being raised in extremely neglectful and abusive conditions. For a little over a decade, Genie had virtually no social interaction and no access to the outside world. As a result of these conditions, Genie was unable to stand up, chew solid food, or speak. Genie's abilities improved dramatically following her removal from her abusive environment, and early on, it appeared she was acquiring language—much later than would be predicted by critical period hypotheses that had been posited at the time (Fromkin et al., 1974). Genie managed to amass an impressive vocabulary in a relatively short amount of time. However, she never developed a mastery of the grammatical aspects of language (Curtiss, 1981). Perhaps being deprived of the opportunity to learn language during a critical period impeded Genie's ability to fully acquire and use language.
babbling stage
After the first few months of life, babies enter what is known as the ________________ during which time they tend to produce single syllables that are repeated over and over. Interestingly, babies who are raised in environments in which sign language is used will also begin to show babbling in the gestures of their hands during this stage
heuristic
Another type of problem solving strategy. Mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem. While an algorithm must be followed exactly to produce a correct result, a ___________ is a general problem-solving framework. You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems. A "rule of thumb" is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy when making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always the best method for making a rational decision.
practice of accomplishing a large goal or task by breaking it into a series of smaller steps
Another useful heuristic. Students often use this common method to complete a large research project or long essay for school. For example, students typically brainstorm, develop a thesis or main topic, research the chosen topic, organize their information into an outline, write a rough draft, revise and edit the rough draft, develop a final draft, organize the references list, and proofread their work before turning in the project. The large task becomes less overwhelming when it is broken down into a series of small steps.
Concrete concepts
Are about objects, written rules, and real things (for example types of birds).
Bodily kinesthetic intelligence
High ability to control the movements of the body and use the body to perform various physical tasks (Dancer, athlete, athletic coach, yoga instructor)
Naturalist intelligence
High capacity to appreciate the natural world and interact with the species within it (Biologist, ecologist, environmentalist)
David Wechsler
In 1939, _______________, a psychologist who spent part of his career working with World War I veterans, developed a new IQ test in the United States. combined several subtests from other intelligence tests used between 1880 and World War I. These subtests tapped into a variety of verbal and nonverbal skills. believed that intelligence encompassed "the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment" Today, there are three intelligence tests credited to Wechsler, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-fourth edition (WAIS-IV), the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V), and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—IV (WPPSI-IV) (Wechsler, 2012). These tests are used widely in schools and communities throughout the United States, and they are periodically normed and standardized as a means of recalibration.
convergent thinking
In contrast to divergent thinking, ___________________ describes the ability to provide a correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem.
Concepts
In order to organize this staggering amount of information, the brain has developed a file cabinet of sorts in the mind. The different files stored in the file cabinet are called ______________. (category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences). informed by our semantic memory and are present in every aspect of our lives. can be complex and abstract, like justice, or more concrete, like types of birds.
abstract concepts
In psychology Piaget's stages of development are ________________ (for example justice). Complex
Natural and Artificial Concepts
In psychology, concepts can be divided into these two categories. Just as concepts can be abstract or concrete, we can make a distinction between concepts that are functions of our direct experience with the world and those that are more artificial in nature.
temporal relationships
In regards to linguistic determinism the past might be described as being "up" and the future as being "down." It turns out that these differences in language translate into differences in performance on cognitive tests designed to measure how quickly an individual can recognize _______________________ (orientation in terms of past, present or future as well as time orientation)
Components of Language
Language be it spoken, signed, or written, has specific components: a lexicon and grammar.
linguistic determinism
Language may indeed influence the way that we think is an idea known as _____________________. One recent demonstration of this phenomenon involved differences in the way that English and Mandarin Chinese speakers talk and think about time. English speakers tend to talk about time using terms that describe changes along a horizontal dimension, for example, saying something like "I'm running behind schedule" or "Don't get ahead of yourself." While Mandarin Chinese speakers also describe time in horizontal terms, it is not uncommon to also use terms associated with a vertical arrangement.
Flynn effect
Named after James Flynn; refers to the observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last.
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Norming and standardizing the test ensures that new scores are reliable. This new version of the test was called the _________________. Remarkably, an updated version of this test is still widely used today.
Intellectual Disability Subtypes
Only 2.2% of the population has an IQ score below 70. A score of 70 or below indicates significant cognitive delays. When these are combined with major deficits in adaptive functioning, a person is diagnosed with having an intellectual disability. Intellectual Disability Subtypes are categorized into Mile (85%), Moderate (10%), Severe (5%), and Profound (<1%).
