PSYCH 250 EXAM 2 REVIEW

Taylor et al. (2010) [READING #3]

"Mother's Spanking of 3-Year-Old Children and Subsequent Risk of Children's Aggressive Behavior" (PEDIATRICS- journal) -Taylor et al. (2010) -->*Objective*: Look at the association between the use of CP in 3 yr olds and subsequent aggressive behaviors (at age 5 yrs). -->*Hypotheses*: CP at age 3 would be related to aggression at age 5 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SPANKING: --> *Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model*: Context matters. If physical punishment is accompanied by parental warmth and the good goals, then spanking may be good. --> *Social Learning Model*: Spanking your children --> children learn to hit others when agitated or when they want to get their way -More things to consider ... both studies looked at physical punishment in preschool years and how it affects later behavior... what about corporal punishment at other ages? -Not consistent/systematically studied by age, continuity, etc. --*Sample Description*: N= 2461 Mothers median age was 27 years old, range (16-50 yrs) 50% Black 24% Hispanic 21% White. Mother-father relationship status was mixed: 32% Married 27% Cohabiting 29% Visiting 10% No relationship --> This study is particularly impressive because it recruited people from 20 large cities in the US... but that means maybe can't generalize to rural/suburban people. But just FYI, *fragile families* study specifically targets non-marital births - most of the kids were born to unmarried parents (unique struggles) METHOD: Age 3: --Child Measurers: Aggression e.g., Defiant, Easily frustrated, Hits others, Uncooperative, Angry moods --Parent Measurers: Spanking frequency Other related variables: - Maternal stress - Intimate partner violence - Depression - Substance use - Demographics Age 5: --Child Measurers: Aggression e.g., Defiant/disobedient, Gets in fights, Cruelness or bullying, Screams a lot, Threatens others, Destructive FREQUENCY OF CP: --45.6% of mothers did not spank --27.9% spanked 1-2 times --26.5% of mothers spanked 2 or more times

Emotions as first language: --> basic emotions vs. self-conscious emotions --> early smiles versus social smile

*Emotional Development during the First Two Years*: EMOTIONAL COMMUNICATION SEEN AS FIRST LANGUAGE: -infants react to *facial expressions* (don't know what words mean yet, but they can recognize tones like happy or sad on a face) -parents "read" infant expressions -infants' *abilities* to read emotions *change* over the first two years *Development of 7 BASIC emotions*: happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust -->Why considered basic? -expressed in much the same way worldwide -can be directly inferred by facial expressions -signs of almost all of them are present in infancy Happiness: -*binds parent and baby, fosters competence* (when the baby smiles, mom smiles back, and there is confidence in the connection) -->1. EARLY SMILES: mostly *reflexive* and related to *internal, physiological states* (ex: child smiles bc they are full) -->2. SOCIAL SMILE: occurs in *response to specific external stimuli* (faces); appears in 6-10 weeks, baby responding and smiling/laughing to ripped paper Fear: -rises in the second half of the first year -most frequent expression is *stranger anxiety* = an expression of fear in response to unfamiliar adults - sort of natural response, depends on temperament etc... UNDERSTANDING AND RESPONDING TO THE EMOTION OF OTHERS -with time and experience infants understand the emotions of others... -*Social Referencing* = use of a trusted person's emotional reactions to decide how to respond in an uncertain situation; allows infant to use indirect interaction/response (happens @ ages 8-10) -NOT experienced the same way in different cultures! --Ex: Jack in the box, baby gets scared bc has never seen it before, then mom says "oh this is happy and good" and smiles --> *the baby uses the parent's reaction to develop a reaction* ; other example: new dog, beneficial tactic *Emergence of SELF-CONSCIOUS emotions*: -between 18-24 months -SELF-EVALUATION COMPONENT: involves injury to or enhancement of sense of self -Examples: shame, guilt, envy, pride --kid thought he broke lamp --> feels guilt --"oh, I feel bad / good about that" - kid says -- "me did it!" - pride for not spilling drink

