Psych 202 Final

Latency Stage

(end of phallic to puberty) -Learning to live in society -Intrapsychic conflicts are repressed -- a quiet stage of life. -Social skills and social relationships refined.

Anal Stage

-(2-3 years old) -Aware of "self" -- ego is rapidly developing. -Self-control (societal regulation of bodily functions) imposed on the child. -Challenge - toilet training (battle of the "wills".) -Possible fixations in personality (or nasty things you can call your roommate): -Anal expulsive - messy and disorganized personality ("I'll show them -- I will symbolically go in my pants forever!") -Anal retentive - hold everything in, obsessive about neatness and cleanliness ("I will cooperate to the extreme.")

Genital Stage

-(puberty strikes) -Sexual energy reemerges in the genitals -- big time. -Sexual interest directed toward adult/peer relationships and sexual intercourse.

Oral Stage

-0-1 -Child is very dependent upon others for survival. -Mouth is the focus of sensation. -Challenge - weaning (from the bottle or breast). -Possible fixations in personality: -Oral gratification - Smoking, drinking, overeating, chronic nail biting. -Overly dependent or overly independent.

Phallic Stage

-3-6 years old -Time for gender identification and development of the superego. -Genitals are the focus of sensations. 1. Boys: The Oedipus Complex -- a journey in symbolism. -Keenly aware of their penis and stimulated by life forces, the boy wants to possess the parent of the opposite sex. This is an early model for the development of appropriate adult relationships with the opposite sex and Mom is the only readily available object when you are 4 years old. -They naturally see their fathers as a rival for the affection of their mother and secretly would like to see "dad" out of the picture (this is where Oedipus Rex comes in). -Confused as to why girls don't have a penis, at this early age boys conclude that it must have gotten cut off ....and that powerful father probably did it (a little projection going on here as we speak). -Fearful of losing his own penis (symbolic life force), the boy represses his desire for Mommy and identifies with his father. That is, " I will be like Dad so that when I grow up I can possess someone just like my Mom." -Identification with the father also means he accepts his father's standards of conscience and morality -- the superego rapidly takes shape. 2. Girls: Penis Envy? -Girls discover at some point that they must have had their penis removed. -The only way they can get one back is to identify with Mom. They can grow up and symbolically get a penis by getting a man (just like dear old dad). -Possible fixations in personality: -After the above discussion, you can see why the phallic stage will produce lots of unconscious conflicts with parents, attitudes about sex and gender orientation for the rest of their lives! It's a miracle that more people don't qualify for the Jerry Springer show. -Some of the more sensational and bizarre sexual crimes seem to be best described by a clear derailment of the personality during the phallic stage.

Summarize the principles of humanistic psychology proposed by Maslow, Rogers, and May.

-A 1960's movement that rejected the pessimistic emphasis of psychoanalysis (instincts, unconscious motivation, conflict and hostility) as well as the fragmented approach of behaviorism. -Emphasizes personal growth and human potential. -Represented a "Third Force" focusing on real problems and searching for a fuller picture of human potential.

Antisocial Personality (APD)

-A pervasive pattern of disregard for the rights of others. -Symptoms Repeatedly break the law. Impulsive and unable to plan ahead. Repeatedly get into fights/assaults. Reckless disregard for safety (theirs and others). Irresponsible, failing to meet obligations to others. Diagnostic Issues: -Overlap with Psychopath? -DSMIV emphasizes antisocial behaviors rather than heartlessness and lack of remorse. -Behaviors listed above have many potential causes, including psychopathy.

Benefits in using drugs to treat psychological disorders

-Allows severely depressed and disturbed people to released from hospitals, function and respond to psychotherapy. -Benefits are trumpeted without informing the public of drug treatment limitations. Publication bias- Tendency for scientific journals to publish positive findings rather than negative findings. Drug companies fund research on drugs treatments. -Results are more positive than independent studies find

Antipsychotic Drugs

-Also known as "neuroleptics". -Treatment of schizophrenia and other psychoses. -Examples: Thorazine, Haldol, Clozaril, and Resperdal. -"Off label" use for people not suffering from a psychotic disorder. Major depression. Bipolar disorder. Autism. ADD Dementia. -Biological Connection: -Psychotic symptoms are associated with an excess of the neurotransmitter dopamine. -Chemical Action: Reduce sensitivity of brain receptor that responds to dopamine, or Increase levels of serotonin which in turn inhibits dopamine activity. -Reduces symptoms like agitation and delusions, and can shorten the schizophrenic episode. -Limitations Does not affect jumbled thoughts and difficulty in concentrating. Not a cure, success is modest. Unpleasant side effects. Muscle rigidity, hand tremors, High risk to children and elderly. Newer drugs Not any more effective than older drugs on schizophrenia. Not proven to be effective in "off label" use.

Unknown risks over time and in combination.

-Antidepressants - long term effects not known yet. -Drugs come to market based on clinical trials with a relatively small number of subjects for just a few weeks or months. -Drug cocktails have had anecdotal success but no scientific research has been done on the benefits and risks of combination drugs.

The Progression

-At 9 months, the child can discriminate male from female faces. -18-20 months, child has concept of gender labels. Can accurately identify the gender of people in picture books. Correctly uses "boy"/"girl" labels. -Once the child can label self-as a boy or girl (shortly before 2), they change their behavior to conform to the category they belong to. Become more gender typed in toy play and behavior. Girls stop behaving aggressively when they find they are a girl. -At age five, children develop a gender schema. A mental network of beliefs, metaphors, and expectations about what it means to be male or female. -Between five and seven, gender schemas are most rigid. ("Gender Police" at its worse). -Older children construct more personal and flexible schema based on their experiences and cognitive sophistication. Men can become cooks and women can become physicians. -Cultures and religions differ in schemas for men and women. Example: Education for women in Afghanistan violates Taliban doctrine. Going to school is a life threatening activity for girls.

Explain how heritability is estimated

-Behavioral geneticists study the genetic basis of personality. -Heritability is a statistical concept (we are in trouble all ready...). -Official definition (you will have to read it ten times before it begins to make sense): -"A statistical estimate of the proportion of the total variation in a trait that is attributable to genetic variation within the group." -Clarifying Example (we hope) --- Height is highly heritable, which means: -In a group of well nourished people in the same community, most of the height differences among them (variation) will be accounted for by their genetic differences (because the environment is generally the same for the group). -This estimate only applies to this group as a whole and not to any individual. One of the individuals may be tall because they were on a super nutritious diet most of their life. -Clarifying Example - Low heritability - table manners. Most of the variation you might see in a group is due to their upbringing. -Highly heritable traits can be modified by the environment. -Malnourished children may not grow up to be as tall as their genetic potential.

Distinguish between the biological model of addiction

-Biological Model- The biological model holds that addiction is primarily due to a person's neurology and genetic predisposition. Genetic Vulnerability of Alcoholism -Heritable component if it begins in adolescence and is linked to impulsivity, antisocial behavior, and violence. -If adult onset alcoholism, there is little or no genetic connection. -Alcohol sensitivity -High risk if you have a "hollow leg". Can tolerate alcohol well. Have to drink more than others to feel the effects of alcohol. -Low risk - high sensitivity to alcohol. -Population variations. -Asian populations have greater sensitivity to alcohol than European populations. -Counter position - Cause or Effect? - Rather than biology causes addiction, perhaps addiction is the result of the abuse of drugs/alcohol. Example: Heavy alcohol use --> alters brain function --> physiological dependence.

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

-Brief brain seizure is induced. -World Psychiatric Association has endorsed ECT as safe and effective for: People with crippling depression and suicidal tendencies. People who have not responded to other treatments. -Improvement is usually short-lived and depression returns after termination of treatment. When used to treat Schizophrenia and Alcoholism, it is very ineffective.

Concrete Operations Stage (seven to twelve years)

-Can engage in concrete operations (rather than abstract thinking). Concrete - actual experience or concepts that have tangible meaning. -Now understands the principles of: Conservation Reversibly Cause and Effect -Can categorize things. -Can order things serially (e.g. smallest to largest, shortest to tallest). -Can do addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. -Understands the notion of identity.

Describe the impact of menopause and midlife on the physical and psychological well-being of men and women.

-Cessation of menstruation which occurs between 45-55. -Physical symptoms - most notably, hot flashes. -Negative View Menopause causes depression and negative emotions. Data was from women with either histories of depression or early menopause and a hysterectomy. Not a representative example. -Current Research: (randomly chosen subjects) Most view menopause positively. Few physical symptoms. Only 3% regret having reached menopause. Male Menopause- Your authors conclude that testosterone drop gives a man a biological clock too, but males remain fertile. They do not site any studies on male menopause.

6 months - 1 year Accomplishments

-Child figures out the sound structure of their native language. They will pay more attention to words or sentences that violate expectations of what and sentences should sound like. -Babbling begins (a phase your professors never grew out of). -Starts to name things at about 1 year. -Have mental images for familiar people and objects --"mamma" ... "Nintendo Play Station". -Gestures appear at about 11 months. Gestures become an important tool in communicating. "So big" Those children who are encouraged to use gestures seem to be better at all phases of communication. -"Brain stimulation videos" Promoted as a way in which to increase language acquisition.

