PSYCH 2120 chapter 13 (4/18)
According to developmental psychologist __________ __________, a child's view of friendship passes through three distinct stages
William Damon
A good deal of research supports the notion that contact between majority and minority group members can reduce prejudice and ______________
discrimination
_____________ hierarchy, members of higher status can safely question and oppose children lower in the hierarchy
dominance
_____________ social comparisons with those who are obviously less competent or successful
downward
Asian American children show the opposite pattern: their self-esteem in ____________ school is higher than that of Whites and Blacks, but by the end of childhood, their self-esteem is __________ than that of Whites
elementary; lower
Having higher _____________ leads to increased effort and lower anxiety, increasing the probability of success. In turn, this helps affirm the higher self-esteem that began the cycle.
expectations
difficulties in the industry-versus-inferiority stage lead to feelings of ___________ and inadequacy.
failure
Because there is a relatively high level of ____________-headed households among African Americans, the social and economic support of extended family often is critical.
female
Research has identified (many/few) differences between self-care children and children who return to homes with parents.
few
some research showing that greater diversity leads to (more/fewer) cross-race friendships
fewer
Children grow progressively more sensitive to the importance of _________, and building and maintaining friendships becomes a large part of their social lives.
friends
Among friends ___________ goal, however, their goal is to maintain equal-status relationships—relationships lacking a dominance hierarchy
girls
In sum for ____________, the goal is to smooth over disagreements, making social interaction easy and nonconfrontational
girls
Rather than having a wide network of friends, school-age _________ focus on one or two "best friends" who are of relatively equal status
girls
_______ are more apt to use language that is less confrontational and directive.
girls
Typically housing a relatively small number of children, ________ homes are used for children whose parents are no longer able to care for them adequately.
group
although some negative consequences of being a self-care child have been found, generally the consequences of being a self-care child are not necessarily ____________
harmful
Unpopular children may become victims of a phenomenon known as learned ___________. Because they don't understand the root causes of their unpopularity, children may feel that they have little or no ability to improve their situation.
helplessness
As children progress into the middle childhood years, however, their self-esteem is _________ in some areas and lower in others
higher
self-care children were previously called __________ children, evoking images of sad, pathetic, and neglected children.
latchkey
Early research confirmed that hypothesis and found that African Americans had ________ self-esteem than Whites.
lower
In addition, declines in economic well-being have been linked to _________ health problems
mental
bullies, compared with their peers, are (more/ less) likely to break the law as adults.
more
people who have experienced parental divorce are (more/less) at risk for experiencing divorce themselves later in life
more
___________ ________ child, the term for children who let themselves into their homes after school and wait alone until their parents return from work
self care
________ ___________ reflects beliefs and cognitions about the self (I am good at trumpet; I am not so good at social studies)
self concept
Children with employed parents may have higher _____ _______ because they feel they are contributing to the household in significant ways
self esteem
The most successful blending of families occurs when the parents create an environment that supports children's _____ ________ and permits all family members to feel a sense of togetherness.
self esteem
In middle childhood, they begin to use _________ comparison processes, comparing themselves to others to determine their levels of accomplishment.
social
________ identity theory. According to the theory, members of a minority group are likely to accept the negative views held by a majority group only if they perceive that there is little realistic possibility of changing the power and status differences between the groups
social
In short, popular children are high in _______ ___________, the collection of individual social skills that permit individuals to perform successfully in social settings
social competence
children increasingly compare themselves to others, and as they do, they assess how well they measure up to society's ____________.
standards
Friends provide emotional support that allows children to respond more effectively to ________. Having friends makes a child less likely to be the target of aggression, and it can teach children how to manage and control their emotions and help them interpret their own emotional experiences
stress
Empowering ___________ to stand up for victims also has been shown to reduce bullying significantly.
students
Children with mothers and fathers who work full time spend essentially the same amount of _______ with family, with friends in class, and alone as children in families where one parent stays at home
time
the centerpiece of friendship in this second stage is mutual ___________
trust
If the household before the divorce was overwhelmed by parental strife—as is the case in around ____ percent of divorces—the greater calm of a post-divorce household may be beneficial to children.
30
About ______ of all bullies come from abusive homes
1/2
Only around _____ the children in the United States spend their entire childhood living in the same household with both their parents.
1/2
Almost ______ of all children under the age of 18 in the United States live with only one parent.
1/4
third graders from one long-integrated school were asked to name a best friend, around ______ of White children and _____ of African American children chose a child of the other race.
1/4; 2/3
During the early stage of middle childhood, children whose parents are divorcing often blame themselves for the breakup. By age ____, children feel pressure to choose sides, taking the position of either the mother or the father. As a result, they experience some degree of divided loyalty
10
More than ___ million households in the United States contain at least one spouse who has remarried
10
About ___ percent to ____ percent of students bully others at one time or another
10; 15
by the time they reached tenth grade, fewer than ____ percent of Whites and ____ percent of African Americans named a different-race best friend.
