Psych 101 exam 4

the resistance stage

Animals, however, cannot persist in the alarm stage for long. With continued exposure to the stressor, they will either die or find other ways of coping with the enduring threat. When they develop other ways to cope, they enter the second stage of adaptation Resistance implies that the organism tries to manage the threat. This extended effort, however, takes its toll physically and psychologically by diverting resources from the maintenance of normal bodily functions

four components of intrinsic motivation

Challenge: How much do you enjoy the thrill and excitement of new challenges? Enjoyment: How much pleasure do you receive from the process of doing the task? Mastery: Do you gain a sense of accomplishment and pride in doing a difficult task? Autonomy and self-determination: Do you believe that you are free to determine much of what you do and how you do it?

three types of society in attitudes towards sex

First, restrictive societies restrict sex before and outside of marriage. Second, semirestrictive societies place formal prohibitions on pre- and extramarital sex that are not strictly enforce. Third, permissive societies place few restrictions on sex

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Selye proposed that all stress causes a generalized, nonspecific set of changes in the body—no matter what the type of elicitor. He measured hormones, metabolism, organ function, and other variables and observed a consistent pattern of responses regardless of the stressor this general pattern of responses to prolonged exposure to stress

Need to excel: Achievement

Some people, such as successful athletes, businesspeople, and politicians, have a tremendous need to excel and to be the best at what they do, but in truth, almost everyone strives to overcome shortcomings and imperfections (Adler, 1956). In the process, some people compete fiercely with other people, whereas others compete more with themselves

metabolic syndrome

Stress-related inflammation also plays a role in the development of obesity, heart disease, and the set of disease risk factors

risks for bulimia or anorexia

The causes of anorexia and bulimia are unknown, although a number of factors appear to put people at risk for this disorder, such as reactivity to stress, genetics, epigenetics, social pressure, and personality. In short, they result from both nature and nurture. Women are much more likely than men to develop anorexia or bulimia (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2007). Women with eating disorders show higher physiological reactivity to stress.

metabolism

The rate at which we consume energy

universal

These studies and others backed Darwin's (1872/1998) assertion that the facial expressions of certain "basic" emotions, such as anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise, are universal, or common to all human beings

gut-brain axis

This pathway connects the nerves that serve the intestines, the immune system, the HPA axis, neurotransmitters, and hormones

drive reduction model

When our physiological systems are out of balance or depleted, we are driven to reduce this depleted state. Recall that a drive is the perceived internal state of tension that arises when our bodies are lacking in some basic physiological capacity, such as food or water. Central to drive reduction is the idea of maintaining physiological balance, or homeostasis homeostasis The process by which all organisms work to maintain physiological equilibrium, or balance around an optimal set point. (Hull, 1943; McKinley et al., 2004; Strombach, Strang, Park, & Kenning, 2016; Weisinger et al., 1993)

men vs. women expression emotion

Women talk more about emotions than men do. In a study of older married couples discussing an area of conflict in their marriage, the women were more likely to use words expressing distress and anger, whereas the men were more likely to withdraw from conflict (Levenson, Carstensen, & Gottman, 1994). Women are more likely to describe their reactions to a particular experience with more refinement than men, using phrases such as "I felt angry and upset" rather than the more general phrase "I felt bad" (Barrett et al., 2000)

social network

a cluster of related people, such as family members, spouses, friends, coworkers, or neighbors

social support

a coping strategy that combines problem- and emotion-focused coping. Our friends and loved ones provide advice, give hugs, or simply listen when we are under stress

achievement motivation

a desire to do things well and overcome difficulties and obstacles

Duchenne smile

a genuine smile that expresses true enjoyment. When we smile for social reasons and are not genuinely happy, we use only the lips and not the band of muscles around the eye, which is called a non-Duchenne smile