Linguistic intelligence
Perceives different functions of language, different sounds and meanings of words, may easily learn multiple languages (Journalist, novelist, poet, teacher)
saudade
Portuguese word that expresses many meanings, including loss, nostalgia, yearning, warm memories, and hope. There is no single word in English that includes all of those emotions in a single description
Alfred Binet
Reliable intelligence testing began in earnest during the early 1900s with a researcher named _________________. He was asked by the French government to develop an intelligence test to use on children to determine which ones might have difficulty in school; it included many verbally based tasks.
English speakers and the Dani people of Papua New Guinea
The Dani have two words for color: one word for light and one word for dark. In contrast, the English language has 11 color words. Researchers hypothesized that the number of color terms could limit the ways that the Dani people conceptualized color. However, the Dani were able to distinguish colors with the same ability as English speakers, despite having fewer words at their disposal
Concepts and Prototypes
The human nervous system is capable of handling endless streams of information. The senses serve as the interface between the mind and the external environment, receiving stimuli and translating it into nervous impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The brain then processes this information and uses the relevant pieces to create thoughts, which can then be expressed through language or stored in memory for future use. To make this process more complex, the brain does not gather information from external environments only. When thoughts are formed, the brain also pulls information from emotions and memories Emotion and memory are powerful influences on both our thoughts and behaviors.
Louis Terman
a Stanford professor, modified Binet's work by standardizing the administration of the test and tested thousands of different-aged children to establish an average score for each age. As a result, the test was normed and standardized, which means that the test was administered consistently to a large enough representative sample of the population that the range of scores resulted in a bell curve
Why Measure Intelligence?
The value of IQ testing is most evident in educational or clinical settings. Children who seem to be experiencing learning difficulties or severe behavioral problems can be tested to ascertain whether the child's difficulties can be partly attributed to an IQ score that is significantly different from the mean for her age group. Without IQ testing—or another measure of intelligence—children and adults needing extra support might not be identified effectively. In addition, IQ testing is used in courts to determine whether a defendant has special or extenuating circumstances that preclude him from participating in some way in a trial. People also use IQ testing results to seek disability benefits from the Social Security Administration.
phoneme
a basic sound unit of a given language. different languages have different sets. Words are formed by combining the various ____________ that make up the language.
The Meaning of Language
Think about what you know of other languages; perhaps you even speak multiple languages. Imagine for a moment that your closest friend fluently speaks more than one language. Do you think that friend thinks differently, depending on which language is being spoken? You may know a few words that are not translatable from their original language into English. For example, the Portuguese word saudade originated during the 15th century, when Portuguese sailors left home to explore the seas and travel to Africa or Asia. Those left behind described the emptiness and fondness they felt as saudade (Figure 7.7). The word came to express many meanings, including loss, nostalgia, yearning, warm memories, and hope. There is no single word in English that includes all of those emotions in a single description. Do words such as saudade indicate that different languages produce different patterns of thought in people? What do you think??
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf
Two researchers who investigated the question of whether language shapes thoughts and actions, or whether our thoughts and beliefs shape our language in the 1940s. They wanted to understand how the language habits of a community encourage members of that community to interpret language in a particular manner. They proposed that language determines thought, suggesting, for example, that a person whose community language did not have past-tense verbs would be challenged to think about the past. Researchers have since identified this view as too absolute, pointing out a lack of empiricism behind what Sapir and Whorf proposed (Abler, 2013; Boroditsky, 2011; van Troyer, 1994). Today, psychologists continue to study and debate the relationship between language and thought.
Musical intelligence
Understands and appreciates rhythm, pitch, and tone; may play multiple instruments or perform as a vocalist (Composer, performer)
Language and Thought
When we speak one language, we agree that words are representations of ideas, people, places, and events. Psychologists have long investigated the question of whether language shapes thoughts and actions, or whether our thoughts and beliefs shape our language.
High Intelligence: Nature or Nurture?
Where does high intelligence come from? Some researchers believe that intelligence is a trait inherited from a person's parents. Scientists who research this topic typically use twin studies to determine the heritability of intelligence. The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart is one of the most well-known twin studies. In this investigation, researchers found that identical twins raised together and identical twins raised apart exhibit a higher correlation between their IQ scores than siblings or fraternal twins raised together (Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal, & Tellegen, 1990). The findings from this study reveal a genetic component to intelligence (Figure 7.16). At the same time, other psychologists believe that intelligence is shaped by a child's developmental environment. If parents were to provide their children with intellectual stimuli from before they are born, it is likely that they would absorb the benefits of that stimulation, and it would be reflected in intelligence levels.