Describe which therapies and which therapeutic structures work best for specific problems.

-Cognitive and behavioral therapies have emerged as the method of choice for a large number of problems. 1. Depression -Cognitive therapy's greatest success. -Compared to drug treatment, patients are less likely to relapse when treatment is finished. -Suicide Attempts. 2. Anxiety Disorders - PTSD, agoraphobia, specific phobias- exposure techniques - Panic disorder- cognitive behavioral therapy -Generalized anxiety disorder- cognitive behavioral therapy -OCD- cognitive behavioral therapy 3. Anger and Impulsive Violence- Cognitive therapy reduces negative emotions and behavior, and teaches people how to express anger more constructively. 4. Health Problems: Cognitive and Behavioral Therapies Do Well for: Chronic pain, Chronic fatigue syndrome, Headaches, Irritable bowel, Smoking, Bulimia, Insomnia 5. Child and Adolescent Behavior Problems: -Behavior therapy worked better than any other treatment regardless of the child's age, the practitioner's experience, and the nature of the specific problem. -Cognitive therapy was even effective in preventing mood disorders among children and college students. 6. Relapses Cognitive-behavioral therapy effective for reducing relapses in depression, substance abuse, sexual offending, and even schizophrenia. 7. Motivational Interviewing- Increases motivation to overcome problems like drinking, smoking and binge eating. 8. Complex Problems and Personality Disorders Often respond better to long term psychodynamic therapy than to short term therapy. 9. Multisystemic Therapy (MST)- Combination of family-systems techniques with behavioral methods.

Psychosurgery (Lobotomies)

-Destroys areas of the brain thought to be responsible for emotional disorders. -Early 17th century practice of drilling holes in head to relieve "psychic pressures.". Prefrontal lobotomy: -Cut fibers from prefrontal lobes to other areas. -Aim: Reduce emotional symptoms without impairing intellectual ability. -Never scientifically tested and led to many apathetic and withdrawn patients.

Temperament

-Disposition to respond to the environment in certain ways appears so early in life they probably have a genetic basis. -Reactivity, soothability, and positive and negative emotionality. -Examples Set One: Docile and sweet-nature = other people's kids. Irritable and cranky = your kids. Set Two: Highly reactive = your kids 4 months - excitable, nervous, and fearful, overreacting to any little thing. Toddlers - fearful of new things. 5 year old - still timid and uncomfortable in new situations. 7 year old - still may have symptoms of anxiety. During mildly stressful tasks, reactive children are more likely to have increased heart rate, heightened brain activity, and high levels of stress hormones. -Nonreactive = other people's kids. Infants - take things easy. Toddlers - outgoing and curious.

Rollo May (Existential search for meaning in life)

-Emphasized the difficult aspects of the human condition (loneliness, anxiety and alienation). -Adds existentialism to American psychology. Search for the meaning of life. Need to confront death. Necessity of taking responsibility for our actions. -Responsibility of free will can create anxiety and despair. We may escape from freedom into narrow certainties, and blame others for misfortunes. -Personality reflects the ways in which we: cope and struggle to find meaning to existence. use our personal freedom wisely. face suffering and death bravely.

Agoraphobia:

-Fear of being trapped in a crowed public place where help may not be available if the person might have a panic attack. -Most disabling phobia. -Underlying fear: fear of being away from a safe place or person. -May begin with a panic attack that is so scary the person wants to avoid any situation where that might occur again. ---> "the fear of fear."

Social Phobias:

-Fear of situations in which you are observed by others. -Worry that you will say or do something that will humiliate or embarrass you. -Types: Fear of public speaking. Fear of performing in public.

Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy

-Focus is on changing current behavior and beliefs rather than insight into past conflicts. 1. Exposure Treatments -Graduated Exposure When we are afraid of something, we try to avoid it. Exposure treatment counters that tendency. The client controls the degree of confrontation with the source of fear. -Flooding Therapist accompanies client into the feared situation and remains there until anxiety subsides. They both survive. 2. Systematic Desensitization -Based on the principle of counterconditioning. [rewind to discussion in Learning Chapter.] -Step-by-step process of breaking down conditioned associations with fear objects or situations. -Unwanted response (e.g. fear) is paired with a stimulus that elicits an incompatible response (e.g. relaxation). Premise: You can't be totally relaxed and fearful at the same time. Make sure the relaxation is more powerful than the fear -Client relaxes while imaging fear stimuli from a hierarchy of fears. Hierarchy starts with the least fear producing stimuli to the most. Start with least fear producing stimulus from the hierarchy to insure that relaxation wins. Slowly work up fear hierarchy. -VR Virtual Reality Help with specific phobias like fear of flying, heights, spiders, etc. Combat induced PTSD 3.Behavioral Self-Monitoring -By keeping a record, identify the unwanted behavior and the reinforcers that have maintained the unwanted habits. -Design a treatment program to change it using alternative behaviors and reinforcers. 4. Skills training -Uses operant conditioning techniques, modeling, and role playing to teach new skills a client might lack. -Examples: Teach parents how to discipline their children. Teach impulsive adults how to behave appropriately. Teach people with schizophrenia how to hold a job. -Practice those behaviors that are necessary for achieving the client's goals. 5. Aversive conditioning -Substitute punishment for the reinforcement that has maintained the bad habit. -Associate an unpleasant reaction to an unwanted stimulus. -Example: Smoking cessation programs.

Dosage problems

-Hard to determine appropriate therapeutic window. -Amount that is enough but not too much. -Race, gender, and age influence drug effect and tolerance.

Loss of Important Relationships

-Harlow found that when infant is separated from a primary attachment figure, response is despair, passivity and harm to the immune system which can later lead to depressive illnesses. -Many depressed people have history of relationship loss. -People who suffer the loss of a beloved life time partner may also fall into prolonged depression.

How Heritable are Personality Traits?

-Heritability for most traits is about between .20 and .50, which means: -Within a group of people, up to 50% of the variation in a particular trait is due to genetic differences among the group.

Borderline Personality Disorder

-History of intense but unstable relationships. Alternate between idealizing their partner and devaluing them. Frantically try to avoid real or imagined abandonment. -Self-destructive, impulsive, chronic feelings of emptiness. Often mutilate self and/or threaten suicide. -Emotionally volatile.

Psychopathy

-Inability to feel normal emotions. Lack of remorse, empathy, anxiety, guilt and shame. When caught in a lie/crime, may seem remorseful, but it is all an act. -Can act cruelly and irresponsibly. As much for thrill as for personal gain. -Can use charm and manipulation to coerce people to their immediate advantage. -Con games and career advancement. Abuse people emotionally or economically rather than physically. Corporate psychopaths. -Appear in all cultures but more prevalent in Western societies.

Jungian Theory

-Jung differed from Freud on the nature of the unconscious and its influence, as well as the strength of the ego. 1. Collective Unconscious- Apart of the unconscious that contains the universal memories, symbols and images that shape the behavior of humankind. 2. Archetypes Common themes about human existence that are universal. Mythical figures that guide --- the Hero's quest, the Nurturing Mother, the Wicked Witch. (Most people report a common archetype when giving a detailed narrative of their "life story'). Mandala "magic circle" symbolize the totality of the self and the unity of life. Shadow archetype - the dark side of human nature reflecting prehistoric fears (animals and evil). Darth Vader,Voldemort, and Dracula -- welcome to your dark side. 3. Confidence in the forward-moving strength of the Ego. -Ego has more influence on behavior than in Freud's theory. -Future goals and desires to fulfill oneself are powerful motivators.

Bipolar Disorder

-Mania- Abnormally high state of exhilaration. Symptoms: Full of energy to the point of being wired. Feel ambitious, optimistic, and powerful. Full of plans that are usually based on delusions. Speaks rapidly and dramatically. Inflated self-esteem. -Bipolar Disorder (manic-depressive disorder) -Cycles of depression and mania. -Mark Twain, Charles Dickens, and Issac Newton experienced this disorder. -Occurrence of Bipolar Disorders About the same for both sexes. Usually in adulthood but there has been a controversial rapid growth of diagnoses in children.

Types of Attachment and the Strange Situation Experiment (Ainsworth)

-Method: Baby is left with a stranger, then mother returns. -Dependent Variable: The behavior of the baby. -Insecure Attachment can lead to emotional and behavioral problems. -Ainsworth's Proposed Relationship Between Mother's Behavior and Infant's Attachment Pattern: Mother's Behavior = sensitive and responsive, then Infant's Attachment Style = securely attached. Mother's Behavior = uncomfortable or insensitive, then Infant's Attachment Style = insecurely attached. -Thank goodness, Ainsworth was WRONG! Normal mothers are not responsible for attachment style (unless they neglect or abuse the child). In cultures where there are many adults present in child rearing, children may appear to be "avoidant" but it is really due to the fact that they are already comfortable with strangers. There is a mild correlation between a mother's sensitivity to her child and the child's attachment. Not really clear about cause and effect relationship, however. Programs have been developed to help moms become less anxious. -Regardless of the parental practice, 2/3 of children become securely attached. -Daycare does not appear to have affects on the security of attachment. -Factors that Promote Insecure Attachment Abandonment and deprivation in the first year or two of life. Abusive, neglectful, erratic parenting. Genetic temperament of the child. Stressful circumstances in the child's family.

