Psych 105 Exam #2 (Ch.1-8)
"Hermoine is in class while Ron is playing soccer." Which of the following symbols should be used in this compound claim? v & ~ ->
&
"We'll serve either apples and bananas or cherries." How would you symbolize this?
(A & B) v C
"Apples or Bananas will be served with Cherries." How would you symbolize this?
(A v B) & C
"If Sara passes chemistry and physics, then she'll graduate." How would you symbolize this?
(C & P) -> G
Identify the correct application of the implication (IMPL) rule.*
(P -> Q) -> ( R v S) ~(P -> Q) v ( R v S)
Which of the following shows the correct application of the implication (IMPL) rule? (P -> Q) / (~P v Q) (P -> Q) <-> (~P v Q) (P -> Q) -> (P v Q) (P -> Q) <-> (P v ~Q)
(P -> Q) <-> (~P v Q)
Which of the following is a legitimate case of a disjunctive argument?*
(P v Q) v (~R & S) ~(~R & S) /:. P v Q
Which symbol is used for a conditional claim?
->
Which of the following is shorthand for the word "therefore"?
/:.
In the context of argument from analogy, which of the following arguments is the weakest? 1)Professor Smith assigns a writing assignment in her history class. Professor Jones will require one in his class. 2)Professors Smith, Olson, and Adams all require writing assignments in their history classes. Professor Jones will require one in his history class.
1
Identify the legitimate use of modus ponens. 1)A -> (B v C) A /:. B v C 2) P -> Q Q -> R /:. P -> R 3) P -> (Q v R) P -> ~~(Q v R) 4) A -> B ~B /:. ~A
1)A -> (B v C) A /:. B v C
What is the probability of rolling a 3 on a fair die?
1/6
Which analogy is stronger? 1) The post office is closed one Veteran's Day, so the court will be closed too. 2)The post office and the court house are closed on Veteran's Day. The post office will be closed on Columbus Day. So will the court house.
2
Jane studied 30 apes out of a community of 300 that lived in Tanzanla to test her theories of intelligence. What is the sample in this study?
30 great apes
What is the probability of rolling a 1 or a 2 on a die?
33%
How many rows would the truth table for "P v Q" have?
4
Within a 95 percent confidence level, the range of random variation as to a variable found in repeated random samples would fall within the error margin _______ percent of the time.
95
"All A are B. Some C are not B. Therefore, some C are not A." Which the major term?
A
If A, then B." Which part of this statement is the antecedent?
A
What is the contradictory of O?
A
Which claims are equivalent to their contrapositives?
A and O
"If A, then C. C. Therefore, A." What fallacy is this?" What fallacy is this?
Affirming the consequent
Which of the following is the translation for post hoc, ergo propter hoc? before this, therefore because of it after this, therefore because of it
After this, therefore because of it.
What is an A claim? (Use S and P)
All S are P.
"Anything that is an apple is a fruit." Translate into standard form.
All apples are fruit.
"Mickey Mouse is fictional." Translate into standard form.
All characters identical to Mickey Mouse are fictional characters.
"Only birds are feather-bearing creatures." What is the equivalent claim?
All feather-bearing creatures are birds.
What is the obverse of "No flowers are animals."
All flowers are non-animals.
What is the contrapositive for "All apples are fruits."
All non-fruit are non-apples.
Translate the following into standard form: "Only Freshman have to take the exam."
All people required to take the exam are Freshmen.
"Joe is the only person taking the class." What is the translation into standard form?
All people taking the class are people who are identical with Joe.
"Whenever it rains, it pours." Translate the claim into standard form.
All times it rains are times it pours.
Which of the following does Argumentum Ad Hominem translate as? Argument to the person Argument to the fact Argument to the claim Argument to the proposal
Argument to the person
In the context of deductions, which of these is not a legitimate example of commutation? A. R v P commutes to P v R B. R -> P commutes to P -> R C. R & P commutes to P & R
B
"If Dad gets a bonus, then Mom and Dad will go on vacation." How would you symbolize this?
B -> (M & D)
"i believe that the Koran is God's word because God revealed the writings of the Koran to Mohammad." What type of fallacy is represented?
Begging the question
"All Catholics are Christians." What is a term in this claim?
Catholics
What is the first step in finding an obverse of a claim?
Change it from affirmative to negative or vice versa.
Identify the rules (use the abbreviations) that were used to enter lines 3 and 4 in the following deduction. P v (Q & R) Premise ~Q v ~R Premise ~(Q & R) ________ P ________
DEM DA
_______________ involves deriving the conclusion from the premises of a valid argument.
Deduction
Which department within the US government is notorious for the use of euphemisms?
Department of Defense
Which two claims are equivalent to their converse?
E and I
Supply the abbreviation for the rule that was used to enter the second line of the following deduction. 1. (P v Q) -> (R -> S) 2. ((P v Q) & R) -> S
EXP
T/F: Credibility is an all or nothing feature; a claim either has it or it doesn't.
False
T/F: In logic, begging the question means to raise a question.
False
T/F: Pictures, like propositions, can be either true or false.
False
T/F: Reaching a solid conclusion is a type of summary.
False
T/F: There is no place for rhetoric in spoken or written word.
False
T/F: While writing about a person, his or her race or gender should never be stated.
False
"We're going to have to cut physical education in the curriculum or we won't have enough time to focus on math." What type of fallacy is represented?
False dilemma
"I don't agree with putting God back into policymaking. That idea originated with the Tea Party, and I want noting to do with that group." What type of fallacy is represented?
Genetic
Which kind of rule can be used on parts of lines in deduction in an argument?
Group II rules
These two philosophers argue that in order to hold a person legally responsible for a harm, we must trace the harm back to the person's direct action.
H.L.A. Hart and A.M. Honore
"Some apples are red fruits." Which type of claim is this?
I
Identify an example that illustrates the modus ponens form argument.*
If Miranda worked hard, then she wins the tournament. Miranda did work hard. Therefore, she wins the tournament.
