Psych 101 Unit 2
Adults who were blind from birth, but who gained sight after surgery, were
Were able to sense colors, to distinguish figure form ground, and were able to be familiar with objects by touch
Watson and Pavlov agreed that
laws of learning are the same for all animals.
observational learning
learning by observing others
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
difference threshold
minimum difference between any two stimuli that person can detect 50% of the time (JND.. just noticeable difference)
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
perceptial constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (consistant shape, size, color, and brightness) even as illumination and retinal images change
Cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; and are sensitive to movement. necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
The difference threshold is the minimum difference between any two stimuli that a person can detect ___ percent of the time.
50
Recall
A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
Hippocampus
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.
mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
Kiera stayed up way too late last night and her eyes are tired. She closes her eyes, and as she rubs the left side of her left eyelid, she notices a patch of light to the right. This is because
Kiera's retinal cells are extremely responsive, and the pressure from her finger triggers them
Wavelength
The distance between the peak of one light wave or sound wave to the peak of the night. electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
If people stare at an object without flinching, why doesn't it disappear?
Their eyes are constantly moving.
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Racial and ethnic stereotypes can sometimes bias perceptions of others' behaviors. This best illustrates the impact of what type of processing?
Top down processing
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
preceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Studying the impact of boredom and fatigue on participants' _____ thresholds would involve research based on signal detection theory.
absolute
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
Visual information is processed by ganglion cells
after it is processed by rods and cones and after it is processed by bipolar cells.
punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
long-term potentiation
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
Stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
Classical and operant conditioning involves learning through
association
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
operent behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes
behaviorism
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
The _____ is the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye.
blind spot
In a psychology experiment, Mac is asked to hold two pencils in front of him and touch the tips together. She then asks him to do this with one eye closed. Mac finds this terribly difficult, which demonstrates the importance of _____ cues.
bonicular
In terms of the sensory experience of light, wavelength is to hue as intensity is to
brightness
If you have a frightening experience immediately after hearing a strange sound, you may experience fear when you hear that sound again. This BEST illustrate
classical conditioning
At the optometrist's office, Andre failed to distinguish numbers on the color designs shown to him. Andre most likely has
color-deficient vision
Vanni wakes up while his room is still fairly dark. He looks over and sees his shirt hanging on a hook. Vanni knows it's his red shirt because he hung it there before going to bed, but in the dark it looks gray to him. This is because in the dim light, the _____ in Vanni's eyes are ineffectual
cones
A researcher subliminally presents a visual image to participants, which increases the likelihood that they will later recognize the same briefly presented image. This best illustrates that information can be processed outside of _____ awareness
conscious
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
bonocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
Ahmad asked Reza to turn up the radio, so Reza increased the volume from level 5 to level 7. Reza could hear the difference but Ahmad couldn't. They differed in their _____ threshold.
difference
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
biological constraints
evolved biological tendencies that predispose animals' behavior and learning. Thus, certain behaviors are more easily learned than others.
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems
A researcher subliminally presents words that are either emotionally positive (e.g., love) or negative (e.g., hate) immediately before showing pictures of houses to participants. When he asks the participants to rate the houses in terms of attractiveness, they:
give higher ratings to the houses that followed positive images
neutral stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
antegrade amnesia
inability to form new memories
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
Julio wants his paintings of the English countryside to be realistic. To turn the flat surface of the canvas into a three-dimensional painting, which technique should he use?
interposition
Instead of scanning fingerprints, the FBI can scan the eye's _____ to confirm people's identity.
iris
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
explicit memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
Observational learning involves learning through
observation and imitation
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
Kittens, monkeys, and humans who temporarily experience sensory deprivation all suffer no permanent effects to their visual functioning as a result of the deprivation experience. This is because of
perceptual adaptation
Once Jonah learned of abuse in Sara's past, he began to perceive her cautious behavior around men as more self-protective than as rude. This best illustrates the impact of
perceptual set
what indicates how our experiences help us to construct perception
perceptual set and context
The schemas we form to organize and interpret unfamiliar information may lead us to form
perceptual sets
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
continuous reinforcement schedule
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
If you look at a faraway street sign with first your left eye and then your right eye, the images look virtually identical. But if you look at your finger held just in front of your nose one eye at a time, the two images look very different. This phenomenon is an example of which distance cue?
retinal disparity
Perceptual sets are the result of the _____ we form to organize and interpret unfamiliar information.
schemas
Experiencing sudden pain is to _____ as recognizing that one is suffering a heart attack is to _____
sensation;preception
Marge and Xavier are eating dinner in a crowded restaurant. Marge hears the people at the next table talking about the upcoming election; Xavier does not. Why Marge hears the people talking and Xavier does not is BEST explained by:
signal detection theory
Two TSA officers are scanning bags at the airport. One of the officers lets a bag go through when the other officer yells, "Wait, didn't you see that?" Why one officer saw a weapon and the other did not is best explained by
signal detection theory
Sonya cannot find her car keys in her apartment after searching every room. Her roommate found her keys next to Sonya's computer. Why Sonya's roommate found the keys and Sonya did not is BEST explained by:
signal detection theory.
deja vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
perceptual adaptation
the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
Intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude (height)
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
Retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
Weber's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
Learning
the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
preception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
parellel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
storage
the retention of encoded information over time
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
Generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
Behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Gestalt psychologists were fond of saying that in perception
the whole may exceed the sum of its parts.t
When Lisa opens her eyes in the morning, she sees flowers by her bedside. Lisa's eyes are receiving light energy, which they change into neural messages for the brain to process. This conversion of one form of energy into another is called
transduction
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
the difference threshold is greater for heavier objects than for lighter ones. This BEST illustrates
webers law
misinformation effect
when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event