depression

a mood disorder involving sadness and lethargy, is also associated with increased severity of symptoms and increased risk of death from coronary heart disease (Geerlings et al., 2002; Glassman & Shapiro, 1998). Large-scale studies show that, for people with coronary heart disease, being clinically depressed significantly increases the risk of death from the disease, in both men and women (Momersteeg et al., 2016; Tully & Cosh, 2013). Also, the chemicals involved in inflammation that present a risk for coronary heart disease are present at higher levels in people who are depressed than in others (Barth et al., 2004; Empana et al., 2005; Mommersteeg et al., 2016)

resilience

a personality trait that means being more flexible and able to bounce back from difficult situations. Resilient people experience quicker recovery from stress-induced cardiovascular arousal, in part because they are more likely to find some positive meaning in a difficult situation (Folkman, 1997; Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004)

accepting responsibility

acknowledging one's role in the stress-eliciting situation

sexual behavior

actions that produce arousal and increase the likelihood of orgasm

emotion-focused coping

aims to regulate the experience of distress. Lazarus and Folkman describe several forms of emotion-focused coping

anorexia nervosa

an extreme fear about being overweight that leads to a severe restriction of food intake (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). This caloric restriction typically does not allow a person to maintain at least 85% of the low end of his or her ideal weight—that is, a BMI about 16 or less

embarrassment

an unintentional revelation about yourself to someone else

basic emotions

anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise—are fundamental states that play a role in essential life tasks, such as protecting oneself and loved ones from harm (fear), progressing toward the realization of a goal (happiness), or experiencing irrevocable loss (sadness) (Ekman, 1992; Lang & Bradley, 2010; Oatley & Johnson-Laird, 2011) come in emotion families (like fear or happiness)

optimal arousal model

another model that focuses on internal drive states; it is based on research by Yerkes and Dodson (1908). According to the optimal arousal model, we function best when we are moderately aroused, or energized. Both low and high arousal/energy levels lead to poor performance (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). The finding is so common that it is now referred to as the Yerkes-Dodson law The optimal arousal model of motivation argues that humans are motivated to be in situations that are neither too stimulating nor not stimulating enough. Support for the optimal arousal model comes from sensory deprivation research.

coping

anything people do to deal with or manage stress or emotions. When we walk away from someone who is making us angry or complain about our boss to a friend, we are coping with stresses in our lives

display rules

are learned norms or rules, often taught very early, about when it is appropriate to show certain expressions of emotion and to whom one should show them (Ekman, 1972)

distancing

attempting to separate oneself from an emotional experience

emotions

brief, acute changes in conscious experience and physiology that occur in response to a meaningful situation in a person's environment. They emerge from our interactions with the world and are triggered by situations that are relevant to our personal goals, physical safety, or well-being.

moods

changes in affect that fluctuate throughout the day or over several days. We experience moods both physiologically and psychologically, and they tend to last longer than most emotions

Hypothalamus

controls the ANS

Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP)

emerges when under conditions of challenge or stress. That is, Type A people are not always impatient and hostile, but when they find themselves in high-pressure situations they exhibit this pattern of behavior

pessimists

emphasize the negative; for them, the glass is always half empty and the future uncertain

emotional disclosure

enables people to unburden themselves by "letting it all out"

affective traits

enduring aspects of our personalities that set the threshold for the occurrence of particular emotional states, such as hostility (which potentiates anger) or anxiety (which potentiates fear; Blalock, Kashdan, & Farmer, 2016; Ekman, 1984; Rosenberg, 1998)

stressors

events that push us to the limit or exceed our ability to manage the situation at hand

physiological reactivity approach

examines how stress creates sustained physiological activation associated with the stress response can affect body systems in such a way as to increase the likelihood that illness or disease will occur. As such, this model is rooted in psychosomatic medicine

four phases of sexual arousal

excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

health behavior approach

focuses on the behaviors in which people engage, such as diet, exercise, or substance abuse, which may make them more susceptible to illness or may enhance health. These explanations are not mutually exclusive. For example, a person might experience sustained blood pressure elevation due to stress and drink heavily during a time of intense stress, both of which would affect the person's health.