Obsessions and Compulsions (Obsessive-compulsive Disorder [OCD])

-Obsessions-Persistent, unwished thoughts or images that are frightening and/or repugnant. Example: Recurrent image of hitting your three year old child with a hammer. -Compulsion:Ritualized, stereotyped behaviors carried out to avoid a disaster. Person realizes the behavior is senseless, but feels extremely anxious if they don't perform it. Example: Frequent hand washing, constant checking. -Possible Brain Connection: For most people, once a danger has passed or the person realizes there is no danger, the brain systems turn off. -In OCD, brain area continues to send out false alarms and emotion structures begin to prepare the person to feel afraid and respond to nonexistent threats. The brain fails to turn off the erroneous signals. The person feels they are in a constant state of danger. -Prefrontal cortex abnormality creates: Cognitive rigidity. Inability to let go of intrusive thoughts. Behavior rigidity. Inability to alter compulsive behavior after getting negative feedback. -OCD is not a single, unified disorder.

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

-Occurs as result of traumatic or life threatening events. Rape War Natural Disasters -Symptoms Reliving the trauma in recurrent intense thoughts or dreams. A sense of detachment and loss of interest in family activities. Increased physiological arousal. Insomnia Irritability Impaired concentration. -Reaction may be immediate or delayed. -8% of men and 20% of women who had been exposed to trauma experience PTSD. -Predisposition to long lasting PTSD. Prior to trauma, victims may have impaired neurological and social/cognitive functioning. 1. Social/cognitive -Self-defeating ways of thinking, catastrophizing. -Poor adjustment to a prior family history of psychological problems or trauma. 2.Genetic/biological impairments -Smaller hippocampus. -Smaller hippocampus: A study of Vietnam Veterans. -Exposure to trauma and a smaller hippocampus necessary conditions for chronic PTSD. -Combat soldiers with a smaller hippocampus were at risk for chronic PTSD in combat. -Combat soldiers with a normal hippocampus -- no risk for chronic PTSD in combat. -Twins of soldiers with a smaller hippocampus and who stayed at home were not likely to ever develop PTSD.

Harlow's study on contact comfort

-Physical touching and cuddling between infant and parent. -Harlow's famous studies with infant monkeys: Separation and Security: -Fearful when with primary caregiver temporarily leaves them. -Starts 6-8 months and goes through middle of the second year. -Cultural Influences: -If raised with lots of adults and other children present, separation anxiety not as intense.

Disregard for effective non-medical treatments.

-Popularity of drug treatments overshadows other alternatives. Fueled by insurance companies. Rather pay for 1 patient visit and a prescription than 10 visits for therapy. Drug companies allowed to advertize in the United States. -Nonmedical alternative example: After six sessions of behavior therapy for the child (ten for the parents), need for medication decreases dramatically. -Psychotherapy can produce the same brain changes as drugs: "Brain affects behavior, and behavior can affect brain."

discuss the scientist-practitioner gap.

-Practitioners think therapy is more "art" than science. They claim: Therapy not just a technique but a critical relationship. Skill can only be acquired through clinical experience. Researchers oversimplify process when evaluating it. -Scientists think practitioners should keep up with the empirical findings about: What techniques have been proven to work with specific problems. What is harmful. -Why the Gap? Rise of professional therapy training schools that are not associated with research programs. Proliferation of seductive unvalidated therapies. Example: Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Controlled studies find it is no better than standard exposure treatments. -Authors contend that Clinical Psychology is in the same state as medicine was in the early 1900's when physicians valued professional experience over scientific research. -Possible Remedy: New accreditation programs in Clinical Psychology are demanding high quality science training as part of the doctorate.

Cognitive Therapy

-Principles: Substitute constructive thinking for self-defeating beliefs. Identify beliefs that might be maintaining distress. Examine the evidence for the distorted beliefs. Consider other explanations for the behavior of others. -Aaron Beck's Cognitive Therapy- Client is encouraged to test distorted beliefs against real world evidence. -Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (Albert Ellis) -Therapist uses rational arguments to directly challenge client's unrealistic beliefs and expectations. -Typical client distortions: Overgeneralize - single instance means it will happen in every instance. Catastrophize - transform small problem into a disaster. -Combining Cognitive and Behavioral Techniques Most cognitive and behavioral therapists believe that changing thoughts and behavior is helpful since they influence each other in real life. As a result, Cognitive-Behavior Therapy is more common than cognitive or behavioral therapies alone. -Mindfulness and Acceptance Variation of cognitive-behavior therapy. CBT meets Eastern philosophy influences. Premise: May be impossible to get rid of unwanted thoughts or feelings that have been with you for such a long time. Identity and accept whatever negative thoughts arise. Do not try to eradicate them but do not allow them to derail healthy behavior. Example: Accept anxious thoughts and feelings about making public speeches without judging them or self harshly. But focus on techniques and ways of giving speeches despite the anxiety.

Describe the purpose and limitations of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV).

-Provide clear descriptive categories so that we can achieve agreement on the disorder in order that it can be accurately studied and treated. -Contents of DSM: Symptoms of the disorder. Age of onset. Predisposing factors. Prevalence of the disorder. Sex ratio. Cultural Issues Also takes into account personality traits, medical conditions, stresses, and severity of life problems. -Pros: Distinguish disorders in a more precise way means proper treatment. -Critics- A way to insure that physicians and psychologists will receive compensation from the insurance companies.

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

-Pulsating magnetic coil held to stimulate left prefrontal cortex. -For severe depression. -Patient remains awake. -Promising, but: Effect temporary. No one know why it works. Placebo effect may be occurring. Controlled studies need to be done.

Ego

-Referee between the needs of its own instincts and the outside demands of society. -Rational mediator seeking satisfaction for the id's wants but waiting until the needs can be met in a suitable and socially appropriate way ("Reality Principle"). -Operates consciously and unconsciously. -Example: The ego gets the small child to take its fist out of its mouth and search for something that will really satisfy its needs -- the bottle of milk in the corner of the crib. -"Let's see if we can get the low fat version, or maybe we can take a very small helping."

Bad Life Experiences and Circumstances: Violence, childhood physical abuse, and parental neglect

-Repeated exposure to violence is associated with depression. -Physical abusive domestic relationships increased the rates of depression for women. -Maltreatment in childhood mechanism. Prolonged stress leads to increased cortisol which affects the hippocampus and amygdala, cause mood and memory abnormalities.

Superego

-Represents morality. Rules of parents and society as well as power of authority. -Judges the wishes and activity of the id: Guilt/shame If you are breaking, or thinking about breaking, the rules. The Conscience -Pride/satisfaction If you are doing something well. Ego Ideal -"You can't have it, it's BAD FOR YOU."

Id

-Reservoir of unconscious energies and instincts. -The id seeks to reduce tension and gain pleasure ("Pleasure Principle"). -Competing groups of instincts. 1. Life/sexual instincts fueled a a psychic energy called libido. 2. Death/aggression instincts. -Process: Tension builds up in the id which may try to discharge the tension by: -Reflex actions Physical symptoms Mental images -Example: An infant that has been left unfed for hours is becoming hungry. Hunger is an instinct and the tension rises. The pleasure principle means the id will try to reduce the tension --> wishful reflex action as it begins to suck on its own fist. -"I want it and I want it RIGHT NOW!"

High relapse and dropout rates.

-Side effects lead to a 50-67% dropout. -If person has not learned how to cope with their problems, they are likely to relapse.

Genetic Predispositions

-Since depression is moderately heritable, there is probably genetic involvement. -Genes that regulate serotonin (a neurotransmitter) may be affected. Early Theory: Depression results from abnormally low levels of serotonin. It is an oversimplification to link depression to a simple neurotransmitter deficiency. Can't find supporting animal studies. Mistaken inference: The fact that antidepressant medications raise low levels of serotonin does not mean that serotonin levels caused the depression. Studies of gene interaction - 5-HTT serotonin receptor gene. Original study: Those who had the short form of 5-HTT were more likely to become depressed to major stressful events. Follow-up studies did not confirm - they found no relationship between genes, life events and depression.

Family and Couples Therapy

-Since disorders develop in a social context and are sustained by the dynamics of the social context, the context (family) is treated. -Family Therapy treats the whole family. -Family Systems Perspective to treat individuals. Recognizes the family's influence in the patient's behavior. Helps understand the family's resistance to patient's positive changes. "If patient changes, then I will have to change too" -- scary for other family members. -Couples Therapy Moving away from the fix all the differences between the partners. Learn to accept and live with the qualities that aren't going to change. All therapeutical theories represented.