Identify the form of a chain argument. (use P, Q, and R.)
If P then Q. If Q then R. If P then R.
Identify the pattern of modus tollens using P and Q.
If P then Q. Not-Q./Not-P.
Is a causal argument an inductive or deductive argument?
Inductive
this type of reasoning compares alternative hypotheses to find the one with the best predictive accuracy.
Inference to the best explanation
Identify a true statement about undistributed middle. It impersonates modus tollens. It masquerades as modus ponens. It has the same consequent for each of its conditional premises. It has the same antecedent for each of its conditional premises.
It has the same consequent for each of its conditional premises.
What is a characteristic of a false dilemma fallacy?
It ignores other options
In the context of translating an argument into standard form, which of the following is true of the phrase "if only"? It introduces the predicate term of an A-claim. It means times or occasions. It introduces the subject term of an A-claim. It means places or locations.
It introduces the subject term of an A-claim.
Which of the following is NOT true of exaggeration? It is an essential part of a logical argument. It engages readers of poetry and fiction. It is the same as hyperbole.
It is an essential part of a logical argument.
"The critical thinking lessons taught by Professor Smith covers inductive reasoning. Therefore, the critical thinking lesson taught by Professor Jones will cover it, too." What are the analogues in this scenario?
Jones's course and Smith's course
Which of the following in a stronger argument? Jordan reads fiction novels, so I think he'll understand the concept of genetics. Jordan learns chemistry, so I think he'll understand the features of the periodic table.
Jordan learns chemistry, so I think he'll understand the features of the periodic table.
This famous person in history effectively used scare tactics to alarm the public with false accusations of treason and communism in the 1950s.
Joseph McCarthy
When you record your first reaction to an issue without considering the issue in depth, what error is committed?
Knee jerk reaction
"Water is a necessary condition for life." If W symbolizes water and L symbolizes life, how would you represent this?
L -> W
Which of the following is a stronger argument from analogy? Pluto is like Earth. Pluto has frozen oxygen and solid water, while Earth has gaseous oxygen and liquid water. Therefore, both can support life. Mars is like Earth. Mars has gaseous oxygen and liquid water, just like Earth. Therefore, both can support life.
Mars is like Earth. Mars has gaseous oxygen and liquid water, just like Earth. Therefore, both can support life.
The common variable principle is also known as this.
Method of Agreement
When using rules to test for validity, which term must be distributed in at least one premise?
Middle
What is an E claim? (Use S and P)
No S are P.
What is the contrary of "all rabbits are herbivores."
No rabbits are herbivores.
"Don't give peanuts to small children. Peanuts can cause an allergic reaction." Which of the following is the unstated premise? All peanuts are things that can cause allergic reactions in children. No things that can cause allergic reactions are things that you should give small children. All allergic reactions are events that can happen to small children.
No things that can cause allergic reactions are things that you should give small children.
Which claim has the most initial plausibility? An Aspirin a day will prevent all heart problems. One highway has many more accidents than the others. People who eat pineapples on their pizza have special powers. All cars out of the United States are build badly.
One highway has more accidents than the others.
Identify the rule of conjuction.
P Q/ P & Q
Identify a legitimate destructive dilemma.*
P -> Q R -> S ~Q v ~S /:. ~P v ~R
"If there are puddles outside, it rained." How would you symbolize this claim?
P -> R
"Aaron saw Ben after his Bar Mitzvah." What type of ambiguity is this?
Pronoun reference
"Who was the most influential composer of the 20th century? Few experts will say it was Alban Berg." What type of rhetorical device is this?
Proof surrogate
"All S are P. No P are Q. Therefore, no S are Q." What is the major term in this argument?
Q
This symbolization, (Q & P) -> (R & S), is equivalent to which of the following by the EXPORT rule?
Q -> (P -> (R & S))
"Rhea will fall unless Tim helps her." How would you symbolize this?
R v T
"Andy voted for Senator Thomas because everyone at the country club supported Thomas and Andy follows the crowd." What type of rhetorical device is this?
Rhetorical explanation
"No X are Y. Some Y are Z. Therefore, some X are Z." Which rule of validity does this syllogism violate?
Rule 1
Identify the rule that is broken in the syllogism. "Some pre-Columbian artifacts are Meso-American. Most Meso-American artifacts are not Mayan. Therefore, some pre-Columbian artifacts are not Mayan."
Rule 2
"All X are Y. All X are Z. Therefore, all Y are Z." Which rule of validity is violated in this syllogism?
Rule 3
Which rule is broken in this syllogism? "All marsupials are livebearers. No marsupials are tree-dwellers. Therefore, no livebearers are tree-dwellers."
Rule 3
All S are P." Which term is distributed?
S
A picture of a forest fire along with an advertisement for homeowners insurance is what type of fallacious reasoning?
Scare tactic
The part of a class that is empty in a Venn diagram is indicated with shading or with an X?
Shading
What is an I claim? (Use S and P)
Some S are P.
What is an O claim>? (Use S and P)
Some S are not P.
"Most chills are too hot for me." Translate into standard form.
Some chills are things too hot for me.
Which is an affirmative proposition? Some humans are not carnivores. Some humans are carnivores.
Some humans are carnivores.
What is the contradictory of "all lions are carnivores"?
Some lions are not carnivores.
What is the contrapositive for "Some citizens are residents."?
Some non-residents are non-citizens.
What is the obverse of "Some residents are citizens."?
Some residents are not non-citizens.
Which of the following statements is true if modus tollens? It is a one-premise argument. The conclusion of the argument is the negation of the antecedent. The non-conditional premise is the negation of its antecedent. Its conclusion is the consequent of its conditional.
The conclusion of the argument is the negation of the antecedent
What is the most likely reason why advertisers, owners, and managers pressure the media?
The media, with few exceptions, are driven in part by the necessity to make a profit
What is the difference between a lexical and a rhetorical definition?
The rhetorical definition tries to persuade.