10; 5
although White children initially show higher self-esteem than Black children, Black children begin to show slightly higher self-esteem than White children around age______.
11
By the time they are ____ or ____ years old, African American children become particularly aware of and sensitive to the prejudice and discrimination directed toward members of their race.
11; 12
Some ____ percent to ____ percent of children in the United States between the ages of ___ and ____ spend some time alone after school, without adult supervision
12; 14; 5; 12
Overall, ____ percent of all children in the United States live in blended families
17
Some studies have found that ____ months to ___ years later, most children begin to return to their pre-divorce state of psychological adjustment
18; 2
In the ____st stage, which ranges from around ___ to ___ years of age, children see friends as others who like them and with whom they share toys and other activities
1; 4; 7
Estimates suggest that between ___ and ___ million families are headed by two lesbian or two gay parents in the United States, and some ____ million children have lesbian or gay parents
1; 5; 6
In the ___nd stage, Lasting from around age ___ to age ____, this stage covers a period in which children take others' personal qualities and traits, as well as the rewards they provide, into consideration
2; 8; 10
In the ________ stage friends cannot make amends for such violations just by engaging in positive play, as they might at earlier ages. Instead, the expectation is that formal explanations and formal apologies must be provided before a friendship can be reestablished.
2nd
In almost ___ million U.S. households, grandparents are the primary caretakers of their grandchildren.
3
Hispanic families also tend to be relatively larger, with an average size of _____, compared to _____ for Caucasian families and ____ for African American families
3.71; 2.97; 3.31
If present trends continue, almost _____ of American children will spend some portion of their lives in a single-parent family before they are 18 years old
3/4
About ___ of children in group care are victims of neglect and abuse. Each year, ___________ are removed from their homes
3/4; 300,000
In the ______ stage the main criteria for friendship shift toward intimacy and loyalty. Friendship at this stage is characterized by feelings of closeness, usually brought on by sharing personal thoughts and feelings through mutual disclosure
3rd
The _____ stage of friendship begins toward the end of middle childhood, from ____ to ____ years of age. During this period, children begin to develop the view of friendship that they hold during adolescence.
3rd; 11; 15
It can cost some $__________ per year to support a child in group care—about 10 times the cost of maintaining a child in foster care or on welfare
40,000
Over __________ children in the United States live in foster care
400,000
More than ___ million remarried couples have at least one stepchild living with them in what has come to be called a blended family
5
Almost ___ percent of African American children and ____ percent of Hispanic children under the age of 18 live in single-parent homes
60; 35
Middle childhood lasts roughly from age ___ to age ____. The period in which children are in elementary school
6; 12
Immediately after a divorce, both children and parents may show several types of psychological maladjustment for a period that may last from ___ months to ___ years.
6; 2
At age ____, most children have self-esteem that reflects a global, fairly simple view of themselves. If their overall self-esteem is positive, they believe that they are relatively good at all things. Conversely, if their overall self-esteem is negative, they feel that they are inadequate at most things
7
But in about ____ percent of divorces, the pre-divorce level of conflict is not high, and children in these households may have a more difficult time adjusting to divorce
70
Almost ___ percent of girls and ____ percent of boys report experiencing some form of harassment in school at least once, and __________ U.S. schoolchildren stay home from school each day because they are afraid of being bullied
85; 80; 160,000
Some ______ percent of middle-school students report being bullied at some point in their time at school, beginning as early as the preschool years
90
The prevalence of three-generation families who live together is greater among _________ Americans than among Caucasians.
African
________ tend to be concerned with their place in the dominance hierarchy, and they attempt to maintain their status and improve on it.
Boys
__________ bullying represents actual aggression, in which children may be hit, pushed, or touched inappropriately.
Physical
____________ bullying may be more subtle; it occurs when children are socially attacked, by deliberately excluding them from social activities.
Relational
____________ ___________ is an individual's overall and specific positive and negative self-evaluation. (more emotionally orientated)
Self esteem
________ problem-solving refers to the use of strategies for solving social conflicts in ways that are satisfactory both to oneself and to others.
Social
_________ reality refers to understanding that is derived from how others act, think, feel, and view the world.
Social
__________ comparison is the desire to evaluate one's own behavior, abilities, expertise, and opinions by comparing them to those of others.