Debate about attachment security and infant day care - text box p. 161 and READING 2 - NICHD (2005)

*READING 2*: "Child Care and Child Development" --Results from the NICHD (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development) study of early care and youth development -*Family visiting time*: when infants were 1, 6 and 15 months old -*Strange Situation assessment*: when infants were 15 months old (lab) -*Highlighted independent variables*: Maternal sensitivity, in play/HOME, caregiving ratings, Amount of care, Care starts, Child sex --> Main effects of mother child characteristics: *Mother's sensitivity and responsiveness* --> Main effects of infant child care: *Child care participation (no significant differences)* --> Interaction effects of mother child characteristics: -*Maternal sensitivity x caregiving quality* -*Maternal sensitivity x amount of care* -*Maternal sensitivity x care starts* -*Child sex x amount of care* *TAKEAWAY*: -Non-parental childcare isn't necessarily bad! -But there are many interacting factors... -Amount of time away from parents -Quality of care -Sensitivity of care -Socioeconomic status --It's important to consider the possible negative impacts of current societal structures on child development other findings/discussion: --> high quality child care served as a compensatory function for children whose maternal care was lacking. The proportion of attachment security among children with the least sensitive and responsive mothers was higher in high-quality child care than in low-quality care. However, there was no evidence that amount of time in child care compensated for the mother's lack of sensitivity and involvement. --> caregiver that is most sensitive and responsive, and applies it early on and is consistent, will lead to higher secure attachment in child --> dosage effect: more maternal care outside of daycare = more secure; must be enough time in the day for child and mom to build attachment --> quality of care - lower quality = bigger impact on child -text box page 161: --NICHD study of early child care = largest longitudinal investigation of the effects of child care to date, included more than 1300 infants --> *revealed that no parental care by itself DOES NOT affect attachment quality*, RATHER, *the relationship between child care and emotional well-being DEPENDS ON BOTH FAMILY AND CHILD-CARE EXPERIENCES* -PARENTING QUALITY, based on a combination of maternal sensitivity and HOME scores, EXERTS A MORE POWERFUL IMPACT ON CHILDREN'S ADJUSTMENT THAN DOES EXPOSURE TO CHILD CARE!! -still though, poor quality child care may contribute to higher rate of insecure attachment -*overall, mother -child interaction was more favorable when children attended higher quality child care and also spent fewer hours in child care* -heavy exposure to substandard care may promote child behavior difficulties in age 3 and beyond ... -kids in both poor quality homes and poor child care environments fared worse off in behavior problems, but those in both high quality home and child care environment fared best -child day care alone is unrelated to children's behavior problems ... must be looked at in combo w mom care -research suggests that some infants may be at risk for attachment insecurity due to *inadequate child care, long hours in such care, and parental role overload* -increase availability of high quality child care AND provide parents with paid employment leave, part time employment during baby's first year was associated w greater maternal sensitivity and higher quality home environment -- yielded more favorable development in early child hood

Theory of mind - definition and general findings about preschool abilities (text pp. 192-194)

*Theory of Mind*: coherent set of ideas about mental activities; children reflect on their own thoughts and internal processes -->aka METACOGNITION = "thinking about thought" -end of first year: joint attention, social referencing, preverbal gestures, and spoken language -2- vocab expands ; first verbs are mental state words like want, think -3 person can think without seeing or touching -2/3 year olds think about desires -4 year olds can start to explain false beliefs and differentiate -toddlers have implicit grasp of false belief seen through nonverbal behavior -explicit false belief understanding strengthens after 3.5, more secure 4-6 -- predictor of social skills FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO PRESCHOOLERS THEORY OF MIND: -language, executive function, and social experiences -children w autism lack brain mechanism that enables humans to detect mental states, SO mastery of false belief if greatly delayed or absent -preschoolers view the mind as a passive container of information -younger than age 6- pay little attention to the process of thinking; must be directly observable to be known -children's active efforts to construct literacy knowledge through informal experiences are called *emergent literacy* --preschoolers do not yet understand symbolic language of print but understand a lot about written langue before they conventionally learn it -*phonological awareness*: the ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language