"All fruits in the basket are apples. Some fruits in the basket are green apples." Identify a concluding statement that will make this a proper syllogism.
Therefore, some apples in the basket are green apples.
What is a true statement about premises?
They are absent n a piece of pure rhetoric.
Which of these is a key characteristic of ad hominem fallacies? They are directed at what is being said. They are directed at a person.
They are directed at a person.
True statement about social media?
They can create a false impression on minds by repeated viewings of an event
Identify a true statement about deductive arguments. They depend on the meanings of the words that occur in their premises for their validity. Even if the premises of such an argument are true, the conclusion is always false. They fail to prove or demonstrate their conclusion. Words like "all" "and" "or" "if,then" do not carry the burden of such arguments.
They depend on the meanings of the words that occur in their premises for their validity.
Which of the following is true about stereotypes? They have truth value, but not rhetorical force. They have rhetorical force but no probative power.
They have rhetorical force but no probative power.
T/F: Language is not entirely not a matter of ethics.
True
A _________ diagram is a visual representation of a categorical syllogism.
Venn
__________ _____________ graphically represent(s) the our standard-form categorical claim types.
Venn Diagram
"Many people say that Shiny gums brand is the best toothpaste" What type of rhetorical device is used?
Weaseler
"This rack of clothing is up to 80% off."
Weaseler
"P v Q" When is this disjunction false?
When both P and Q are false
"All Ys are Xs?" What is the subject term in this claim?
Y
"If a person wakes up early, then he or she is successful in life. If he or she is successful in life, he or she will be famous. Therefore, if a person wake up early, he or she will be famous." Identify the form of argument.
a chain argument
A mistake in reasoning is referred to as ________.
a fallacy
Information about the percentage of As that are Bs doesn't in itself tell a person anything about the percentage of Bs and As. Those who think it does are guilty of ______.
a faulty inductive conversion
"The final exam should not be comprehensive. Students do well in this class and seem to enjoy critical thinking." What type of fallacy is represented?
a red herring fallacy
When writing your introduction, what should you try to avoid?
a windy preamble
Which of the following is NOT usually used as a downplayer? so called mere absolutely allegedly
absolutely
"Lying is always wrong. So, when Mr. Gies told the Nazi authorities that he had no idea where the Frank family was hiding, he was committing a misdeed." What type of fallacy is this?
accident
A fact about the individual members of a collection leads to a conclusion about this or that member of the collection represents the fallacy of ________.
accident
"The teachers are advocating a longer school year, but of course they would want that. They would be paid more." What type of fallacy is represented?
ad hominem
Which of the following is NOT a type of false dilemma? line-drawing fallacy ad hominem perfectionist fallacy
ad hominem
Identify the fallacy that masquerades as modus ponens.
affirming the consequent
"Every apple is a fruit." What is an equivalent claim?
all apples are fruit
A word or phrase that has multiple meanings is said to be ______.
ambiguous
Words such as "rights" and "freedom" can cause controversy because they are________.
ambiguous and vague
This fallacy occurs when the structure of a sentence causes ambiguity in an argument.
amphiboly
When conjunction is performed, the logical symbol that must always be in the result is _____________.
an ampersand (&)
An argument that is supported by appeals to personal feelings is called ______.
an appeal to emotion
"A car would help me reach office on time; so I should buy one." This is an example of _____________. interrogatory argument
an argument
A rhetorical _______ likens one thing to another in order to make one of them appear better or worse than the other.
analogy
A(n) __________ definition specifies the features a thing must have in order for the term being defined to apply to it.
analytical
Truth functional logic primarily concerns how claims are affected by these words.
and, not, or
The argument from outage uses this to convince rather than a logical argument.
anger
If a sufficient condition is part of a conditional claim, the sufficient condition is expressed as the ___________ of the claim.
antecedent
"Well she may have good grades, but she isn't very popular." What type of fallacy is represented?
appeal to envy
"nobody has ever proven that a Sasquatch does not exist. Therefore, they must live somewhere on the planet." What type of fallacy is represented?
appeal to ignorance
What type of fallacy assumes we should believe a claim if it hasn't been proved false?
appeal to ignorance
"Her parents buy her a new car and all the clothes she wants and you still think she should be in our study group? Well, I don't." What type of fallacy is represented?
appeal to jealousy
Playing upon a person's feeling of resentment towards another person's success or possessions is a type of fallacy called _______.
appeal to jealousy
"How could that poor gentlement, stuck in a wheelchair for the rest of his life, be guilt of embezzlement?"What type of fallacy is represented?
appeal to pity
"please raise my grade on the final. I'm trying to get into medical school."What type of fallacious reasoning is this?
appeal to pity
"Everyone knows that life doesn't exist on Mars. That's why I don't believe such crazy things." What type of fallacy is this?
appeal to popularity
"how can certain religions be against consuming caffeine? People have been consuming caffeine for centuries." What type of fallacy is this?
appeal to tradition
What fallacy involves flattery rather than argument?
apple polishing
The opinions of an opinion and editorial page columnist _________.
are sometimes bought and paid for
"Any reforms that the senator offers on minimum wage reform are bogus. He once belonged to a labor union." What type of fallacy is represented?
argument ad hominem
"People always harp on me for smoking and say that i'm going to dies of lung disease. Hog wash! My grandpa smoked a pipe every day of his life and lived to be 95!" What fallacy is this?
argument by anecdote
What type of hasty generalization relies on a story as the evidence?
argument by anecdote
"Terrence does not take good care of his dog. Therefore, his brother Hobbs will not take good care of the dog." What type of argument does the above statement represent?
argument from analogy
"Those narrow-minded bigots should not be allowed to legislate private matters. You should vote for the gay marriage act." What type of fallacy is represented?
argument from outage
When testing the validity of an argument with a truth table, how many rows does invalidity require in which the premises are true and the conclusions is false?