Social
In nonindustrialized societies, same-gender segregation may be the result of the types of _________ that children engage in.
activities
Parents can help break the cycle of failure by promoting their child's self-esteem. The best way to do this is through the use of the __________ childrearing style
authoritative
Generally, children who are popular are better at interpreting the meaning of others' _________ accurately
behavior
The one significant difference that did emerge was the quality of the relationship between parent and child; interestingly, the gay and lesbian parents reported having (better/worse) relationships with their children than heterosexual parents
better
For instance, girls may threaten to kiss a boy, or boys might try to lure girls into chasing them. Such behavior, termed "__________ work," helps emphasize the clear boundaries that exist between the two sexes
border
The language of friendship used among ________ reflects their concern over status and challenge.
boys
children need to recognize that one has the right not to be _____________
bullied
more popular children are more likely to form _______, groups that are viewed as exclusive and desirable,
cliques
In keeping with the more _____________ orientation of Asian cultures, children tend to believe that family needs have a higher priority than personal needs, and male children, in particular, are expected to care for their parents throughout their lifetimes
collectivist
According to Erik Erikson middle childhood is about ___________
competence
Success in the industry-versus-inferiority stage brings with it feelings of mastery and proficiency and a growing sense of _____________
competence
What children in this first stage don't do much of, however, is take others' personal qualities into ____________.
consideration
Middle childhood, then, is a period of ______________, in which children and parents jointly control behavior.
coregulation
Students leaving elementary school and entering either middle school or junior high school show a __________ in self-esteem, which then gradually rises again
decline
immediately following a divorce the quality of the mother-child relationship _____________ in the majority of cases, often because children see themselves caught in the middle between their mothers and fathers
declines
Hispanic children also show an ___________ in self-esteem toward the end of middle childhood, although even in adolescence Their self-esteem still trails that of Whites.
increase
Generally, overall self-esteem __________ during middle childhood, with a brief decline around age ______.
increases; 12
One of the biggest challenges facing children and their parents is the increasing _______________ that characterizes children's behavior during middle childhood
independence
Highly ____________ parents, who indiscriminately praise and reinforce their children regardless of their actual performance, can create a false sense of self-esteem in their children,
indulgent
In Erikson's view, children are seeking endeavors where they can be successfully _____________
industrious
childhood ________________ was more closely associated with adult success than intelligence or family background.
industriousness
According to Erik Erikson the ___________-versus-_________ stage is characterized by a focus on efforts to meet the challenges presented by parents, peers, school, and the other complexities of the modern world.
industry; inferiority
According to developmental psychologist Kenneth Dodge, successful social problem-solving proceeds through a series of steps that correspond to children's ___________ ____________ strategies
information processing
___________ groups to which people feel they belong
ingroups
At age 11 or 12 African American children are more klikeley to make distinctions between members of _______ and _________
ingroups; outgroups
they increasingly develop their own ___________ standards of success, and they can see how well they compare to those.
internal
In some ways, only children are better-adjusted, often having higher self-esteem and stronger _____________ to achieve.
motivation
in Mexican American families, which have particularly strong values regarding the importance of family, siblings are less likely to respond ___________ when younger siblings receive preferential treatment
negatively
what has ________ been shown to be effective in reducing bullying, including instituting zero-tolerance policies for fighting and putting troubled students together in therapy groups or classrooms
not
_____________ groups to which people do not perceive membership
outgroups
___________ remain the major influence in their children's lives, and they are seen as providing essential assistance, advice, and direction
parents
Those children who experience frequent bullying are often loners who are fairly __________.
passive
Compared with a group of children who did not receive such training, the children who were in the experiment interacted more with their ________, held more conversations, developed higher self-esteem, and—most critically—were more accepted by their peers than before training
peers
Most developmentalists believe that children's psychological functioning and their development in general are the product of a combination of factors, including ________ and ________
peers; parents
Children's self-concepts also become divided into ___________ and academic spheres.
personal
In sum, in the first stage, friends are viewed largely in terms of presenting opportunities for __________ interactions.
pleasant
in middle childhood children begin to view themselves less in terms of external physical attributes and more in terms of ________________ traits
psychological
_______ _______ has been associated with higher levels of lying, stealing, bullying, and aggressive behavior
self care
In contrast, other parenting styles have less positive effects on self-esteem. Parents who are highly ___________ and controlling send a message to their children that they are untrustworthy and unable to make good decisions
punitive
Children's closest friendships tend largely to be with others of the same __________. As they age, there is an (increase/decline) in the number and depth of friendships outside their own racial group.
race; decline
This shift occurs as African American children become more closely identified with their _________ group and increasingly view the positive aspects of their group membership
racial
According to a theory first suggested by psychologist Leon Festinger, when concrete, objective measures of ability are lacking, people turn to social _________ to evaluate themselves
reality
In ___________ play, interactions are interrupted when a child feels that his status is challenged.
restrictive
______ ambiguity, in which roles and expectations are unclear.
role
When boys and girls make occasional forays into the other gender's territory, the action often has __________ overtones.
romantic
In general, women who are _________ with their lives tend to be more nurturing with their children
satisfied
__________ as many children of divorced parents enter psychological counseling as do children from intact families (although sometimes a judge will mandate counseling as part of the divorce).
twice
children may use __________ social comparison, in which they evaluate their abilities against those who appear to be more proficient and successful than they are.
upward
_________ bullying, victims are called names, threatened, or made fun of because of physical or other attributes
verbal
Bullies tend to watch more television containing ___________, and they misbehave more at home and at school than nonbullies
violence
Generally, the ___________ the children, the easier the transition is within a blended family
younger