Psychodynamic theories of infant and toddler personality: --> beliefs of Freud vs. Erikson --> components of Trust vs. Mistrust psychosocial conflict --> Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt psychosocial conflict

*Understanding Infant and Toddler Personality: Psychodynamic Theories* -two psychodynamic approaches: Erikson (each age group through the lifespan has a conflict and resolution) & Freud (fixation in Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, & Genital stages) --> General Impact of Psychodynamic Theories: -Freud's ideas encouraged us to looks at early emotional and social interactions as important influences on development --BIRTH TO 1 YEAR-- -->*Freud's Approach*: -ORAL STAGE: amount of food, satisfaction with *quantity* shapes personality -->*Erikson's Approach*: -focused on *quality* of mother's behavior during feeding AND general caregiving --PSYCHOSOCIAL CONFLICT: *Trust vs. Mistrust* -Sees trust as the foundation of human development *QUALITY CAREGIVING*: sensitive, responsive, and consistent (if all three are in place then trust will develop; quality caregiving must be during ALL activity and not just during feeding ... i.e. dressing the child) -->Psychosocial conflict is *resolved positively* if BALANCE of caregiving is sympathetic and loving -->*Negative resolution*: MISTRUST - mistrust will develop if mom takes too long to respond or if infant distrusts caregiver, *mistrustful baby cannot count on others & protects self by withdrawing* --YEARS 1 TO 3-- -->*Freud's Approach*: -ANAL STAGE: toilet training, need to control impulses (pooping); shaming/accepting/handle child impulses; by ages 2&3 -->*Erikson's Approach*: --PSYCHOSOCIAL CONFLICT: *Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt* -Parents confront *assertions of independence* ("me do it!", "I wanna do it, let me do it myself!" - child putting shirt on, they want to be independent and do things themselves) -How parents handle assertions in multiple domains leads to feelings of autonomy or shame/doubt -->For *positive resolution*, NEED: suitable guidance AND reasonable free choice -minimal forcing or sharing of the child -tolerance and understanding (give them two choices so that they have to pick and can't just say 'no'; "Apple or Banana honey?") --if positively resolved child develops confidence in their second year -->For *negative resolution*: child feels shamed, doubts ability to do things themselves (if an accident happens and parent says "look what you did" instead of being empathetic and confident, child will feel shamed)

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences (general premises; *don't need to name the 8 intelligences*)

--> *GARDENER'S THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES*: -8 independent intelligences (each has its own expertise and origin; ex: artistic, spatial, logic etc...) -opposed the idea of g- general intelligence --book?? general premises...

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence - 3 types of intelligence

--> *STERNEBERG'S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF SUCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE*: comprehensive theory, 3 broad intelligences balance each other out --*Premise*: intelligence is the ability to have a successful life by balancing 3 intelligences -- --1. *Analytical intelligence*: how efficiently you process -ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, contrast --2. *Creative Intelligence*: how you approach novelty (new situations) -ability to create, design, invent, originate, imagine --3. *Practical Intelligence*: application of intellectual skills; applying your skills in everyday situations -ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice -intelligence involves adapting to the culture and specific demands of one's everyday world

Findings of Sink and Mastro (2017) [READING #4]