at least one
Which of the following is the time-honored strategy for rebutting an argument from analogy, showing that the premise-analogue or analogues are not as similar to the conclusion-analogue as stated or implied? begging the ? attacking the analogy offering a syllogism ignoring the analogy
attacking the analogy
When thinking critically, "argument" means ___________.
attempt to support or prove something.
which of these would probably NOT negatively influence your observations and recollections of an event? attention tiredness distraction emotions
attention
A(n) ___________ sample is one that does not mirror the population.
atypical
When someone tries to support a conclusion by citing evidence from a non authoritative source, it is a Fallacious Appeal to _________.
authority
The immense body of justified beliefs that consists of facts people learn from their own direct observations and facts they learn from others is known as their ______________.
background information
Student to teacher: "You should give extra credit assignments. Every other professor is doing it." What type of fallacy is represented?
bandwagon fallacy
This fallacy preys upon psychological vulnerabilities.
bandwagon fallacy
"Of course people have past lives. Otherwise why would they sometimes remember having them?" What type of fallacy is represented?
begging the question
Definitions should not prejudice the case against one side of a debate or the other. This is a form of ___________.
begging the question
"Mr. Gates is a successful businessman; he would make a successful president." What is a problem with this analogy?
being a successful businessman and being a successful president may require different skill sets
If a variable is not present in the sample at the same rate as in the population, the sample is _____________ in respect to that variable.
biased
"A minor is someone under the age of eighteen who cannot be trusted to make his or her own judgements." what type of definition is this?
both rhetorical and precising
What type of syllogism is based on inclusion or exclusion among classes?
categorical
A ___________ _____________ (in standard form) is a syllogism whose every claim is a standard-form categorical claim and in which three terms each occur exactly twice and in exactly two of the claims.
categorical syllogism
In logic, a __________ is a class or a population.
category
In the context of inductive reasoning, a(n) _________ statement is ab event that brings about a change or effect.
causal
In the context of fallacies related to cause and effect, it is often said that correlation does not prove ________.
causation
A(n) _________ argument rule allows a person to derive a conditional from two he or she already has, provided the antecedent of one of his or her conditionals is the same as the consequent of the other.
chain
"If the rate of gold decreases, it will be easily available. If it will be easily available, then its demand will increase. Therefore, if the rate of gold decreases, then its demand will increase." This argument is an example of ___________ ________________.
chain argument
According to the rule of implication (IMPL), any conditional whatsoever can be converted into a disjunction by __________ putting a negation sign in front of what was formerly the ___________.
changing an arrow to a wedge; antecedent
In truth-functional logic, this is a letter that stands for a claim.
claim variable
All the passengers on a recent international flight became ill with a stomach virus. Investigators traced the source of the virus to a foodborne illness found in an on board meal, which all ill passengers had eaten. Which method of investigation was used to discover this?
common variable principle
Within the universe of discourse, the class that contains everything not in the first class is called the ________ class.
complementary
A conclusion about the members taken collectively from a a fact about the individual members of the collection represents the fallacy of __________.
composition
The fallacy of ________ occurs when a feature of the parts is erroneously attributed to the whole.
composition
Every argument must have at least one premise and a ___________.
conclusion
An "if...then..." statement is generally known as what type of claim?
conditional
_________ _________ (CP) is both a rule and a strategy for constructing a deduction.
conditional proof
This is a variable that is not part of the study but is correlated with one or more of the independent variables.
confounding variable
A ___________ is a compound claim made from two simpler conjuncts.
conjunction
When DeMorgan's Laws are applied to a disjunction, the result is always a negated ______________ and vice versa.
conjunction
The phrase "only if" introduces the ___________ of a conditional.
consequent
Beliefs are said to be ________ if and only if each and every belief is true at the same time.
consistent
"Diet Pepsi contains caffeine. therefore, regular Pepsi will too." What is the attribute of interest?
containing caffeine
What term means a pair that are exact opposites?
contradictories
The statements "He had none of the cake" and " He has some of the cake" are _________.
contradictory
What term describes claims that cannot both be true but might both be false?
contraries
In the context of arguments from analogy, analogues that lack the attribute of interest are ___________ analogues.
contrary
The statements "He is is poor" and "He is rich" are _____.
contrary
The ___________ of a claim can be found by switching the positions of the subject and predicate.
converse
Over the past two years, the customers of Taurus Bank have been using banking for their transactions. The overall business of the bank has gone up during the past two years. Therefore, perhaps offering internet banking services to the customers helped improve the bank's performance. This scenario suggests that _________.
correlation may indicate causation
Which of the following is NOT another common name for the false dilemma fallacy? cum hoc black or white either/or ignoring other alternatives
cum hoc
"A and B are happening at the same time. Therefore, A caused B." What type of fallacy is represented?
cum hoc, ergo propter hoc
"Joe is allergic peanuts, so he definitely did not try the pad thai." In this argument, which of the following words indicates or provides clues that it is a deductive argument? did not try definitely he
definitely
A(n) _______ refers to giving another word or phrase that means the same as the term being defined.
definition by synonym
A(n) _______ uses extreme rhetoric and propaganda to argue false ideas and preposterous theories.
demagogue
"The war is justified as a righteous war against infidels who have no hope of salvation." What rhetorical technique is this?
demonizing
Refusing to acknowledge a fact because it is unpleasant is known as ________.
denial
"If A, then B. Not A. Therefore, not B." What type of fallacy is this?
denying the antecedent
The fallacy of __________ impersonates modus tollens.
denying the antecedent
Explanation means ________.
detailing why things happened as they did.
What happens when both premises of a syllogism are A- or E-claims and the conclusion is an I- or O-claim?
diagramming the premises cannot possibly yield a diagram of the conclusion.