Language
a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another. While language is a form of communication, not all communication is language. Many species communicate with one another through their postures, movements, odors, or vocalizations. This communication is crucial for species that need to interact and develop social relationships with their conspecifics. However, many people have asserted that it is language that makes humans unique among all of the animal species
Case Study Showing usefulness of IQ tests
While IQ tests have sometimes been used as arguments in support of insidious purposes, such as the eugenics movement (Severson, 2011), the following case study demonstrates the usefulness and benefits of IQ testing. Candace, a 14-year-old girl experiencing problems at school, was referred for a court-ordered psychological evaluation. She was in regular education classes in ninth grade and was failing every subject. Candace had never been a stellar student but had always been passed to the next grade. Frequently, she would curse at any of her teachers who called on her in class. She also got into fights with other students and occasionally shoplifted. When she arrived for the evaluation, Candace immediately said that she hated everything about school, including the teachers, the rest of the staff, the building, and the homework. Her parents stated that they felt their daughter was picked on, because she was of a different race than the teachers and most of the other students. When asked why she cursed at her teachers, Candace replied, "They only call on me when I don't know the answer. I don't want to say, 'I don't know' all of the time and look like an idiot in front of my friends. The teachers embarrass me." She was given a battery of tests, including an IQ test. Her score on the IQ test was 68. What does Candace's score say about her ability to excel or even succeed in regular education classes without assistance?
event schema
also known as a cognitive script, is a set of behaviors that can feel like a routine. set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time; also referred to as a cognitive script. Think about what you do when you walk into an elevator (Figure 7.5). First, the doors open and you wait to let exiting passengers leave the elevator car. Then, you step into the elevator and turn around to face the doors, looking for the correct button to push. You never face the back of the elevator, do you? And when you're riding in a crowded elevator and you can't face the front, it feels uncomfortable, doesn't it? Interestingly, event schemata can vary widely among different cultures and countries. For example, while it is quite common for people to greet one another with a handshake in the United States, in Tibet, you greet someone by sticking your tongue out at them, and in Belize, you bump fists
overgeneralization
an extension of a language rule to an exception to the rule. For example, in English, it is usually the case that an "s" is added to the end of a word to indicate plurality. For example, we speak of one dog versus two dogs. Young children will overgeneralize this rule to cases that are exceptions to the "add an s to the end of the word" rule and say things like "those two gooses" or "three mouses." Clearly, the rules of the language are understood, even if the exceptions to the rules are still being learned
Mensa
an organization dedicated to identifying, researching, and fostering intelligence. Members must have an IQ score in the top 2% of the population, and they may be required to pass other exams in their application to join the group.
Practical intelligence
as proposed by Sternberg, is sometimes compared to "street smarts. you find solutions that work in your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your experiences. This type of intelligence appears to be separate from traditional understanding of IQ; individuals who score high in practical intelligence may or may not have comparable scores in creative and analytical intelligence
Charles Spearman
believed intelligence consisted of one general factor, called g, which could be measured and compared among individuals.
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V)
composed of 14 subtests, which comprise five indices, which then render an IQ score. The five indices are Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial, Fluid Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed. When the test is complete, individuals receive a score for each of the five indices and a Full Scale IQ score. The method of scoring reflects the understanding that intelligence is comprised of multiple abilities in several cognitive realms and focuses on the mental processes that the child used to arrive at his or her answers to each test item.
artificial concept
concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics. Various properties of geometric shapes, like squares and triangles, serve as useful examples of artificial concepts. A triangle always has three angles and three sides. A square always has four equal sides and four right angles. Mathematical formulas, like the equation for area (length × width) are artificial concepts defined by specific sets of characteristics that are always the same. Artificial concepts can enhance the understanding of a topic by building on one another. For example, before learning the concept of "area of a square" (and the formula to find it), you must understand what a square is. Once the concept of "area of a square" is understood, an understanding of area for other geometric shapes can be built upon the original understanding of area. The use of artificial concepts to define an idea is crucial to communicating with others and engaging in complex thought. concepts act as building blocks and can be connected in countless combinations to create complex thoughts.
