Psych 135 Midterm 1
William James
"I have as many selves as there are people that recognize me"
Johann Fichte
"No free being becomes conscious of itself without at the same time becoming conscious of other similar beings" First social psychological theory of self Sartre (1943) elaborates on this later Knowing self is linked to capacity to know others
Donald Studies
"Perception, then "reading comprehension" tests. Words primed in the 3rd, 5th, 7th, and 9th slots (had to memorize 10 words) People who were primed with applicable words, whether positive or negative, were highly affected in their interpretation of Donald. People who were primed with non applicable words were not particularly effected
Immediate experience (pre-reflective consciousness)
"Stream of consciousness" -Perception driven by automatic construals -Seems like 'Reality' -Lots of simultaneous automatic processes -how we experience going to movies Outputs of pre-reflective processes feel like they happen to us (perception/emotion)
Reflective consciousness
"Thought" -Reflections on the stream of consciousness -Has the quality of aboutness -Controlled processes: we experience reflective consciousness as something we personally control -Only one controlled process at a time -putting bucket in stream and taking it out -how critics experience going to movies -Outputs of reflective processes feeling like something we do (thinking/deciding).
St. Augustine
"Whether I am asleep or awake, it is I who is one of these and therefore I exist" basically the same as Descartes, just not as famous
Plato
"ruler of the body, distinct from the body, and therefore can live on without the body" First example of dualism (mind and body separate things)
Introspective Thinking
**spoiler alert** study, would you like book less if ending was spoiled? Most would say yes, but actually gets higher ratings when it has been spoiled Could someone else know your right answer better than you? Can introspecting on your preferences lead to choices you'll regret? We think we have a privileged access to information about ourselves, but we actually access information about ourselves the same way as we do to others
Milgram Obedience to Authority
150v- complains of pain (none stop) 160v- pleads to be let out (none stop) 300v- screams and then never heard again (32% stop) Reasonable Person Standard: we think anyone who would do worse than us is cruel. We also inaccurately estimate what we would do, misunderstanding their situation Actuality, people went way further than expected We don't account for Proximity, The Power of Authority, and the "slippery slope" effect and our need to appear consistent with ourselves -compare one's next behavior to the last. Not thinking of absolute value of shock level (slippery slope)
Controlled Processes
Are intentional Involve awareness Interfere with other processes Require effort Tend to be linguistic knowing others, knowing ourselves, and knowing how others know us are all controlled processes
Aversion of Self-Awareness
Asked what self esteem is in three conditions: looking at an image of themselves, no image, and watching TV. Self esteem highest when watching TV and lowest when looking at self
Priming
Associations formed throughout lifespan Romeo & Juliet -Priming the first ('Romeo') brings the second ('Juliet') 'closer to conscious awareness' Cannot add a word to a prime and change the meaning (enemy loses is negative, not happy, etc.)
McGurk Effect
Ba sound makes Fa sound if played with person making that gesture with his lips
Spotlight Effect
Bad Hair Day Effect Barry Manilow Study: thought more people would notice his shirt than actually did
OSA and escape
Because objective self- awareness is aversive, people will try to escape this state if possible Had participants perform task in a mirror and not in a mirror. When not in a mirror, they left at similar times regardless of whether they passed or failed the task. When in front of a mirror, they left considerably quicker when they failed the task
Objective Self Awareness
Can either focus on outside world or on self Focus on outside world Lost in the world (like Sartre chasing after the train) Focus on self Thinking about self as social object for others. Thus "object" or objective self-awareness (like Sartre in The Look) When objectively self-aware use "generalized other" to evaluate and guide behavior. Generalized other doesn't always guide behavior, only when made objectively self-aware (reflective) -Generalized other wants you to be better than your impulses. Thinking about this makes us feel bad about ourselves. Can either avoid (dionysian) or restrain (apollonian) Being made objectively self-aware should make you evaluate yourself from the outside Evaluate self more the way you would evaluate a stranger