A __________ is a compound claim compromised of two simpler claims called disjuncts.
disjunction
What is the purpose of symbolizing a claim?
display its truth-functional structure, one that will be the equivalent to the original, informal claim
This concept concerns whether a claim says something about every member of the class the term names.
distribution
A fact about the members of a collection taken collectively leads to a conclusion about the members taken individually represents the fallacy of ______.
division
The fallacy of ___________ occurs when a person concludes that what must be true of the whole must also be true of constituent parts.
division
If either the antecedent or consequent of a conditional begins with a negation but the other does not, _________ _________ must be applied before contraposition can be used on it.
double negation
"I don't agree with Senator Smith. He's just another dirty politician." What type of rhetorical device is this?
downplayer
"I enjoyed the class, even though the teacher was very unprepared." What type of rhetorical device is used?
downplayer
"She earned an online degree, if you can really call it a degree!" What type of rhetorical device is this?
downplayer
A _______ is used to produce a negative effect on someone's attitude about something, or to tone down the positive associations it may have.
dysphemism
Which fallacy occurs when an argument can be misinterpreted because a word or phrase is open to more than one interpretation?
equivocation
This calculation is a function of the size of the sample and the confidence level in a random sample.
error margin
This is the range of random variation that occurs in a sample with respect a=to an attribute of interest.
error margin
This is the range of random variation that occurs in a sample with respect to an attribute of interest.
error margin
Instead of saying someone died, one can they passed away. Is this a euphemism or dsyphemism?
euphemism
Justification means ___________.
excusing things that already happened
The result of how much one expects to gain from an event combined with the likelihood of gaining it is called ___________ __________.
expectation value
"Almost all the people who called into MSNBC's news programs were against the new Republican initiative. Therefore, I don't think the public will support the initiative in the long run." What type of fallacy is represented?
fallacy of the biased sample
"People are racist in this neighborhood. I heard a racial slur as I was walking down the street yesterday." What type of fallacy is represented?
fallacy of the lonely fact
If claim Q is true, what is the truth value of its negation?
false
T/F: A claim that is symbolized will be true under the same circumstances as the original but false under different circumstances as the original.
false
T/F: A good logical argument should never arouse emotion.
false
T/F: Constructive dilemma always requires that you have two disjunctions and a conditional.
false
T/F: Destructive dilemma requires the same premises as constructive dilemma.
false
T/F: Hate mongering is such a powerful rhetorical device that it is generally not used in conjunction with rhetorical techniques.
false
T/F: I and E can have the same truth value.
false
T/F: If the "A" claim is true, the corresponding "O" claim is ____________.
false
T/F: In order to have a valid argument, the order of the premise must not change.
false
T/F: Some claims are not equivalent to their observations.
false
T/F: The relationships between contraries and between subcontraries are independent of existential assumptions.
false
T/F: Unlike the written word, graphs and figures cannot be used to create misleading impressions.
false
T/F: When the similarities between two analogues are numerous and diversified, the argument is likely to be weak.
false
T/F: When weighing evidence and forming a causal hypothesis, background information is irrelevant.
false
T/F:If the antecedent in a conditional claim is true, and the consequent is false, then the conditional claim is ____________.
false
T?F: A claim accepted by a majority of experts in the relevant field cannot be wrong.
false
Mariah and Jennifer are both famous and wealthy. Mariah likes furs. Therefore, jennifer probably likes furs, too. What type of fallacy is this?
false analogy
Which fallacy is at hand when an argument is biased on irrelevant similarities between two things?
false analogy
What type of fallacy is the perfectionist fallacy?
false dilemma
You commit this fallacy when you try to establish your point by pretending that it is the only alternative to something much worse.
false dilemma
Which of these would most likely affect your recollection of a doctor's appointment?
fear of appointment
What is the best definition of initial plausibility?
first assessment of credibility
Adding a clear statement outlining the issues you address helps ___________ the essay.
focus
When you suspect a causal relationship, what is one of the first courses of action?
form a causal hypothesis
Which of the following is NOT a common technique used by demagogues? otherizing demonizing foster xenophobia fostering community
fostering community
A sampling ___________ sets the parameters for a particular population.
frame
A statistical syllogism applies a _________ statement to a __________ case.
general; specific
What type of reasoning draws a conclusion about a group or population based on a sample from that group?
generalization
Coming to a conclusion based on evidence from atypical cases is known as what type of fallacy?
generalization from exceptional cases
When an issue is buried within a historical or descriptive discussion, what type of error is committed?
glancing blow
"You don't believe in labor unions? Well, the Nazis also outlawed labor unions. What does that tell you?" What type of fallacy is represented?
guilt by association
"Your grandfather would roll over in his grave if he knew you smoked pot!" What type of fallacy is represented?
guilt trip
A conclusion about all the members of a collection taken individually from a fact about an individual member of the collection represents the fallacy of ______.
hasty generalization
After the first day of class, i decided that the professor's logic classes were boring. I dropped the class. What type of fallacy is represented?
hasty generalization
What are a person most reliable source of information of the world?
his or her own observations
Huey: I think Louie robbed the bank. Dewey: Really, what makes you think that? Huey: Well, what makes you think he wouldn't? Who has the actual burden of proof in this exchange?
huey
Which of the following fallacies is rhetorical device? hyperbole slippery slope false dichotomy argumentum ad baculum
hyperbole
If two truth tables for two claims look exactly the same, i.e. the Ts and Fs in one column are in the same arrangement as those in another, then these claims truth-functionally ________ each other.
imply
When the short truth-table methods is used on a valid argument, it turns out to be ____________ to make the premises true and the conclusions false.
impossible
Events are __________ when one's happening does not affect the other's happening.
independent
Fallacies of __________ are arguments that fall to raise the probability of the conclusion.
induction
"Republicans tend to be conservative. Sam is conservative in nature. Therefore, Sam is a Republican." What type of argument is this?
inductive
"The President investigated the scandal. At least, that is what he claimed." What rhetorical device is this?
innuendo
A(n) _____ is a subtle or indirect derogatory remark that is often masked with with positive phrasing.
innuendo
A person who stands to gain or lose something depending on whether you accept or reject a claim is said to be a(n) ____________ party.
interested
"I am swamped with other classes and I work full time. Therefore, I think that this class is hard for me." What type of fallacy is represented?
irrelevant conclusion
The credibility of a source is immediately diminished if the source ____________.
is an interested party.