Objective Tests (inventories)

-Standardized questions about behavior and feelings. -Some tests assess specific psychological problems. Beck Mood Inventory: Major Depression. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): Personality and Emotional Disorders. Organized into ten basic clinical scales. Example of question: "I enjoy reading comic books." -More reliable and valid than projective tests. -Inventories are only as good as their questions and how they are interpreted. Some, like the MMPI, do not adequately handle cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic differences of people. Has high rates of false positives. Responses may be reaction to a stressful situation rather than a mental disorder.

Sources of Phobias

-Susceptibility of some phobias based on adaptive behaviors for the species: Heights - acrophobia. Thunder - brontophobia. Closed spaces - claustrophobia -Classical conditioning (idiosyncratic experiences), personality traits and cultural norms.

Induction Method

-Tactics -Parent appeals to the child's own resources, helpful nature, affection for others, and sense of responsibility. -Explains how the actions of the child might hurt somebody else. -Appeals to the child's helpful inclinations. -Conclusion: Induction superior compared to power assertion parenting style.

Describe the results of efforts to evaluate the effectiveness of psychotherapy

-Testimonials are very suspect 1. Problems with Testimonials. No control groups for scientific comparison. Possible placebo effect. Don't get testimonials from people who dropped out or got worse. 2. Justification of Effort Effect When you put all that time, effort, and money into something, you believe it was worth it. rewind to coverage of justification of effort. 3. Randomized Controlled Trials Guards against issues raised about testimonials. People with problem randomly assigned to one or more treatment groups or to a control group. Example: Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD) interventions to victims right after a disaster. Victims were expected to disclose their emotions and warned about traumatic effects. Some interventions actually delayed the recovery. Those who were most distressed by the disaster had more long term distress if they received CSID.

Puppies and Personality

-The Big Five has evolutionary importance. -Octopuses demonstrate personality differences in how they attack and devour crabs. -Personality is evolutionarily adaptive. Like humans, it is beneficial for other species if some members are bold and impulsive and other members cautious. -Big Five Personality Traits 64 species show evidence of possessing some of the traits. Dogs

Self-regulation

-The ability to suppress their initial wish in favor of doing something not so fulfilling. -Predicts delay of gratification ability. Control negative emotions. Pay attention to task on hand. Do well in school. -Children who were most able to regulate their impulses early in life were: Least likely to get into trouble.

List the characteristics of dissociative identity disorder

-The appearance, within one person, of two or more distinct identities which have their own memories, preferences, traits, and problems. Dissociative Disorders -Consciousness, behavior, and identity are severely split. -Escape trauma by putting it out of mind -- erasing the memory. MPD is "Real" Camp -MPD originates in childhood as a way of coping with unspeakable, continuing trauma. -"Splitting" of personalities occurs so that one personality handles every day experiences and the other copes with the traumatic experiences. -Usually revealed through hypnosis or similar therapeutic technique. The MPD "Is Not Real" Camp -There is evidence that clinicians may have been actively creating personalities through suggestion and intimidation. -Before 1980, few cases of MPD reported in the world. -After 1980, tens of thousands of cases, and almost all are in North America (we could try to blame it on tv). -After lawsuits and scientific testimony that patients were influenced by their therapists, the number of cases dropped. Sociocognitive Explanation: A Culture Bound Syndrome -MPD is an extreme form of the ability we all have to present different aspects of our personalities to others. -MPD allows troubled people to make sense of their problems. -Therapists "reward" patients by paying attention to these specific symptoms which helps patients organize their memories to make them more consistent with the diagnosis. -When the media reports sensational cases, the proliferation of new cases is astronomical. -A culture-bound syndrome is born. -Moral: When new disorders mushroom, think critically and demand good evidence.

Evaluating Genetic Theories

-The data that provide the greatest evidence for the influence of genes is the same data that shows the greatest evidence for the influence of environment (that .50 means only 50% of variation due to genes). -Lesson: Genetic predisposition does not imply genetic inevitability! -Belief that genetic predisposition in the cause of any specific problem can make things worse! Example Depression: If believe that depression is a genetically caused problem, one might rely solely on medication. Not try other strategies that might be helpful. Even if there is a genetic component to depression, without certain environmental stresses or circumstances, the person have have not developed the disorder. -Most traits are influenced by more than one gene (multiple genes). Point - View with caution when you read in the popular press that there is a particular "worry" gene.

The Social Cognitive-Learning Theory

-Traits result in part from your learning history and your resulting expectations and beliefs. Example: A child studies hard, gets good grades (rewards), and comes to expect (belief) that hard work will pay off in similar situations --> "industrious child". 1. Reciprocal determinism -Interaction between environment and aspects of the individual. -Individual Temperament (genetic components) Learned habits. Beliefs and expectations. -Situation Rewards and punishments (consequences of behavior). Types of opportunities. -Combines Nature and Nurture Our temperaments and other genetic components have us prefer one type of situation over another but the rewards and punishments from the environment shape how be behave in those situations. 2. Nonshared environments -What makes kids in the same family so different -There are an assortment of experiences, including chance events, that are unique for each child (e.g. an inspiring teacher). -Outside situations, peer groups, may differ between siblings.

Lithium Carbonate

-Treatment of bipolar disorder. -Chemical Action: Moderates the level of norepinephrine. Protects neurons from being overstimulated by glutamate. -Have to carefully monitor because of toxicity. Very narrow therapeutic window. -Newer Drugs = Tegretol and Depakote

Antidepressant Drugs

-Treatment of depression, anxiety, phobias and OCD. -Biological Connection in Depression: Deficient production of serotonin and/or norepinephrine. -Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors (Nardil) Chemical Action: Elevate the levels of norepinephrine and serotonin by inhibiting or blocking the enzyme that deactivates norepinephrine and serotonin. -Tricyclic antidepressants (Elavil). Chemical Action: Elevate the levels of norepinephrine and serotonin by preventing the reabsorption (reuptake) of the neurotransmitter back into the sending neuron. -Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [SSRIs] (Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil). Chemical Action: Elevates serotonin (only) by preventing the reuptake of serotonin. -Cymbalta and Remeron target both serotonin and norepinephrine. -Wellbutrin is chemically unrelated to other antidepressants. Sometimes an aid to quit smoking. -Antidepressant drugs are non addictive but can have unpleasant side effects: Dry mouth, headaches, gastrointestinal problems, weight increase, and decreased sexual drive. MAOI's interact with foods and have the most risks.

peers on a child's personality.

-Two environments - home and the world outside the home. -When these environments clash, peer influence wins out. -What does it take to get accepted by peers is more important than approval by family. Example: Breaking the law in high school to impress friends. Example: Academic achievement values: Do welling with peers vs. academic success values of family. Peer group thinks academic success for nerds or sellouts puts the individual in a bind and will succumb to peer influence. -Our temperament and disposition cause us to select one peer group over another. But once we are in the group, we go along with their pressure.

Unconscious Motivation

-Unconscious motives, conflicts, and yearnings have more power than conscious motives. -The unconscious is revealed in: Dreams. Free association. Saying anything that pops into your head. Jokes. Apparent accidents. Slips of the tongue.

Preoperational Stage (two to seven years)

-Use of symbols and language accelerates. -Lacks operational thinking (reasoning). Operations = train of thought that can be reversed in your imagination --- like math processes. -Egocentric - can only see the world from their own frame of reference. -Cannot grasp the concept of conservation. Notion that physical properties do not change when their form and appearance appears to change. Example: When an equal amount of water is poured into a short fat glass and a tall skinny glass, the child will believe that there is more water in the tall glass.

Tranquilizers

-Valium, Xanax, Ativan. -Chemical action: Increases activity of neurotransmitter GABA. -Temporarily helps people suffering from an acute anxiety attack. -Problems Not considered a long term choice for panic disorder and depression. Can lead to overuse. Requires larger doses over time. May have rebound effect (panic) when discontinued. -Beta-blockers are used as an "off label" treatment of anxiety. Drug to manage heart irregularities and hypertension. Reduce acute anxiety by slowing heart rate and lowering blood pressure. Stage fright or athletic competition.

Reaction Formation

-When threatening unconscious anxiety is transformed into its opposite in consciousness. Example 1: The fervent, zealous, antipornography crusader may be using this defense mechanism to hide the fact from himself that pornography is quite stimulating for him. Example 2: A mother who is angry and resentful at the birth of an unexpected child who has ruined her professional career, becomes an overly protective mother who is always making sure that no harm will come to her child.