Example of truck tracks
Cant see a truck, but we can tell truck was here. This is how we are with the self. See evidence of it, but can't quite tell it is here
Flow
Complete immersion, no self-evaluation, positive experience -Engaged, in the moment -In control without exerting control -Automaticities match behavioral demands Ex: Zen. Perhaps good for individual, but bad state of mind for society
Flipping Off Smurda
Did so because of authority (hard because should we obey or be respectful?) Situations are ambiguous; looked for others to define the situation Different doing it alone because nobody can define the situation, and you can't rely on others to take blame with you (diffusion of responsibility) Conscientious Objectors: Only time they gave thumbs up was when Liebermann was wearing a suit We feel that we are making decision independently, but actually there is diffusion of responsibility, subtle clothing primes, conformity to authority, conformity to group norms
The Four Horsemen of Automaticity
Doesn't require intention Doesn't require awareness (of the process) Doesn't interfere with others Doesn't require effort
False Logic
Elevator Logic Is she a witch? -just because we use controlled processes to reach these conclusions, does not make them correct
Tapping Demonstration
Empathy Gaps, curse of knowledge People who know the name of the song overestimate how many people will be able to identify it
Telling more than we can know
For some, first task includes pair "Ocean-Moon" Second task - Which detergent do you prefer? "All" or "Tide" More choose Tide in priming condition When asked why gave different reasons: -My mom uses it; It's the most well known; I like the box Hyp 3: Don't know what we don't know Example of failed introspection
Scar Test
Half the subjects had a make-up "scar" put on their face subject interacts with a confederate subject rates how partner acted during interaction -subjects with imaginary scars rated partners as much more tense and patronizing Our thoughts about the 'other' knowing that we have a scar changes how we interpret their behavior Assimilation effects: -ambiguous behavior interpreted according to what is active in the mind (A B C; 12 13 14) Automatic effect of a reflectively conscious thought Our belief that they know probably "leaks out" and affects how partner really acts Subject is anxious about being seen with scar "Self-fulfilling prophecy"
Hamsters Consciousness
Hamsters are conscious but they cannot think (thinking is processing and forming logical conclusions)
Baumeister
Historical view of the self We are defined by our hard choices
Jean-Paul Sartre
I have an observable "object" nature, that I can't know. It flows from me to you without me seeing it as you do. I judge & evaluate others as "objects", so they must judge me based on this "object" nature of mine that I can't know -Anxiety Anxiety, thus, is a fundamental component of any self that can be known & judged by others, but cannot be perfectly controlled by oneself Self can be known better by others than self
Rene Descartes
I think therefore I am I'm the one doing the thinking, so how could the self not be here?
Mirror Self Awareness
If you have a mirror, objectively self-aware condition. These people assigned themselves significantly more blame
Adaptive Errors (Corollary 3a)
In the (A B C) (12 13 14) example it is really useful to spontaneously use the context (letters or numbers) to make sense of the ambiguous information It helps us understand the communicator's intent because we make the same assumptions in interpreting as they do in creating their message These spontaneous interpretations leave out key information that can get us into trouble
1950s vs 1970s
In the 50s, apollonian/self-control was more important. In 70s and some of the 60s, it was more about dionysian and living on impulse
Hypothesis 4
It is amazing that we are as accurate as we are about why people do what they do and about what kind of people they are Reason 4a: Our judgments are often accurate because they are made automatically
G.H. Mead
Learn about self through reactions and feedback from others - see one's social "objectness" through their eyes Reflected appraisals - the reflection of the self's attributes as seen from the perspective of others 'what I think you think of me' affects what I think of me Flashlight/Mirror problem: flashlight cannot see itself, it can merely see reflection of itself in mirror. Other people serve as mirror for us. We have no doubt that they have a self that exists, and that's how we know ourselves Self-knowledge not gained from introspection Introspection is really a dialogue with the Generalized Other (like Freud's superego)