A(n) __________ is simply a question.
issue
What is a characteristic of a false dilemma fallacy?
it ignores other options
Which of these is a version of simplification? 1) (P v Q) & ~R 2) (P & Q) v (~R & S) /:. ~R /:. P & Q
just the left one
What is an immediate, often emotional, reaction to an issue?q
knee jerk response
Generally, the __________ the sample, the more confident you can be about the accuracy of the generalization.
larger
What percent of the comments from professional website evaluators are focused on a website's visual design?
less than 20%
This type of definition is typically give in a dictionary and tells us what a word originally means.
lexical
Since all the other members of Jorge's family are going to the concert, it is likely that Jorge will go as well. Which word in this sentence indicates an inductive argument?
likely
"The police officer did not use excessive force because any type of force could be excessive." What type of fallacy is represented?
line-drawing
A(n) __________ question implies something, often negative, without saying it outright.
loaded
"Who do you think looks better in a bathing suit, Sierra or me?" What type of rhetorical device is this?
loaded question
What principle requires that all points in an essay are clarified in a orderly fashion?
logical sequencing
What is the term that occurs in the predicate of the syllogism's conclusion?
major
The disadvantages of recent articles in Wikipedia include all of the following EXCEPT: may contain uncorrected errors may omit relevant information may contain unintentional bias may have professional details of people
may have professional details of people
Which average divides the total of a set of values by the number of values?
mean
Which term occurs as the subject term of a syllogism's conclusion?
minor term
Into which category of fallacy does an appeal to ignorance fall?
misplaced burden of proof
This fallacy occurs when the listener is tricked into thinking he or she has to prove the opponent wrong.
misplaced burden of proof
A two premise valid argument form, one premise of which is a conditional and the other of which is the antecedent of that conditional, is known as ___________ _____________.
modus ponens
If A then B A B What form of argument is this?
modus ponens
"If I got to the store, I'll buy ice cream. I won't buy ice cream today. So, I didn't go to the store." What type of argument is this?
modus tollens
"If he had recovered, he would have attended the seminar. But he has not attended the seminar; thus, he has not recovered." Identify the form of argument.
modus tollens
(P v Q) -> R ~R ~(P v Q) This is the pattern of ____________.
modus tollens
This type of argument is also known as denying the consequent.
modus tollens
Generally speaking, the larger sample, the _________ reliable the conclusion.
more
The double negation rule allows people to go to any spot in a line of deduction and add or remove two __________ __________.
negative signs
"Generally, claims that provide statistics are straightforward. Therefore you don't need to worry about innuendo when considering statistically claims." Is this true?
no
"If you study hard, then you will get god grades." Is this an argument?
no
"Since there is nothing wrong with drinking coffee every morning, there isn't anything wrong with drinking alcohol every morning." Is this a good analogy?
no
In order to gage opinion on recent school policy changes, the professor surveyed all the students taking her literature. Was the professor's sample representative?
no
Is the following a standard-form syllogism? "All fruits have seeds. A carrot has seeds. Therefore, a carrot is a fruit."
no
"Think f your brain as a computer. It processes information and computes answers." Is this an argument from analogy?
no, it is an explanatory analogy
Dad: "You can use the car tonight only if you do your homework." Did Dad provide a necessary and sufficient condition for being allowed to use the car?
no, just necessary
In the formula for determining the number of rows in a truth table, r=2^n, what foes the n represent?
number of letters in the symbolization
In this type of study, subjects are not divided into control and experiment groups and given a test. Instead, behavior, or symptoms are carefully watched by researchers.
observational
A definition by example is also called a(n) _______ defintion.
ostensive
"As the same-sex couple walked down the street, a group of protesters hurled insults and shouted that the couple were animals." What rhetorical device were the protesters using?
otherizing
According to the text, the most reliable source of information about the world is...?
our own observations
Which technique, used before and after a first draft, can help ensure your essay is logically organized?
outlining
"george woke up with spots all over his body. A few hours later, he had a raging fever. george concluded that the spits caused his fever." What type of fallacy is this?
overlooking a common cause
"The snow season begins when days grow short. Therefore, snow cause shorter days." What type of fallacy is represented?
overlooking a possible common cause
Jack had a terrible headache after he was cited for driving under the influence. He concluded that the strain of being cited gave him a headache. In the context of the fallacies related to cause and effect, which of the following fallacies is best illustrated in this scenario?
overlooking a possible common cause
"Jones is guilty of the crime! We ran the DNA found at the crime scene against our databases, and Jones came up. It doesn't matter that Jones had an alibi- he's our man." What type of fallacy is represented?
overlooking prior probabilities
"The email was titled 'Money bags' and said that if I forwarded the message, i would receive cash. Sure enough, I sent it out to 200 friends, and the next day my tax refund showed up. What type of fallacy is this?
overlooking the possibility of coincidence
Tina develops a nervous tick while living near a nuclear power plant and concludes that the tick has to do with the plant. In the context of the fallacies related to cause and effect, which fallacy is best illustrated in this scenario.
overlooking the possibility of coincidence
Which fallacy ignores the fact that simultaneously occurring events need not always be casually related?
overlooking the possibility of coincidence
"The President's poll numbers improved slightly this week. Therefore, people like him more this week." What fallacy is involved here?
overlooking the possibility of random variation
"Some S are not P." Which term is distributed?
p
This principle involved looking at antecedent events between two cases to determine differences that may have led to a certain event.
paired unusual events
"I hope nobody else knows you plan on voting against building a new recreation center!" What type of fallacy is represented?
peer pressure
"Taking an introductory logic class won't help me be a superb engineer, so why bother?" What type of fallacy is represented?
perfectionist fallacy
Rhetoric is the tool of the_________.
persuader
Bad lighting, noise, and the speed of events are among the _____________ conditions that can affect our observations and judgement.