Define personality disorders (next slides)

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Describe the following procedures used in attempts to control brain activity: prefrontal lobotomy, electroconvulsive therapy, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and deep brain stimulation. (Next Slides)

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Discuss the uses of antipsychotic drugs, antidepressants, minor tranquilizers, and lithium carbonate in treating emotional disorders. (Next Slides)

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Language Development

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Limitations of Drug Treatment NEXT FEW SLIDES

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List and explain the goals and principles of the four major schools of psychotherapy. (Next Slides)

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Parenting Types

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stages of Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

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Power Assertion

1. ("Do it because I say so.") 2. Tactics include: Threats and scolding. Shouting and physical abuse. Depriving the child of privileges. 3. Effects on children -Culture and Context important. Loving family relationships or.... Hostile and conflict ridden relationships. How the child interprets the fairness or unfairness of the parent is critical. -When overused in the wrong context results in: Aggressiveness and poor impulse control. Reduced empathy. Low-self esteem, low grades, and few social skills. Child becomes angry and resentful. -Often transmitted to the next generation: The way to discipline children is through aggression.

Factors Associated with Psychopathy

1. Abnormalities in the Central Nervous System. -Does not respond normally to the threat of punishment. -Slow to develop classical conditioned response to anticipated pain. -May not be able to feel the anxiety that is necessary for learning that this action will have unpleasant consequences. -Lack of empathy for others as demonstrated in skin conductance tests. -Emotional flatness. 2. Impaired Frontal Lobe Functioning. -Functions of frontal lobes are planning and impulse control. -Impairment leads to problems in: -Regulating emotions. -Controlling responses to frustration and provocation. -"Predatory" murderers had less PET scan activity. -Possible Causes: Inherited, disease, accident, or physical abuse. 3. Genetic Influences -Several genes involved in disorders that involve impulsivity. -Study of boys who had been physically abused in childhood, those with the gene variant. -More arrests. -Accounted for 1/2 of convictions for violent crimes. 4. Environmental Events -Genes interact with social environmental experiences to produce impulsive, violent individual. -Poor nutrition. -Early separation from mother. -Brain damage from parental cruelty. -Culture may foster APD. -Rewards ruthlessness and hard-heartedness. -Where corporate psychopaths fit.

he learning model of addiction.

1. Addiction patterns vary according to cultural practices. -More likely in societies that prohibit kids from drinking but condone adult drunkenness (e.g. Ireland) than in cultures in which kids are allowed to consume some alcohol and adult drunkenness is condemned (e.g. Italy). -In countries where the rate of alcoholism is low: Adults demonstrate correct drinking habits to children. Alcohol is not used as a rite of passage. Alcohol is not associated with masculinity and power. Drunkenness is not condoned. -Alcoholism rates change when the cultural rules change (e.g. in the United States drinking went from a social activity to drinking to a symbol of masculine independence and toughness). -Alcoholism rates change when people move to a culture where cultural rules are different. 2. Policies of total abstinence tend to increase rates of addiction rather than reduce them. -Denies the opportunity for people to learn to drink moderately. 3. Not all addicts have withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking a drug. -Example: 90% of addicted Vietnam Veterans gave up heroin when they returned home to new circumstances -- little/no withdrawal symptoms. -The environment where a drug is used (setting) and expectations (mental set) influence physiological effects. -Changing environments helps kick the habit. 4. Addiction does not depend on the drug alone, but also on the reason for using the drug. -People taking drugs for chronic pain do not become addicted. -Coping drinkers (reduce/deny negative feelings) are more likely to have addiction problems than social drinkers (drink to be sociable, conform to group, or relax). -Alienated students more likely to get drunk.

Computing Heritability

1. Adopted Children- While adopted children share genes with their biological parents, they grow up in a different environment (of their adoptive parents). -Can check to see if a trait compares more with their biological parents [nature] than their adoptive parents [nurture]. -Can estimate heritability by comparing correlations between child's behavior and those of adoptive parents or biological parents. 2. Identical Twins versus Fraternal Twins -Identical (monozygotic) twins come form the same fertilized egg and share the same genes. -Fraternal (dizygotic) twins come from two different fertilized eggs that just happen to be "wombmates".... just siblings. -Heritability can be assessed by comparing groups of identical twins with fraternal twins. -Assumption: If identical twins are more alike than fraternal twins in a particular trait, the increased similarity must be genetic! -Problem - people may not treat identical and fraternal twins the same. 3. The Separated Twin Strategy -Avoids the problem that fraternal twins may not have the same kind of environment as identical twins. -Twins separated early in life and reared apart, share their genes but not their environments. -Therefore any similarity should be primarily genetic.

Summarize the study of core personality characteristics

1. Allport's Trait Theory -Multiple levels of traits combine to give us our unique characteristics. -Central (global) Traits Characteristic ways of behaving. Individual possesses 5-10 central traits. Example: Some people see the world as a hostile and dangerous place. -Secondary Traits Changeable aspects of personality. Covers preferences (e.g. food, music), habits, opinions. 2. Cattel's Factor Analysis of Traits -Cattell used another procedure for identifying underlying traits. -Factor Analysis Items on personality tests are statistically grouped into clusters that seem to be measuring underlying common factors. Identifies clusters of correlated items.

List and explain the fundamental principles

1. Assimilation -Fit new information into our present system of knowledge or categories. -Example: Child has a category of "dog" through playing with his beagle. If he should say "doggie" when he sees a collie, he has assimilated the new information into his schema about dogs. (If he also shouts "doggie" when he sees the postal carrier walking up the sidewalk, you know he does not have the right category, but just likes to yell "doggie.) 2. Accommodation -The child changes or modifies their existing category because of undeniable new information. -Example: Child shouts "doggie" when he sees a cat, and the cat is highly offended with that label. He will modify "dog" to exclude cats and creates a new category for "kitty".

Expression of Turmoil

1. Boys externalize. -Aggression. -Antisocial behavior. 2. Girls internalize. -Withdrawn. -Develop eating disorders. 3. Gender gap in 2 specific areas of self-esteem. -Girls more dissatisfied with their bodies and general appearance. -Boys more dissatisfied with their social behaviors and with friends.

Evaluate Piaget's theory of cognitive development in light of subsequent research.

1. Cognitive abilities develop in overlapping waves rather than steps or stages. -Circumstances, rather than the stage, often influence the type of reasoning the child applies. -Cognitive development is continuous and not in discrete stages. 2. Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thought. -3 and 4 year olds can take another perspective (to say nothing of another's toys). -Develop a Theory of Mind. -System of beliefs about how minds work and how people's behavior is affected by beliefs and emotions. -Child will use verbs like "think" and "know". 3. Probably born with "mental modules " for numbers, spatial relations, core categories. -4 month olds understand some of the basic principles of physics (what goes down must come up?) Will look longer if they observe an "impossible event". -Some 3 month olds can show an understanding of object permanence. -1 week old infant can recognize a difference in numbers (moral don't try to cheat an infant in cards). 4. Cognitive Development is influenced by culture. 5. Piaget overestimated the cognitive skills of adults.

harmful environmental influences during this period.

1. Contributions from the Father's Side - Age of Father a risk: Older fathers risk for the following increases: Schizophrenia Autism Bipolar Disorder -Younger fathers - risk for the following increases: Premature births. Lower birth weights. 2. Contributions from the Mother's Side - Mother's behaviors are important factors. -Especially vulnerable during the Embryonic Stage. -German Measles (rubella) -Deafness (and other eye, ear, or heart problems). Vaccination prevents. -X-rays, radiation, and toxic chemicals. -Lead --> attention problems and lower IQ scores.fast forward to Intelligence Chapter -Sexually Transmitted Diseases -Retardation, blindness, other physical problems. -Cigarette Smoking -Warning: The surgeon general has determined that smoking increases the risk of miscarriage, premature birth, low birth weight, and abnormal fetal heartbeat. -Also can lead to sudden infant death syndrome, hyperactivity, learning difficulties, and antisocial behavior. -Having more than TWO (2) Alcoholic Drinks/Day -Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). -Includes smaller size and mental retardation. -Exposure to alcohol can also impair later mental abilities, attention span, and academic achievement. -Drugs other than Alcohol are Harmful.

Limitations and Problems with the DSM

1. Danger of overdiagnosis, Creating a diagnostic category fosters making diagnoses of that disorder. As many labeled children mature, they no longer meet the criteria for ADHD. 2. The Power of diagnostic labels- People see person primarily in terms of the label. Labels can also create a self-fulfilling prophecy for the individual as they try to conform to the characteristics of the assigned diagnosis. 3. Confuses serious mental disorders with normal problems. Lumping together everyday disorders (e.g."mathematics disorder" and "caffeine-induced sleep disorder") with true mental illness might suggest everyday problems are comparable to serious disorders. 4. The illusion of objectivity and universality.Critics argue that DSM gives the appearance of science and objectivity to an inherently subjective process. (Drapetomania) Appropriately rejected disorders that lacked empirical validation and were biased. (Homosexuality)

Abraham Maslow (Striving for self-actualization)

1. Emphasis on positive aspects of human nature: joy laughter love happiness peak experiences -A rare moment of rapture cause by: achievement of excellence. the experience of beauty. 2. The Self-actualized Person: Personality development is a progression toward the state of self-actualization. -(The state of self-actualization is not the same as the state of California!) -Striving for a life that is meaningful, challenging and productive. 3. Studied "healthy" individuals rather than patients to understand personality

evaluate the stereotype of psychological turmoil in adolescence.