Hostile Media Effect
Liberals think CNN is conservative, conservatives think CNN is liberal. Pro-Israeli people only view others as Pro-Israeli if they are more Pro-Israeli than them. Everyone else is viewed as Anti-Israeli
John Locke
Memory: "As far as consciousness can extend backwards in time to any past action or thought, so far reaches the identity of that person" Mostly true, but self is more about experiences you've had rather than those that you remember Lightman's "Einstein's Dreams" Is it more important to remember who we've been or to be who we are in the moment? Calvino's "The adventure of a photographer" We seek memories at the expense of experience Posed volleyball pictures Photos as memory aids/replacements for things that never happened that way -Hipster pictures; not actually having fun
Car and Candle Study
Moving the car is easy because there is only one option, but in moving the candle, participant must take into account the director's viewpoint. He takes far longer to do this under cognitive load. Thus taking someone's perspective into account must not be automatic
Camcorder vs. Constructive Model of Seeing
Naive realists think we have camcorder: -Objective reality --> accurate perception and beliefs We actually have constructive: -Objective reality + Situation (construals, expectations, associations) --> Biased perception and beliefs
Subliminal vs. Nonsumbliminal Priming
Non-subliminal priming effects a bit larger But, only non-subliminal priming can be detected and counteracted by target In real life we are mostly primed by non-subliminal primes (i.e. situational cues like being in a library) What matters is being unaware of the prime's purpose, not being unaware of the prime itself Priming works better in ambiguous situations
Self-Discrepancy Theory
OSA too simplistic. We can fall short of expectations in different ways. Depending on which way we fall short, we feel different kinds of negative emotions Ideal self (who you want to be) Ought self (who you should be) Real self (who you believe you are) Real self can be an inaccurate belief about the self (e.g., extravert who thinks he's an introvert (here 'real' self = introvert)) Does not living up to ideals and oughts feel the same? Studies showed that comparing self vs. ideal created sense of joy/sadness, whereas self vs. ought created sense of satisfaction/anxiety
Do you prefer 60s or 80s music?
On average, people predict that 70% of people will agree with them. People who prefer 60s think of Beatles and Motley Crue, while people who prefer 80s thought of Donovan and The Police Everyone reconstrues the question to one others WOULD agree with but don't realize they've construed the question in terms of particular bands Without this recognition, others seem crazy
Assertiveness
People are asked to give 6 or 12 examples of when they were assertive. Those who had to give 12 struggled, and thus often rated themselves unassertive, as we would if we were judging someone else
Compliance Movie
People continued to do what the person told them to do because they thought he was a police officer
Hypothesis 5
People have two fundamental social motivations: Corollary 5a: People want to be liked and have a need to belong Corollary 5b: People want to be accurate, consistent, and authentic
Donald Studies (Subliminal Prime)
Press a key as soon as you see a flash Flashes masked subliminally presented words 20% or 80% of the words were hostility primes 'hostile', 'rude' 'whip' 'punch' Read 12 sentence paragraph about Donald ambiguous to hostility People with more hostility primes rated him as more hostile
Trivial Pursuit
Primed by picturing a day in the life of a professor or a supermodel, then asked a question. Supermodel participants got it wrong
Impression Goals and Memory Goals
Primed with impression goals and memory goals in one level, and in the other level were told to form either impression goals or memory goals. Results were about equivalent, showing that priming was just as effective as telling them
Cognitive Load
Rehearsing a 9 digit number Monitoring for a certain cue (tone, letter, dot) Time pressure Crying Baby Dilemma: Utilitarian choice took longer under cognitive load If actions take longer under cognitive load, then they are not automatic (utilitarian choice is not automatic). If there is no effect, then they are automatic (nonutilitarian)
Deindividuation studies
Researchers deindividuate by taking away names, giving hoods, etc. Shock study; those deindividuated shocked more. Those deindividuated used more taboo language when discussing definition of pornography Deindividuation in the dark: put one group of people in light room for an hour, and another group in a dark room for an hour. Those in the dark room had higher rates of hugging, touching, arousal, moving (all seen as positive traits) -not always bad