Fluid intelligence
encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems. Navigating your way home after being detoured onto an unfamiliar route because of road construction would draw upon your __________________ helps you tackle complex, abstract challenges in your daily life, whereas crystallized intelligence helps you overcome concrete, straightforward problems
Emotional intelligence
encompasses the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways. Gardner's inter- and intrapersonal intelligences are often combined into a single type: ________________
availability heuristic
faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you. a heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision. Biases tend to "preserve that which is already established—to maintain our preexisting knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and hypotheses" These biases are summarized in Table 7.3.
Cognitive psychology
field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think. It attempts to explain how and why we think the way we do by studying the interactions among human thinking, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving, in addition to other cognitive processes. Cognitive psychologists strive to determine and measure different types of intelligence, why some people are better at problem solving than others, and how emotional intelligence affects success in the workplace, among countless other topics. They also sometimes focus on how we organize thoughts and information gathered from our environments into meaningful categories of thought, which will be discussed later.
When is a child's first word?
first word is uttered sometime between the ages of 1 year to 18 months, and for the next few months, the child will remain in the "one word" stage of language development. During this time, children know a number of words, but they only produce one-word utterances. The child's early vocabulary is limited to familiar objects or events, often nouns. Although children in this stage only make one-word utterances, these words often carry larger meaning (Fernández & Cairns, 2011). So, for example, a child saying "cookie" could be identifying a cookie or asking for a cookie.
Scientists who study cognition are searching for ways to understand how we
integrate, organize, and utilize our conscious cognitive experiences without being aware of all of the unconscious work that our brains are doing
role schema
makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave. For example, imagine you meet someone who introduces himself as a firefighter. When this happens, your brain automatically activates the "firefighter schema" and begins making assumptions that this person is brave, selfless, and community-oriented. Despite not knowing this person, already you have unknowingly made judgments about him.
Creative intelligence
marked by inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or situation. can include finding a novel solution to an unexpected problem or producing a beautiful work of art or a well-developed short story. Imagine for a moment that you are camping in the woods with some friends and realize that you've forgotten your camp coffee pot. The person in your group who figures out a way to successfully brew coffee for everyone would be credited as having higher creative intelligence.
Standardization
means that the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent.
schema (plural=schemata)
mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts. There are many different types of schemata, and they all have one thing in common: schemata are a method of organizing information that allows the brain to work more efficiently. When a schema is activated, the brain makes immediate assumptions about the person or object being observed.
Natural concepts
mental groupings that are created "naturally" through your experiences. (For example, if you live in Essex Junction, Vermont, you have probably had a lot of direct experience with snow. You've watched it fall from the sky, you've seen lightly falling snow that barely covers the windshield of your car, and you've shoveled out 18 inches of fluffy white snow as you've thought, "This is perfect for skiing." You've thrown snowballs at your best friend and gone sledding down the steepest hill in town. In short, you know snow. You know what it looks like, smells like, tastes like, and feels like. If, however, you've lived your whole life on the island of Saint Vincent in the Caribbean, you may never have actually seen snow, much less tasted, smelled, or touched it. You know snow from the indirect experience of seeing pictures of falling snow—or from watching films that feature snow as part of the setting. Either way, snow is a natural concept because you can construct an understanding of it through direct observations or experiences of snow)
anchoring bias
occurs when you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem. In this case, you're so focused on the amount of money you are willing to spend that you may not recognize what kinds of houses are available at that price point.
Larry P. v. Riles:
parents of African American students filed a case against the State of California in 1979, because they believed that the testing method used to identify students with learning disabilities was culturally unfair as the tests were normed and standardized using white children (Larry P. v. Riles). The testing method used by the state disproportionately identified African American children as mentally retarded. This resulted in many students being incorrectly classified as "mentally retarded." According to a summary of the case,
algorithm
problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions like a math equation or instruction manual
trial and error
problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found
Raymond Cattell
proposed a theory of intelligence that divided general intelligence into two components: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence
how language might affect something like color perception
recent review of research suggests that language can influence perceptual phenomena, especially in the left hemisphere of the brain. You may recall from earlier chapters that the left hemisphere is associated with language for most people. However, the right (less linguistic hemisphere) of the brain is less affected by linguistic influences on perception
Semantics
refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words.
Grammar
refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon. For instance, English _______________ dictates that most verbs receive an "-ed" at the end to indicate past tense.
Syntax
refers to the way words are organized into sentences
Lexicon
refers to the words of a given language. Thus, ___________ is a language's vocabulary.
Norms (referential scores)
resulting data by which to interpret future scores. Norms are not expectations of what a given group should know but a demonstration of what that group does know.