1. Extreme turmoil is the exception, not the rule (it was just happening to you). -Rate of violent crime by teens have been dropping since 1993. -Self-esteem does not plummet in teens. -Research indicates very little change in narcissism. Young people are traditionally more narcissistic than adults. 2. What about Sex? -Today's teens are more conservative than their parents and grandparents who made better use of drive-in movies. 3. Most teens report: -Supportive families. Sense of purpose and self-confidence. Good friends. Skills to cope with problems. Belief that Taylor Swift would become the next President and achieve world peace. 4. -Conflict with parents. -Mood swings and depression. -Higher rates of recklessness, rule breaking, and risky behavior. 5. Peer Group Issues -Peer group becomes especially important in adolescence. -Group together by interest, ethnicity, status, or popularity. -Peer acceptance is critical. -Rejection or humiliation by peers was recalled as more traumatic than punitive treatment of parents. -Online and offline bullying is a far greater threat than sexting, pornography or predatory adults.

describe the "big five" personality traits.

1. Extroversion vs. Introversion Extroversion = outgoing Introversion = shy 2. Neuroticism vs. Emotional Stability Neuroticism = negative emotionality" - the tendency to negative emotions Anxiety, instability and negativity Worriers, complainers and defeatists 3. Agreeableness (Agreeable vs. Antagonism) Capacity for friendly relationships or the tendency to have hostile ones. 4. Conscientiousness vs Impulsiveness Responsible vs. undependable. Persevering vs. quick to give up. Self-disciplined vs. impulsive 5. Openness to Experience vs Resistance to new experience Imaginative versus prefers the familiar. -While culture can influence, the evidence for the Big Five continues to mount across cultures. Self-reports or reports by others. -These traits remain stable over time, once you hit the ripe old age of 30. Good news for you "Crabby-Neurotics" Ages 16-21 are the most neurotic, least agreeable and least conscientious. Between 30 and 40, people become more agreeable, less negative, and more conscientious. Bad News when you get older. Older people become less extroverted and less open to new experience. -Big 5 does not provide a complete picture, however.

Distinguish between gender identity, gender typing

1. Gender Identity- A fundamental sense of maleness or femaleness. 2. Gender Typing- Society's ideas about which abilities, interests, traits, and behaviors are appropriately "masculine" or "feminine".

List and discuss the stages of prenatal development

1. Germinal Stage - -Implantation of the Zygote (0 - 2 weeks). -"Birds and the Bees" activity happens here --- at conception the sperm unites with the ovum. -Zygote (fertilized egg) attaches itself to the wall of the uterus and divides into two parts (embryo and placenta/umbilical cord). -Placenta -Connected by umbilical cord. -Link for importing nutrition and exporting waste. -Screens out some harmful substances. 2. Embryonic Stage -3rd to 8th week. -Embryo develops rudimentary forms of organs and systems. -1 1/2" tall for those of you who like to start measuring height as soon as possible. -Testosterone secreted to create the anatomically correct male. -Most vulnerable stage to problems below 3. Fetal Stage -9th week on. -Fetus continues to develop organs and systems.

Moral Development

1. How children learn to regulate their own emotions and behavior. -Child's emerging ability to understand right from wrong and behaving accordingly depends on emergence of conscience and moral emotion emotions:shame, guilt and empathy. 2. Capacity for understanding right from wrong may be inborn. -"Moral sense." -Originated in cooperative strategies that permitted our forbearers to resolve conflict. 3. Can moral sense be influenced? -Results: It depends on the child! Temperamentally difficult children and more responsive to style of parenting (good and bad effects). Easy going babies do not benefit from good parenting nor suffer from bad parenting.

Describe two basic types of culture

1. Individualistic culture's influence on the concept of "Self" -"Self" regarded as autonomous. -Self = collection of individual personality traits or occupation. "I am outgoing and ambitious." "I am a third grade teacher." -Sense of self remains stable across situations. 2. Collectivist culture's influence on the concept of "Self". -Group harmony more important than the individual. -"Self" is defined in terms of relations. -"I am the fourth son of Emily of the Swift Water Clan, and whose maternal uncle is Bob of the Slow Talker Clan." -Sense of self varies across social situations. -Westeners value analytic ways of thinking. -Asians value holistic ways of thinking.

Cooing

1. Infant starts the game out with cooing and crying. -Given their prenatal experience, infants are already prepared for their native language. -Pitch, intensity, and emotion are closely monitored. -Parentese/Babytalk - helping infants acquire language. We speak to babies in higher pitch, more varied sounds, and intonation is exaggerated. -To make matters even more comical, parents use baby talk on their pets too but exaggerate vowel sounds for their babies. Now we know why dogs can speak.

Discuss the ways in which abnormal behavior has been defined.

1. Insanity -A legal term only. -Person is not aware of the consequences of their actions and can not control their behavior. -(Person can have a mental disorder and yet be considered "sane" by the court.) 2. Defining Mental Disorder -Leading definition which takes into account genetic social factors: "a harmful dysfunction" (behavior or emotion). Harmful to oneself or others. Dysfunctional because not performing evolutionary function. Rejected by your authors because it is often unclear what the evolutionary function of a particular behavior might be. -Authors' working definition of mental disorder: Any condition that causes an individual to suffer, is self-destructive, seriously impairs the person's ability to work or get along with others, or endangers others in the community. By this definition, the majority of people will have some sort of mental health problem over the course of their lives.

Explain the principles of Kohlberg's theory of moral development, and describe its stages.

1. Level 1 Obey rules because of fear of punishment. Obey because you believe it is in your best self-interest. 2. Level 2 Conformity and loyalty to others. Understanding of the rule of law. 3. Level 3 Develop moral standards based on universal human rights. -Review of Kohlberg's Theory Yes, moral reasoning ability increases during school years. So does cheating, lying, cruelty and rationalization.

Describe physical changes to the adolescent brain,

1. Major pruning of neural connections. 2. Remodeling the structures. -Prefrontal cortex develops (impulse control and planning). -Limbic System - emotional processing. -Myelinization Provides fatty sheath of insulation for some cells. Strengthens the connection between emotional limbic system and the reasoning prefrontal cortex. Process continues through teens to mid-20's. 3. Explains why: -Emotions overwhelm rational decision making in teens. -Behave more impulsively than adults. -More vulnerable to peer pressure. -Often lack the reasoning ability to foresee the consequences of their action. -Legal Implication - " Less guilty by reason of adolescence."

List and discuss the motor reflexes and sensory abilities of newborns and infants.

1. Motor Reflexes come standard with this model. -Autonomic behaviors that are necessary for survival. -Example: Rooting Reflex Automatically cheer for their parent's favorite football team. Would you believe a reflex that allows newborn to find the breast or bottle? 2. Perceptual Abilities also come standard with this model. -All the basic senses are operational but not fully developed. -Initial visual ability = Can see about 8 inches. This is the average distance between the baby and the face of the person who is holding the baby. This also tells you a little more about the person you are "rooting" for. -Newborn can also recognize caregiver/parents on the basis of smell, sight, and sounds.

Freud's Legacy, Negative and Positive Interpretation

1. Negative Interpretation -Psychoanalytic theory has little empirical support. As a result, some regard it as nonsense. -Ignored evidence that disconfirmed his theories. -Bullied patients into accepting his explanations. 2. Positive Interpretation -Some of his ideas were faulty, but the overall framework of his theory is still useful. -Welcomed women into the profession, wrote about the negative effects of society's suppression of their sexuality, and offered an advanced view of homosexuality.

Distinguish between projective and objective tests, and summarize the strengths and weaknesses of each in diagnosis.

1. Projective Tests- Ambiguous pictures, sentences or stories which the person interprets. -Reveal unconscious motives, feelings and conflicts. -Based on psychodynamic theory that unconscious thoughts and feelings will be projected onto the test. -Benefits - establish rapport with the patient. -Drawbacks - low reliability and validity. -Rorschach Inkblot Test - "What do you see in this inkblot?" What the person reports is interpreted to discover the symbolic meaning of the answer according to psychodynamic theories. Low reliability and validity. -Child sexual abuse diagnostic techniques. How a child plays with an anatomically correct doll reveals whether or not the child has been abused. Problem: The play of abused children has not been compared with how nonabused children play with dolls -Child Custody Assessments- Measures typically used have no scientific justification. 2.

4-6 Month Accomplishments

1. Recognize their own names. 2. Recognize words spoken with emotion. 3. Recognize the sounds of their native language. -Over time, increasing familiarity with our own language reduces our ability to perceive sounds in other languages (that is why trying to learn a foreign language at your age is such torture).

Defense Mechanisms

1. Repression 2. Projection 3. Displacement 4. Regression 5. Denial

18 months - 2 years Accomplishments

1. Telegraphic speech appears. Two to three word combinations. Omits articles, auxiliary verbs, and word endings. "Go there", "my toy", "send money". Rapid acquisition of new words.