intrinsic motivation

happens when you want to do something simply because you enjoy doing it. This type of motivation has four components

amygdala

has connections with many important brain regions, including structures that appear to be involved in emotion and memory contribute to appraisal of the emotional significance of stimuli, with a specialized function for noticing fear-relevant information (Johansen et al., 2011; Öhman, 2002; Phelps & LeDoux, 2005)

emotional response

includes physiological, behavioral/expressive, and subjective changes

subjective well being

includes satisfaction in domains such as career, family, finances, and social networks. Maslow's hierarchical model of motivation offers a useful framework for a discussion of motivation and happiness, since both basic and higher-level needs contribute to life satisfaction.

stress-induced eating

increases fat in the abdominal area (compared to other places), which is a predictor of heart disease in men and women (Epel et al., 2000; Rexrode, Buring, & Manson, 2001; Rexrode et al., 1998). This is especially true if the stress-induced eating includes sugary junk foods (Kuo et al., 2007)

anterior cingulate cortex

involved in emotion-related thought and, most likely, appraisal. A meta-analysis of more than 55 brain imaging studies concluded that the anterior cingulate cortex is active when people either recall or imagine emotional experiences (Phan et al., 2002; also see Figure 19). Other evidence points to the anterior cingulate cortex being closely linked to the appraisal and expression of emotion (Etkin et al., 2011). The anterior cingulate cortex is also the brain region that is active in both physical pain and the pain of rejection or exclusion (Eisenberger et al., 2003; Etkin et al., 2011; Zaki et al., 2016). Anatomical studies of primate brains indicate that pathways between the anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala and portions of the prefrontal cortex are important to emotion regulation (García-Cabezas & Barbas, 2016).

Glucocorticoids

maintain the activation of physiological systems during emergencies

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

major neuroendocrine pathway in stress responses Recall that the hypothalamus releases substances, called releasing factors, that tell the pituitary when to release various hormones

Hassels and Uplifts Scale

measures the frequency and intensity of minor irritations (hassles) and the positive events of daily life that may counteract their damaging effects (Kanner et al., 1981)

self-conscious emotions

occur as a function of how well we live up to our expectations, the expectations of others, or the rules set by society

prefrontal cortex

one of the more active regions of the brain in the experience of emotions. Damage to the left prefrontal cortex results in depression (Morris et al., 1996; Sackeim et al., 1982). According to EEG studies that measure cortical activity, clinically depressed people show less activity in the left prefrontal cortex than do nondepressed people (Davidson, 2001; Herrington et al., 2010) plays a key role in emotional appraisal—probably due to its involvement in planning, impulse control, and working memory (Etkin, Egner, & Kalish, 2011; Miyake et al., 2000; Morawetz et al., 2016) involved in evaluating the relevance of events in the world to oneself, which is what happens when one is appraising a situation. Brain imaging studies show that when people are asked to think of their own name the medial prefrontal cortex is activated more than when they are asked to think of names of fictitious characters (Abraham, 2013; Perrin et al., 2005)

life satisfaction

our overall evaluation of our own lives and how we are doing (Diener et al., 1999). Psychologists consider life satisfaction to be a subset of subjective well-being

James-Lange theory of emotion

our perception of the physiological changes that accompany emotions creates the subjective emotional experience. Without the perception of bodily changes, they argued, there is no emotional experience. Moreover, the changes that accompany different emotional states are unique. We experience fear as feeling different from sadness because we perceive different body changes for each emotion—in short, "I am trembling, and therefore I am afraid; or I feel a lump in my throat, and therefore I am sad."