Ego (Resource) Depletion
See very sad clip, then solve anagram -much slower like a muscle for controlled processes; it tires out after awhile. Using it over and over may strengthen it over the long haul
Arthur Schopenhauer
Self as Will and Idea Motivation - "Each self is an objectification of the one Will to live and it strives to assert its own existence at the expense of other things" Will = Motives & Desire (prereflective) In aesthetic contemplation (Idea), man transcends his slavery to the will Idea = Thinking (reflective) The will degrades us and the idea saves us If it sounds Freudian (Id/Superego) that's because Freud read Schopenhauer
John Butler
Self is always changing; different self every day Being inconsiderate to your future self Drinking vs. Hangover Act as if someone else will wake up with hangover Milkshake vs. Diet Future self can't hurt me Admitting you're wrong to significant other "I would never do that and I never will" "I'm sorry my past self did that to you" Dis-identify with past self Does the self have a duration? Neural data on past/future selves: different parts of brain are activated when thinking about present self vs future self
Aristotle
Self/soul is an emergent quality of the physical body Hydrogen and oxygen aren't wet but H2O is Violin's sound is result of how its built If you organize body in a certain way, something that emerges from it (self/soul)
Telling Good Art from Bad Art
Shown Monet and cartoon. Have to pick which they like more, but half of them are told to introspect and make a list before making their decision. Half of these people choose the cartoon, while the vast majority of others choose Monet. After two weeks, the people that introspected shift heavily to Monet and away from the cartoon -easier to generate list for cartoon, so we assume that is what we like more, as we would if someone else gave us their lists.
Why Automaticity Matters
Situations alter our subjective construals without our consent -9/11 and George W Bush -Advertising effects Reliable and efficient -most of the time useful (library) -lab studies make us look irrational. We are smart but not perfect. Moral responsibility? -We don't hold people responsible for automatic mental processes But we assume too little is automatic because automatic behavior can look intentional. Don't recognize automatic influence of the situation
Hypothesis 1
Situations are Powerful Reason 1a: Built to be guided by situations Reason 1b: Situations are often invisible Corollary 1c: Situations influence our perception of others in unexpected Corollary 1d: The history of situations you've been in shape your experience and reactions today
Subjective Construal
Subjective construal refers to the way each of us as an individual interprets what we see around us in the world Often differ from person to person Subjective construals are often automatic We never "see" reality first. Its constructive all the way down. Even in V1 in the brain (lowest visual area) Remember - we don't see snakes and decide they are dangerous. We see dangerous snakes. Automatic construals don't feel like construals. Feel like perception of what is really there Ex: motion pictures, colored castle
St. Thomas Aquinas
Tabula rasa (clean slate) The soul enters the body through experience (over time) Potential for social influence on the self
"The Other" and Generalized Other
Tells us about the world and what's in it, treats us like we have a self. Tells us what we are and what we should be. This starts out as other people but becomes ourselves. Generalized Other: like your internal simulation of what your mother and others would say if they knew what you were thinking and feeling
Situations
The immediate physical and social environment -Who and what are around you The implied physical and social environment -What you believe others are thinking and how they might respond to you -The significance for you determines the meaning of the situation and is often invisible to observers or even to you Your internal mental situation: Your own expectations, associations, and recent thoughts
Social Psychology
The study of the impact of a person or group's thoughts, feelings and behaviors on another person's thoughts, feelings and behaviors. - Perceived thoughts, feelings, etc. of others can be just as influential as their actual thoughts, feelings, etc. - often more so!
Rudeness Study
Told to do task then find experimenter down the hall. Those primed with "rude" words were more likely to interrupt.