Object Relations School

1. The need for attachment in early life highlighted the social nature of human development. -Central problem in life is to find a balance between a need for independence and the need for others. -Adjustment to separation and losses. Way we respond to these separations is determined by our experiences in the first two years of life. -Child needs recognition from mother. -"False self" may appear because certain parts of the"true self" remain undeveloped. -"Object" - The child's perception of other people, most notably a symbolic representation of its mother, rather than an accurate description of the person. -Male-Female Development (Take old Oedipus and Stuff him!) -All children identify first with the mother. -Boys must break away from mother to establish a masculine identity. -Men's identity boundaries are more rigid, women's boundaries are more permeable.

Discuss the circumstances in which therapy can be harmful.

1. The use of empirically unsupported, potentially dangerous techniques. -Example: Attachment Therapies (AT) Based on the use of harsh tactics that will "help" the child bond with their parents. Rebirthing - recover from trauma, separation or insecure attachment by reliving the emergence from the womb. Contradicted by research. 75 children and teenagers have died undergoing this treatment. 2. Inappropriate or coercive influence, that creates new symptoms for the client. -The therapist so zealously believes in the prevalence of a particular disorder that they induce the client to produce the symptoms they are looking for. 3. Prejudice or cultural ignorance on the part of the therapist. -Tries to induce client to conform to therapist's values. -Example: "reparative therapies to turn gay and lesbians into heterosexuals because homosexuality is a sin. 4. 4. Sexual intimacies or other unethical behavior on the part of the therapist. -Sex is a big "no-no" in the therapeutic process. -"Psychotherapy cults" foster dependency and isolation, prevent the client from quitting, and reduce the client's ability to think clearly. Examples of Harmful interventions: Scared Straight interventions- Worsening of conduct problems. Critical Incident Stress Debriefing to victim- Heightened risk of PTSD. Facilitated communication- False allegations of sexual and child abuse. Attachment therapies- Death and serious injury to children Boot-camp interventions for conduct disorder- Worsening of aggression and conduct problems.

Carl Rogers (The fully functional person)

1. Tried to understand the "fully functional person" who: -Experiences congruence. -Harmony between their self-image and their true feelings, perceptions and wishes. -Trusting, warm, and open to experience. 2. Unconditional Positive Regard -Important element in developing a fully functional person. -Love and support for who we are without conditions. -Parent can correct child's behavior without withdrawing love. 3. Conditional Regard -"I'll love you if you behave well and I won't love you if you behave badly." -Lead to suppression or denial of parts of their personality that are unacceptable to those they love. 4. Suppression leads to Incongruence. Low self-regard. Defensiveness. Unhappiness. Scores high on "neuroticism".

Identify the stages of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.

1. Trust v Mistrust- Baby, Person needs to develop trust to get along with others in the world. 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt- Toddler, Learns to be independent without feeling too ashamed for their actions. 3. Initiative vs. Guilt- Preschool, Acquiring new skills but needs to control impulses. 4. Competence vs. Inferiority, School, Learning the skills of adult life without feeling inadequate. 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion, Adolescence, What am I going to be? An identity crisis leads to either a strong sense of self, or confusion and indecision about life. 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation- Young Adulthood, Have to be able to share yourself and make commitments. 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation- Middle Years, Continue to grow and be productive, or slip into selfishness and stagnation. 8. Ego integrity vs. Despair, Old Age, Seeking wisdom, spiritual tranquility, and acceptance. -Culture can make it easy by having few choices - you take the occupation of your parents.

Provide evidence in favor of an innate language capacity in humans.

1. Universal Grammar/Language Acquisition Device (LAD) -Language is too complex to be learned by simple imitation. -We may possess an innate mental module that allows young children to develop language if they are exposed to conversation. The "language acquisition device" is not one's cellphone. -Child can infer the "deep structure" of a sentence from the "surface structure". Surface Structure - The way the sentence is actually spoken. Deep structure - The meaning of the sentence. Syntax = rules "Mary Kissed John" and "John was kissed by Mary" have the same deep structure. 2. Evidence of an Innate Capacity. -Regardless of culture, children go through the same stages of linguistic development. -Children combine words in ways that adults never would. Therefore children are not imitating. Reduce long sentences to two-word versions. Overregularizations Charming errors of childhood. Child grasps a grammatical rule, but overgeneralizes the rule. Examples: Rule = add "d" to sound to obtain past tense. "I walked there" is the correct application of the rule, but the child might overgeneralize it "I taken it." -Adults do not consistently correct their children's syntax. Parents typically do not "punish" every error in their child's speech as long as they understand what the child is trying to say. -Children who are not exposed to adult language may invent a language of their own. Deaf children across develop a sign language that show similarities in sentence structure. -Young infants (7 months) can derive linguistic rules from a string of sounds.

Distinguish between scientific and unscientific personality tests.

1. Unscientific tests are hugely popular but only objective tests of personality are scientifically valid. -Example: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator -Not Reliable. -Does not predict behavior on the job or in relationships. -Moral: Many of the personality tests used by industry and government are nearly useless from a scientific standpoint. 2. Objective tests: Inventories -Scientifically valid and useful in research. -Standardized questionnaires requiring workers to respond to: -Multiple or true-false items. -Provide information on needs, values, interests, self-esteem, emotional problems, and typical ways of responding.

Summarize the criticisms of psychodynamic theories in general.

1. Violates Principle of Falsifiability, Impossible to confirm or disconfirm 2. Drawing universal principles from the experiences of a few atypical patients is risky. -Can easily overgeneralize and Freud did not confirm his ideas with larger samples of people. Example: Masturbation and sexual curiosity are not just typical of abused children. 3. Basing theories of development on retrospective accounts and fallible memories of patients is also risky. -Memory is often inaccurate. -Retrospective accounts often create the illusion of causality. -If A comes before B, then A must have caused B. -In response to these criticisms, more empirical methods are being used to evaluate psychodynamic theories.

Using the vulnerability-stress model, describe the four factors that account for depression.

1. Vulnerabilities Genetics. Personality traits. Habits of thinking. 2. Stressful events Sexual victimization. Violence. Loss of a close relationship. 3. Implication: Depression may have different specific causes in different people. 4. Explains why a normal setback may produce normal sadness in one person, and extreme depression in another.

gender schema.

A mental network of beliefs, metaphors, and expectations about what it means to be male or female

Humanist and Existential Therapy

An extension of humanist philosophical approach, these therapies capitalize on our human nature which is basically good but can get warped by self-imposed limits. 1. Client -Centered or Nondirective Therapy (Carl Rogers) -Role of the therapist is to listen to the client's needs in an accepting, nonjudgemental way and offer unconditional positive regard. -Unconditional Positive Regard -Genuineness and warmth. -Empathetic understanding. -Ability to understand what the client says and appreciate the client's personal feelings. -Builds client's self-esteem. 2. Existential Therapy -Explore the meaning of existence (death, loneliness, and meaninglessness). -Patient accepts responsibility for their life predicament rather than blame past circumstances. -Mobilize the person's power to choose their own destiny. -Goal: Help clients cope with the inescapable realities of life and death, and the struggle for meaning.

Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)

Approved for Parkinson's disease and epilepsy. Now being tried on a number of mental disorders. Requires surgery to implant electrodes and embed small box under the collarbone. No evidence that it works.

The Bad News

Aspects of intelligence, memory and mental functioning decline. Score lower on tests of spatial abilities, reasoning, complex problem solving, and extreme skateboarding. Ability to produce and spell familiar words declines. Cognitive processing slows - older adults take a while to retrieve names and dates.

Culture and Traits

Behaviors that are due to cultural processes rather than individual personality: 1. Cleanliness standards vary by culture. 2. Helpfulness: American children scored least altruistic and most egotistic. Culture values individual achievement and self-advancement. Altruistic children came fom societies where children are assigned many tasks and knew their work made a genuine contribution. 3. Punctuality/tardiness -Individualistic Cultures Time is linear, schedules and punctuality is valued. Northern Europe, Canada, and the United States. -Collectivist Cultures Time organized along parallel lines with need of friends and family superseding appointments. Mexico, Southern Europe, the Middle East, and South America. Time notions produce problems in culturally diverse North America

discuss the role of the therapeutic alliance.

Bond of confidence and mutual understanding which allows client and therapist to work together toward the common goal. Successful when both parties understand each other and agree to the goals of therapy.

Freud's Psychosexual stages

Called Psychosexual stages because the life forces (sexual energy) expressed themselves in different parts of the body at different stages. These define the particular issue that needed to be resolved.

Formal Operations Stage (twelve years on)

Can engage in abstract thinking (like in college?). Can reason about situation they have not experienced first hand. Can think about future possibilities. Can compare and classify ideas.

Fluid Intelligence

Capacity for deductive reasoning and ability to use new information to solve problems. It declines with old age. Drat!