reappraisal

people reevaluate their views of an event so that a different emotion results. Rather than seeing your next midterm as an opportunity for failure, an outlook that might create fear or anxiety, you might reappraise the exam as a challenging opportunity to prove how much you have learned, an outlook that can lead to eager anticipation

safety needs

physical security, stability, dependency, protection, and freedom from threats, such as war, assault, and terrorism

hippocampus

plays a crucial role in memory

broaden-and-build model

positive emotions widen our cognitive perspective, making our thinking more expansive and enabling the acquisition of new skills and enhance well-being (Fredrickson, 1998, 2001, 2016)

homeostasis

process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment

bulimia nervosa

prone to binge eating and feeling a lack of control during the eating sessions A person with bulimia regularly engages in self-induced vomiting, the use of laxatives or diuretics, strict dieting or fasting, or vigorous exercise in order to prevent weight gain

binge eating

prone to binge eating and feeling a lack of control during the eating session

thalamus

receives information from the sense organs

affect

refer to a variety of emotional phenomena, including emotions, moods, and affective traits. Emotions make us pay attention, forcing us to set priorities and deal with life-relevant situations, connect with others, and attain our goals (Armenta, Fritz, & Lyubomirsky, 2016; Ekman, 1992; Lazarus, 1991)

exhaustion stage

repeated exposure to a stressor At this stage, their resources for fighting off threats have been depleted, and illness becomes much more likely

facial feedback hypothesis

sensory feedback from the facial musculature during expression affects emotional experience (Tomkins, 1962). Sensory neurons from the face do innervate key emotion areas of the brain, especially the amygdala (Hennenlotter et al., 2009). In fact, research suggests that our facial expressions enhance our emotional feelings. People report feeling a particular emotion when they pose on their faces the muscular movements of that emotion expression (Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988).

needs

states of cellular or bodily deficiency that compel drives. These are what your body seeks. Examples are your needs for water, food, and oxygen

direct effects hypothesis

states that social support is beneficial to mental and physical health whether or not the person is under stress

incentive value

stems from two factors. First, success at the task has to be important to you. Second, the more difficult the task and the lower the odds of succeeding at it, the more meaningful and satisfying it'll be if you do succeed

problem-focused coping

strategies aim to change the situation that is creating stress

relational view of stress

stress as a particular relationship between people and the situations in which they find themselves. That is, how stressful a situation is for you depends on what the situation means to you

seeking social support

talking with friends for purposes of emotional support

optimists

tend to emphasize the positive, see the glass as "half full" rather than as "half empty," and believe that things will turn out well (Carver, Scheier, & Segerstrom, 2010) less likely to feel helpless or depressed, adjust better to negative life events, and show better general mental health than do pessimists By seeing the world positively, optimists may appraise events in such a way that negative emotions are less likely and positive emotions more likely. They may be more likely to see potentially stressful situations as challenges rather than threats. Research shows that, the more optimistic a person is, the less likely it is that he or she will die from cardiovascular disease (Giltay et al., 2004). Furthermore, changes in optimism are related to changes in positive emotion that predict immune function (Segerstrom & Sephton, 2010). Surprisingly, believing that you have some control over situations in life, especially traumatic situations, can improve your psychological health (Taylor, 1989)

emotional intelligence

the ability to recognize emotions in oneself and others, empathic understanding, and the skills for regulating emotions in oneself and others, which may be at least as important to one's success in life as academic achievement

alarm stage

the body's emergency response to a threat. The alarm stage mobilizes the body's resources to act via the effects of adrenal-medullary activation of the sympathetic nervous system. During this stage the HPA axis is active as well, and the sustained release of cortisol from the adrenal glands may move from being helpful (by making more fuel available) to being harmful in the long run (by suppressing certain aspects of immune function).

emotional regulation

the cognitive and behavioral efforts people use to modify their emotions

expressive suppression

the deliberate attempt to inhibit the outward display of an emotion (Gross et al., 2006). In order to avoid a confrontation, you might literally bite your lip rather than tell your roommates that they are slobs for letting the dishes pile up. Instructing people to suppress their negative emotions can decrease the experience of negative emotion, but it increases activation of the sympathetic nervous system and sustains the emotional response (Gross & Levenson, 1997)

love and belongingness needs

the desire for friendship, sex, a mate, and children, as well as the desire to belong to a family or social group

sexual orientation

the disposition to be attracted to someone of the opposite sex, same sex, or multiple sexes Alfred Kinsey proposed a radically new view of sexual orientation: It exists on a continuum from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual

appraisal

the evaluation of a situation with respect to how relevant it is to one's own welfare (Lazarus, 1991). Appraisal need not be a conscious, deliberate thought process. Most of the time it probably occurs automatically, outside of awareness, and it may occur in an instant (Barrett, Ochsner, & Gross, 2007)

neuroculture theory of emotion

the fact that certain aspects of emotion, such as the facial expressions and physiological changes of basic emotions, are similar in all humans, whereas other aspects, such as how people appraise situations and regulate their emotion expressions in front of others, vary from one culture to another.