--> How could media exposure (PRIMETIME SITCOMS) influence children's beliefs about gender? -*Cultivation Theory*: More exposure to messages --> shifts worldview, more likely to be influenced by portrayals -*Social Cognitive Theory*: Observing behavior of others --> guide thoughts and behavior RESULTS: --> What did they conclude about the quantity of portrayals of men vs. women? --> What did they conclude about the quality of portrayals of men vs. women? Dominance Sexualization Occupation --> Men more objectified? --*Male characters significantly outnumbered female characters on primetime television* --*The proportion of females on primetime television differed significantly from the proportion of women in the US population - 50.8%* --*Women were more often portrayed in traditional, narrow roles that emphasize sexuality, idealized beauty standards, and gender stereotypic occupations/lifestyles; women were more sexualized than males ... limited support* --*Male characters were shown as more dominant than females* --*female characters appeared significantly younger than male characters on primetime* --*females were warmer and more family oriented than males* --*elderly were the least represented across all age groups*

*Lecture 11*: Achievement and the 5 psychosocial challenges of middle childhood

-->What factors predict academic achievements? --cognitive/learning status vs socioemotional status

Stranger anxiety, social referencing, emotional self-regulation (text pp. 150-151)

--Besides basic emotions, humans are capable of a second, higher order set of feelings, including guilts, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride. These are called *self-conscious emotions* bc each involves injury to or enhancement of our sense of self. (*basic emotions*- happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust - universal in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival) *Stranger Anxiety*: the most frequent expression of fear that is unfamiliar to adults. When a stranger picks up an infant -- stranger anxiety. *Social Referencing*: Once understandings of emotional and meaningful objects and actions are in place, at around 8-10 months infants engage in social referencing - actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation *Emotional Self-Regulation*: refers to the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals (ex: reminding yourself that an anxiety provoking event will be over soon or surpassing your anger at your friends birthday party -requires voluntary, effortful management of emotions; improves rapidly during first few years as the result of a dynamic system of influenced that include development of prefrontal cortex and its network of connections to brain areas involved in emotional reactivity and control and support from caregivers who teach them to help manage their emotions

- term: goodness-of-fit model (text p. 155)

--Thomas and Chess proposed a *goodness of fit model* to explain how temperament and environment can together produce favorable outcomes. Goodness of fit involves creating child rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while simultaneously encouraging more adaptive functioning -ex: if a child's disposition interferes with learning or getting along with others, adults must gently but consistently counteract the child's maladaptive style -if a child w difficult disposition receives poor parenting -- more irritable -if a child is emotionally reactive receives positive and sensitive parenting -- regulates emotion and difficulty declines by 2-3 -children are born with unique dispositions that adults must accept; BUT parents can turn an environment that exaggerates a child's problems into one that builds on the child's strengths

-influences on self-esteem (text pp. 270-273)

-Culture, Gender, and Ethnicity -Child rearing practices -Achievement related attributions --mastery oriented attributions --learned helplessness -influences on achievement related attributions --person praise, process praise -Fostering a master oriented approach

Impact of divorce on children - immediate and long-term consequences (text pp. 284-286)

-Of the 42-45% of American marriages that end in divorce, half involve children -increases risk of adjustment problems Immediate- -family conflicts -mother headed households usually drop in income -disorganized family life, high life, depression -meals and bedtimes at inconsistent hours -house not clean -less taking kids out -less secure home life -discipline harsher and not consistent -contact w noncustodial father decreases .. fathers that do see them are more inclined to be permissive and indulgent -- hard on mom -about 20-25% of children in divorced families display severe problems compared w 10% in non divorced -preschoolers blame themselves -older kids do worse in school or more mature behavior ; angry, act out behavior -girls internalize and cry -boys show demanding behavior and are more at risk for serious adjustment issues Long Term- -most children show improved adjustment by 2 years after divorce -yet overall continue to score slightly lower than children of continuously married parents in academics, self esteem, social and emotional - higher rates of early sexual activity and parenthood -lasting difficulties: troubled relationships and reduced education attainment pos adjustment w authoritative parenting, parent training programs, more paternal contact when mom is custodial -effective coparenting is key

Aggression (pp. 217-220): proactive & reactive aggression; 3 forms of aggression; role of media and family