physical
News anchor: "The president is about to give a speech on foreign policy. Keep in mind that under this administration, international trade has plummeted. Now let's hear the speech." What type of fallacy is represented?
poisoning the well
What kind of fallacy is an ad hominem in advance?
poisoning the well
The Fallacious Appeal to Common practice, which is sometimes called Fallacious Appeal to Tradition, is a variant of the fallacious appeal to ___________.
popularity
Any identifiable group of things or persons to be analyzed is the _______.
population
What is the complete collection of data that is studied in a generalization?
population
"My son completed his last rounds of vaccinations. Two months later, he was diagnosed with autism. I knew those vaccines were harmful." What type of fallacy is this?
post hoc, ergo propter hoc
"When i speak of animals, I'm referring to non-human animals." What type of definition is this?
precising
"Taina was studying the effects of a new teaching method on young students. She divided the students into an experimental and control group. However, she did not account for the fact that many of the students had prior knowledge of the subject she was testing." What problem did Taina face?
prior knowledge as a confounding variable
"Independent studies have verified that solar energy is the energy of the future." What type of rhetorical definition is this?
proof surrogate
"Reseachers wanted to study the effect of a new diabetes medication on older women. The researchers monitored the health of 40 women who were one the medication and compared the results with that of the health of 40 women who did not take the drug." What type of experiment is this?
prospective observational study
Which of the following words works like "if" in a conditional statement? However Conversely Additionally Provided
provided
Where does ridicule or a horse laugh gain its power?
psychology
In a _________ sample, every member of the population has an equal chance of becoming a member of that sample.
random
Another name for relevance fallacy is ________.
red herring
The argument form of modus tollens is the logical structure underlying the technique known as _____________.
reductio ad absurdum
If the average value of a variable in a population is atypical on one measurement, it is likely to be less atypical on the next measurement. When we overlook this fact, we overlook the possibility of _________.
regression
"Why are you telling me to quit smoking? you used to smoke 2 packs a day." What type of fallacy is represented?
relevance fallacy
What type of fallacy is committed when the argument is not related to the issue at hand?
relevance fallacy
The technique of ______ makes the same point, over and over, to drive a point.
repetition
In a _________ observational study, a researcher reasons backwards from the phenomenon of interest a suspected causes.
retrospective
A(n) _____ definition employs charged language to express an opinion about something.
rhetorical
What device calls attention to the similarity between 2 or more things, in order to persuade us of something?
rhetorical analogy
The emotive meaning of a word or phrase is also known as _____.
rhetorical force
What do we call the power words or expressions that explicit psychological and emotive responses?
rhetorical force
"Some aborigines are hunter-gatherers, None of the aborigines are omnivores. Some hunter-gatherers are omnivores." This syllogism is invalid because it breaks _________.
rule 1
A subset of a population is also known as a(n) _______.
sample
What is the sub-collection of data that is polled, surveyed, or studied in order to draw a generalization about the total?
sample
________ ambiguity arises when a word or phrase has more than one meaning.
semantic
This method involves simply finding a row in the truth table in which the premises are true and the conclusions is false.
short truth-table
This is an indispensable act.
sine qua non
Which of the following is the broadest legal sense of the word "cause"? sine qua non legal cause
sine qua non
A sample in which variables that may be linked to the attributes of interest are not present in the same proportion as in the population of interest is called a(n) ___________ sample.
skewed
A rhetorical device that gives a claim a positive or negative connotation is known as _________.
slanter
"you want to ban Harry Potter? What's next? Shakespeare?" What type of fallacy is represented?
slippery slope
A __________ __________ fallacy asserts that one event will lead to an entire chain of events.
slippery slope
Which source is dedicated to fact-checking?
snopes.com
The _________ __________ ____________ is a diagram that concisely demonstrates the logical relationships between corresponding standard-form categorical claims.
square of opposition
What is the legal principle in which judges are obliged to follow precedent?
stare decisis
Most generalizations about a population are _________ generalizations.
statistical
"X percent of all As are Bs. C is an A. Therefore, C is a B." What type of argument is this?
statistical syllogism
"he's a teenager, so his primary focus in life is video games." What type of rhetorical device is this?
stereotype
A _________ is a cultural belief or idea, usually simplified or exaggerated, about a social group's attributes.
stereotype
What principle is involved when ensuring that all points in an essay pertain to the issue under discussion.
sticking to the issue
This type of definition is used when a word takes on a special meaning in a specific context.
stipulative
An anecdote is a type of _________.
story
"Stricter gun control laws? I think the idea of taking away everyone's weapons is a joke." What type of fallacy is represented?
straw man
A(n) ________ fallacy occurs when a writer attempts to dismiss an argument by distorting or misrepresenting it.
straw man
A)n) ______ fallacy occurs when a writer attempts to dismiss an argument by distorting or misrepresenting it.
straw man
When an author fails to organize thoughts in the essay, what type of problem can arise?
stream of consciousness
What is the first step in calculating a contrapositive?
switch the places of the subject and predicate terms.
What type of ambiguity results from problems in a claim's structure?
syntactic
What is usually the cause of the problem when amphiboly occurs?
syntactic ambiguity
According to the text, a claim lacks inherent credibility when it conflicts with any of three things. which of these are not of the three things? what we have observed ourselves the beliefs of people we like and admire other credible claims our background information
the beliefs of people we like and admire
What are the two grounds for suspicion when credibility is the issue?
the claim itself and its source
"If motorcycle sales rates increase as leather jackets sales increase, the two increases are correlated." Which of the following principles for arriving at a causal hypothesis does the above statement represent? the co-variation principle the paired unusual events principle the method of difference weighing evidence
the co-variation principle
"i believe Adam is a drug addict. Can you prove he isn't? In the context of the above statement, who among the following has the burden of proof?
the person making the accusation
Tabitha read that as sex education became more widespread, sexually transmitted diseases became more common. She concluded that sex education caused the increase in STDs. What possibility was she overlooking?
the possibility of reversed causation
Where must you look to find the middle term of a categorical syllogism?
the premises
In a valid deductive argument, it is impossible for ___________.
the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false.