Prisoner's Dilemma
Total payout is greatest if you both cooperate, but no matter what Player B does, you as Player A are better off defecting When labeled Wall Street Game, many more people defected than when it was called Community Game
Friedrich Nietzsche
Two similar fundamental forces as Schopenhauer, but gives opposite evaluations to each Dionysian - intoxicated fusion with others and the unspecifiable (darkness) underbelly of life -Sex, drugs, and rock'n'roll -Distinction between self and other blurs Apollonian - light, restraint, language, individuation, categories -Distinction between self and others made clear -See objects and their features more clearly in the light -Distinctions = separation & detachment ("use your words" for kids) Order at the expense of vitality Two motivations To become one with existence (Dionysian) Accepting both the horror and beauty of the real world To control nature through thought (categories, definitions,& labels) (Apollonian) Creating a controllable/safe but artificial aethestic vision Your internalized self was put there by society to do what is best for society, not your actual self -Those around you almost always benefit more when you are in control of your impulses
Coke Priming 1950s
Unsuccessful Drive or behavior must already be present or occurring in some form Priming can nudge the exact form the behavior takes Can't make you play trivia game, but can change how you play if you do
Democritus
We are all made of atoms (and nothing but atoms) The soul is physical (and made of atoms) Democritus said mind and body were one
Purple America
We have gotten less diverse over time (less purple, more red and blue)
Theory of Mind
We know others are aware ('Theory of Mind') We know that others know that we are aware "I know that you know that I know" is a powerful social force that affects our behavior & judgments Requires controlled processing Impacts us less when we lack controlled processing resources, therefore we need controlled processing to use this information Alcohol, drugs, & sleep deprivation More free to "be ourselves" (whatever that means!) Ex: Princess Bride
Hypothesis 3
We often don't know what we don't know (it's a bias blindspot) We're not only ignorant, but we don't realize that we are ignorant Reason 3a: Information is not always available, but brain confabulates (invents stories, fills the gaps) Reason 3b: We are built not to know what we don't know. (we're built not to recognize our bias) Reason 3c: We often don't know the bias in our judgments because they are made automatically. -picture of snakes
Hypothesis 2
We often don't know why people do what they do Reason 2b: Conscious experience is constructed and not always accurate Corollary 2a: We are also inaccurate about why we ourselves do the things we do "Have you ever noticed anyone driving slower than you is an idiot, but anyone driving faster than you is a maniac?"
"Who am I?"
What is similar about what everyone's? Static, observable facts - positive traits Generalizations, abstractions (teacher, not teaching) Many answers could describe lots of people in here What's missing? -The flow of ongoing experience -Hopes for the future -Is it our past or our future that determines who we are now? We are not billiard balls. If you have a crush on someone, your hopes (with them) may completely define you for the moment Defining ourselves from the outside
Judging the President
When laughter responses were edited out, Reagan's ratings went way down
False Consensus Effect
Would you wear sign that says Eat at Joes for $50? Would other people? People tend to predict that other people will do what they do Subjective Construal: Did you picture event at UCLA? Did you see people you knew? etc. "What would others do?" -Sample a population of people in their heads and get their average response Who is in this sample? -People we know, people more like us -We may (accurately) imagine what they would do and still get this wrong Not intentionally biased, we just don't realize that our sample is biased
Dark City
movie in which aliens come and change your attitudes and preferences -wake up not knowing if they are themselves
Naïve Realism
refers to the belief that what we see IS reality and takes no account of the construal processes. -Naïve realism IS an error -To believe my subjective construal is objective IS an error -Naive Realism is an error, subjective construal isn't Consequences: Consequence 1: We judge others with different perspectives more harshly than we should -Law of Crazy, Mean, Stupid, Biased or Lazy Consequence 2: Without checking, assume that others know what we know and believe what we believe -Makes us bad at teaching and empathizing Consequence 3: Fail to recognize our own bias because we are the reference point
David Hume
we are nothing but a bundle of perceptions; basically the self does not exist
Deindividuation
when an individual is placed in a crowd, the unconscious mind of each individual emerges and creates a "collective mind" that is primitive in nature, causing uninhibited behavior. loss of self awareness, identity, time distortion (only now, no past or future) Caused by anonymity, arousal, lack of accountability, large group, sensory overload, altered states of consciousness (drugs, alcohol, sleep, etc) What is does to us: Uninhibited/impulsive behavior Behavior not guided by "generalized other" Behavior of nearby others is contagious Reduced memory for actions
Trick or Treat
younger kids steal candy in front of mirror (not quite as much) but older kids decrease considerably when in front of mirror. This is because -13 year olds have started to experience the aversiveness of their social 'object' nature -Deindividuation - loss of identity and sense of responsibility