cardiovascular system

the heart and all the blood vessels of the body, is especially susceptible to the effects of sustained arousal

adrenal-medullary system

the hypothalamus sends instructions to the brain stem to activate sympathetic neurons. Then sympathetic neurons tell the adrenal gland to release the important catecholamine norepinephrine. Norepinephrine activates the sympathetic response, increasing heart rate, rate of respiration, and blood pressure to make the body ready for action.

homeostasis

the idea that, unless we are being provoked by something, we are humming along at an even-keeled baseline state, and we return to the same state after the stress. Moreover, homeostasis implies that just one system in the body struggles to return to baseline at a time

set point

the ideal, fixed setting of a particular physiological system. Set points are important mechanisms that allow homeostasis to work. We have set points for hunger, thirst, respiration, and many other drives. For example, if we get too cold, we shiver to warm up as the body tries to warm itself with physical activity.

the need for esteem

the need to be liked, appreciated, and respected by other people as well as oneself. The need for esteem is behind the desire to achieve and succeed

physiological needs

the needs for food, water, oxygen, and adequate body temperature

Yerkes-Dodson Law

the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

self-actualization

the process by which people achieve their full potential

subjective experience of emotion

the quality of our conscious experience during an emotional response. When people talk about how an emotion feels, they are referring to subjective experience. Each emotion creates a unique feeling: Anger feels different from sadness, which feels different from happiness

reappraisal

the reevaluation of a situation in light of new information or additional thought

psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)

the science of how psychological factors relate to immune changes, was born examines the relationships among the brain, thought, feeling, endocrine changes, and immune system functioning (Ashley & Demas, 2017)

brain regions involved in orgasms

the somatosensory cortex, nucleus accumbens, limbic system, cerebellum, hypothalamus, and prefrontal cortex

health psychology

the study of psychological factors related to health and illness. It includes disease onset, prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation and involves clinical practice as well as research

motivation

the urge to move toward one's goals, an energetic push toward accomplishing tasks, such as getting dinner, getting rich, and getting lucky

extrinsic motivation

this motivation comes from outside the person and usually involves rewards and praise. Extrinsic motivators are used to get people to do things they themselves wouldn't normally do or perhaps don't like doing, as when children get an allowance for cleaning their rooms and doing the dishes

self-control

trying to regulate one's feelings or actions regarding the problem

secondary appraisal

we assess the resources available to cope with stress When we find ourselves in a stressful situation, we try to figure out what to do about that situation, how to resolve it, or how to make the unpleasant feeling it creates go away

the response view of stress

we can think of it as the feeling we experience when events are too much to handle. focuses on the physiological changes that occur when someone encounters an excessively challenging situation

hypothalamus

well known as a pleasure or reward center, as such it is involved in the feeling of emotions. Animals will forgo food and drink to receive stimulation there (Olds & Milner, 1954), and humans report feeling pleasure when this region is stimulated (Heath, 1975). Also, the hypothalamus plays a key role in directing various other areas of the brain involved in emotional responses, such as the ANS, hormone systems, and muscular action (McGaugh, 2016).

stress

when a situation overwhelms a person's perceived ability to meet the demands of that situation. As with emotions, we evaluate our experiences of stressful situations and attempt to cope with the challenges they pose

drives

when our bodies are deficient in some internal need. If we are extremely thirsty, we are driven to drink. All our physiological needs have drive components

escape-avoidance

wishful thinking or doing something to get one's mind off the situation (such as going to the movies)