"i asked for volunteers in the class to fill out my survey. From my results, I can tell that most students expect to do well in class." What is the problem with this analysis?
the sample is self-selected
"college students at the University of Arizona are exceptionally smart. I tested 5 students and each scored incredibly well." What is the problem with this reasoning?
the sample is too small
In the context of translating an argument into standard form, the word "whenever" implies that _________.
there is a claim about times or occasions
The publishers and owners of media outlets tend to be conservative because they have an orientation toward the aspect that ______________.
they are in business to make a profit
According to the text, broad, general knowledge can be enhanced if people have all of the following characteristics EXCEPT: they are over the age of 45 they read widely they have inquiring attitudes they converse freely
they are over the age of 45
How many circles does a Venn diagram that tests a categorical syllogism have?
three
In how many rows of its truth table is this sentence false?
three
The principle of ________ ___________ states that you must take into account all available and relevant data.
total evidence
T/F: A Group II rule says that " P <-> ~~P." This implies that the rule allows people to put one side of this equivalence in a deduction in place of the other side any time they want to.
true
T/F: According to the rule of addition in a valid argument, the truth of one disjunct is all is takes to make the whole disjunction true.
true
T/F: An "If...then" claim can state both a necessary and sufficient condition.
true
T/F: Blogs originated mostly as personal diaries open to the general public on the internet
true
T/F: Even though hyperbole is an exaggeration, it still retains some persuasive power.
true
T/F: Guilt by association fallacies play upon emotions and social tendencies.
true
T/F: If both of the conjuncts that make up a conjunction are true, then the conjunction is ______________.
true
T/F: If the "I" claim is false, the corresponding "O" claim is _________.
true
T/F: In order for an argument to be valid, there must be no rows on the truth table in which the premises are true and the conclusion is false.
true
T/F: In propositional logic, a claim must have one of the two truth values.
true
T/F: Subcontrary claims cannot both be false.
true
T/F: Though all standard form claims are in the present tense, we can use them to talk about the past.
true
T/F: When symbolizing a necessary condition with a conditional, the necessary condition is the consequent.
true
T/F: When you set up truth table for a compound claim, the reference columns must reflect every possible combination of true and false for the letters that occur in the claim.
true
What is the term for the actual percentage of the population that has the attribute of interest?
true proportion
Remember, when using the short truth-table method, you are looking for a way to make the premises __________ and the conclusion ____________.
true; false
What would a Venn diagram look like for the following claim? "No animals are unicorns."
two overlapping circles with the area where they overlap shaded
What are the characteristics of a syllogism?
two premises and a conclusions
What fallacy feeds on a desire for vengeance?
two wrongs make a right
This fallacy occurs when a person assumes that just because two things are both related to a third thing, they are related to each other.
undistributed middle
Which of the following invalid forms mimics a chain argument?
undistributed middle
Which type of premise should you diagram first in a Venn diagram?
universal
Lucy told Ethel her pie was wonderful. Whose pie was wonderful?
unknown
An explanation that cannot possibly be tested commits the fallacy of _______explanation.
untestable
Before a Venn diagram is used to determine the validity of real-life arguments, it helps to ________.
use a letter to abbreviate each category mentioned in the argument.
When symbolizing the word "unless", which symbol should you use?
v
Which symbol is used to represent a disjunction?
v
"All A are H. No S are H. Therefore, no S are A." In this example, the argument is __________.
valid
"Either we'll have pizza or sandwiches for lunch. Well, we're out of sandwich bread. So, we'll have pizza." Use a truth table to determine if this is valid.
valid
"Some aborigines are hunter-gatherers, but none of them are omnivores. So, it must be that some hunter-gatherers are not omnivores." In the example, the argument is ____________.
valid
A deductive argument is ____________ if and only if the truth of the premises guarantee the truth of the conclusion.
valid
Is the following syllogism valid? "Some S are not M. All P are M. Therefore, some S are not P."
valid
When constructing a truth table for an argument, if there are now rows on the table in which the premises are true an the conclusion is false, then the argument is _____________.
valid
A researcher surveyed students from the school's honor society and found that most were college bound. Therefore, the researcher concludes that a majority of graduates from this school go on to college. Is this weak or strong generalization?
weak
In an inductive argument, when the premises do not adequately support the conclusion, the argument is _______.
weak
The more numerous and diversified the difference between the analogues, the _________ the argument.
weaker
What is the most important factor in considering a website's credibility?
who are the sources behind its information
_________ thinking occurs when we forget that wanting something to be true doesn't make it true.
wishful
Lisa, a refugee, is hated by the citizens of her new country. Which form if extreme rhetoric is responsible for this situation?
xenophobia
"Ashton wanted to test the effects of sugar on tooth decay. So he randomly divided agfroup of test subjects into an experiment group that ate copious amounts of candy and a control group that avoided sugar." Is this a randomized controlled experiment?
yes
"I don't know if Lexie committed the crime. perhaps she is innocent." Is a weaseler used here to create innuendo?
yes
"No atheists are Catholics. Not Catholics are atheists." Are these claims equivalent in truth value?
yes
"Secretaries make more money than physicians." Does this claim suffer from ambiguity?
yes
"She is affluent enough to live in that neighborhood." Is this the level of vagueness in this claim acceptable?
yes
A -> (B v C) A
yes
A -> B A B Using a truth table, determine whether this argument is valid.
yes
Are these equivalent? P -> (Q v R) P -> (R v Q)
yes
Are these symbolized claims equivalent? [A & (B & C)] [(A & B) & C]
yes
Is the following argument an example of a legitimate (no fallacy) argument that might arouse a listener's pity? " The war should be stopped. Innocent people are dying by the thousands and most generals now say it is unwinnable."
yes
Which of the following is the symbol for negation?
~
"If there is no school tomorrow, then Tom and Jerry will go skiing." How would you symbolize this claim?
~S -> (T & J)