Sensorimotor Stage (birth to two years)

Child learns though concrete actions (looking, touching, putting everything into their mouths, etc.) Thinking is just coordinating sensory information with bodily (motor) movements. -Object Permanence: Understanding that something will continue to exist even if you cannot see it. -This marks the beginning of the child's capacity to use mental imagery and symbols.

The Not So Bad News

Crystallized intelligence works well no matter how old we get. There are two types of cognitive abilities and they are affected differently by aging: Fluid Intelligence Crystallized Intelligence

major depression

Depression that disrupts usual functioning. Symptoms: Despair and hopelessness. Lose interest or pleasure in usual activities. Unable to "get going". Thinking patterns are distorted. Exaggerate minor failings. Interpret events as evidence that nothing will ever go right. Low self-esteem. Physical changes. Eating disturbances. Sleep disturbances. Loss of sexual desire. Fatigued and tired.

Untested "Off-label" Use

Doctors are permitted to prescribe drugs for other conditions and to populations other than those originally tested.

3. Displacement

Emotions (especially anger) are directed at people, animals or other things that are not the real object of your feelings. Example: A child is angry at his parents for sending him to his room for misbehavior. On the way, he punches his sister, kicks the dog, and breaks a favorite toy. When displacement serves a higher purpose, it is called sublimation.

Explain the basic principles of Freud's psychoanalytic approach to the study of personality, and list the emphases shared by modern psychodynamic theories.

Emphasis on (intrapsychic) dynamics. ◦Motion and balance of system under the action of outside and internal forces. • An assumption that adult behavior/problems are determined by early childhood experiences. ◦Experiences produce unconscious thoughts and feelings. ◦Dealing with these childhood experiences leads to characteristic habits, conflicts, and often self-defeating behavior.

Parental Influence and its Limits

Evidence of Parental Influence 1. Shared environment of the home has little if any influence on personality. -Shared = family you grew up and and experiences you shared with your siblings. -Weak to no correlation between personality characteristics between adopted children and their adoptive parents. 2. Few parents have a single child rearing style that is consistent over time and that they used with all of their children. -Parents are inconsistent from day to day. -Influenced by: Parents fluctuating moods and "issues". Temperament of individual kids. 3. Even when parents try to be consistent, there is still little effect. -Traits that are highly heritable can be strengthened or diminished by experience. -Reciprocal determinism suggests parents and children continually influence each other -As soon as children leave home, starting with preschool, parental influence begins to wane.

Discuss how genes affect temperament and its consistency.

Genes- Basic unit of heredity. DNA form codes for synthesis of proteins. Proteins affect every aspect of body structure and processes. Can affect personality traits. -Infant- Through effects on infant's developing brain and nervous system. -Adult- Affects directly and indirectly.Switching other genes on or off. Noncoding DNA (May affect expression or activity of key genes. Mutations associated with illness) -Genetic heritage more like a network of interlinked influences (including environmental) that affect us during life.

Psychodynamic Therapy

Goal of Therapy: Insight -Insight is the patient's awareness of the reason for his symptoms. -Reasons include unconscious conflicts and defense mechanisms [rewind to defense mechanisms] the person uses to deal with the debilitating anxiety the conflicts create. -Insight and emotional release lead to symptom reduction. Common Principles of Psychodynamic Therapies -Psychoanalysis was Freud's original method of therapy and method to analyze personality. Psychodynamic therapies have evolved but share many of the same principles. -"Depth" Therapies -Concentrate on unconscious processes rather than on superficial symptoms and conscious beliefs of other therapies. (that's where the "depth" comes in). -Encourage discussion of past experiences. -Focus on the identification of recurring themes and patterns. -Explore fantasies (for example, dreams). Focus on patient's contradictory emotions and feelings. Techniques in Psychodynamic Therapies -Saying whatever comes to mind. -Free associate to: Dreams Early memories Transference -Transfers elements of patient's inner emotional life onto their therapist. -hat means the patient begins to treat the therapist as if the therapist were a parent with whom there is a conflict. -Everyday example: You immediately like a new acquaintance because they remind you of your favorite uncle. -Therapy example: An unresolved Oedipal conflict with her father leads patient to fall in love with her therapist. -Therapist helps the patient understand (gain insight into) how the transference reflects unconscious conflicts.

Sublimation

If displacement serves a useful purpose. Freud believed society helps people sublimate their unacceptable impulses for the sake of the society. Example: An angry child who would like to stab people who make him mad, but is terrified of being hurt himself lest he dies, displaces these emotions into a career of a successful physician.

Healthy Personality: The Three Systems in Balance

If the Id controls, then personality likely to be impulsive and driven by selfish desires. If Superego controls, then likely to be rigid, moralistic and bossy. If the Ego is weak, the person is unable to balance the needs of the id with social duties and realistic limitations.

Fixation -

If the challenge is too great, the child may become partially stuck at that stage of development.

Old Age

In early generations where life expectancy was in the early 70's, retirement at 65 was a clear marker of loss. Currently, retirement may last 20-30 years. Positive retirement - new career, volunteer work, or new activities. Walmart Greeter - retirement funds do not cover the lifespan. Get revenge by living with your children.

Side effects

Medication Side Effects Sometimes the apparent senility of older people is due to the side effects of the medications they are taking. Weakness and frailty can be caused by inactivity and being sedentary. Depression and passivity. -Best News: As you get older, you get happier, calmer, learn to control negative feelings, and emphasize the positive.

Cognitive Habits

Negative Habits of Thinking about one's situation -Situation is permanent. -Situation is uncontrollable. -Expecting nothing to get better, these folks do nothing to improve their lives, therefore remain unhappy. -Learned helplessness -People become depressed when efforts to control their environment fail. -Update of model needed because some depressed people haven't failed and some have everything they could have possibly wanted. Pessimistic explanatory style- Helpless, hopeless, and they believe nothing good will ever happen to them. -A sense of Hopelessness that is the critical fact Ruminating Response Style (Brooding) -Focus inward and brood about negative feelings. -Longer and more intense periods of depression. -Women more prone to this style.

Panic Disorder

Panic Disorder -Characterized by sudden attacks of intense fear, often with feelings of impending doom. -Symptoms Scary physical reactions like rapid heart beat, sweating, and feelings of unreality. Scary physical reactions lead to fear of dying, losing control, or just plain "going crazy". Can last a few minutes to hours. Often related to stress, emotion, exercise, or traumatic experiences. Can be delayed so they appear to be coming out of nowhere. Whether panic attacks develop depends on how the bodily symptoms are interpreted by the individual the first time they experience the symptoms n response to stress.

4. Regression

Person reverts back to a previous phase of personality development -- that is, if an event overwhelms one's current coping strategies, the person may revert to strategies that worked in earlier phases of their life. Example: After major natural disasters, e.g. tornados or earthquakes, school-aged children will suddenly begin to wet the bed, suck their thumbs, and want to sleep with their parents for reassurance. These are behaviors characteristic of an earlier age.

Placebo EFFECT

Placebo Effect: -Many of the benefits of medications can be traced to the placebo effect. Placebo effect is related to the initial enthusiasm about the drug and expectations that the drug will make them feel better. -Antidepressant drugs as a prime example. Drugs less effective than originally thought. Only 1/2 of patients respond positively to any antidepressant medication. Of the 1/2, only 40% are responding to the chemical action of the medication. Placebo effect might account for 80% of alleviation of symptoms.

anxiety states

Symptoms: -Continuous, uncontrollable anxiety or worry. -Feelings of foreboding and dread. -Duration of at least 6 months. -Restlessness, difficulty concentrating, irritability, jitteriness. Predisposing factors: -Hereditary predisposition - physiological tendency to experience anxiety symptoms. -Amygdala abnormality - acquisition of fear. -Prefrontal cortex - ability to realize danger has passed. -Experience: Unable to control or predict one's environment. -Mental biases that foster anxiety.

Crystallized Intelligence

The knowledge and skills built up over a lifetime. Remains stable or improves over the life span. Examples: Ability to solve math problems. Define words. Take a political position. Often associated with professional skills (e.g. physician, teacher, psychologist).

Denial

The person does not even recognize that something unpleasant is happening. ("Suppression" is when you know the bad event is happening but you consciously decide to put it out of your mind). Example: You are aware that the relationship between a close friend and her boyfriend is on the rocks but your friend is not even aware that there is a problem in their relationship.

2. Projection

Unacceptable or threatening feelings repressed then attributed to someone else. Example: You hate your teacher but you believe that he hates you (and he doesn't even know your name).

1. Repression

threatening idea, memory or emotion is blocked from consciousness. Example: "Forgetting' you flunked chemistry 2 years ago, or that your high school sweetheart dumped you that summer.

Define Personality

•A distinctive and relatively stable pattern of behavior, mannerisms, thoughts, motives, and emotions that characterizes an individual over time and across different situations. • The pattern consists of many distinctive traits, habitual ways of behaving, thinking, and feeling. ◦For Example: ■Shy ■Outgoing ■Friendly ■Hostile ■Gloomy