-beginning in late infancy all children display aggression; by second year, aggressive acts with two distinct purposes emerge: PROACTIVE AGGRESSION: (most common) *instrumental aggression* - children act to fulfill a need or desire - to obtain an object, privilege, space, or social rewards, such as adult or peer attention - and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal. REACTIVE AGGRESSION: *hostile aggression* - angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person --> 3 FORMS OF AGGRESSION: 1. *Physical Aggression* - harms others through physical injury - punishing, hitting, kicking, or punching others or destroying property 2. *Verbal Aggression* - harms others through threats of physical aggression, name calling, or hostile teasing 3. *Relational Aggression* - damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation --proactive physical rises sharply from 1-3 then goes down as kids learn to resist gratification of grabbing others' things BUT reactive goes up in verbal and relational forms tends to rise in early and middle ROLE OF MEDIA AND FAMILY -families that punish a lot and are unstable lead to more sever behavior issues in children -- combo w difficult child = worse ; kids may see world hostile -few programs in media condemn violence, 60% of tv shows in US contain violent scenes without punishment -violent content is 10% above average in children's programming - cartoons most violent -Tv violence increases the likelihood of hostile thoughts and emotions of verbally, physically, and relationally aggressive behavior; short and long term effects

causes of individual obesity (text p. 237)

-obesity more often seen in low SES and minority households *Factors responsible*: lack of knowledge about healthy diet, a tendency to to buy high-fat low-cost foods, and and family stress which can prompt overeating -parental feeding practices: overweight kids more likely to eat like their parents - fat and sugary food -frequent eating out, high intake of high calorie foods -parents undermining child's ability to to regulate their own food intake; over controlling about what kid eats / watch weight OR overfeeds out of child discomfort -stressful family life -- less self regulatory capacity ---> uncontrolled eating -kids develop maladaptive eating habits and are more responsive to external stimuli than to internal hunger cues -insufficient sleep -- weight gain -many hours of screen media ; ads ; heavy viewing = less exercise

make-believe play (text pp. 180-181)

-piaget believed that through pretending, young children practice and strengthen newly acquired representational schemas ---3 important changes in symbolic mastery: 1. play detaches from the real life conditions associated with it 2. play becomes less self centered 3. play includes more complex combinations of schemes -sociodramatic play = the make believe with others that is under way by the end of the second year and increases rapidly I complexity during early childhood -preschoolers who devote more time to sociodramatic play are rated by observers to be more socially competent a year later -make believe predicts cog capacities: executive function, memory, logical reasoning, language and literacy skills, imagination, creativity, and the ability to reflect on one's own thinking, regulate emotions, and take another's perspective -true make believe play involves alterations of reality WITH intrinsic motivation, positive emotion and child control -25-45% of preschoolers spend much time creating imaginary companions

1. Psychosocial conflict of industry (definition) vs. inferiority

1. *The challenge to achieve: industry vs. inferiority* (psychosocial conflict of middle childhood) - -->*Attempt to master many skills valued by culture* (ex: read, write, do math, social skills, how to get along, long slow mastery of specific skills like sports or music...) -->GOAL: *Industry* = (+ outcome) a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks and a willingness to achieve to the best of one's ability --fostered by adult's expectations AND children's drive towards mastery --come to realize that hard work produces results -->*Negative outcome* = viewing yourself as *inferior* or incompetent - lack of confidence in ability to do things well

FIVE PSYCHOSOCIAL CHALLENGES OF MIDDLE CHILDHOOD:

1. The challenge to achieve: industry vs. inferiority 2. The challenge of school 3. The challenge of knowing who you are: Self-development in middle childhood 4. The challenge of peer relationships 5. The challenge of family relationships

2. The challenge of school

2. *The challenge of school* (psychosocial conflict of middle childhood) - -->achievement in the classroom becomes very important -->also a big influence on social and emotional development (confronted with values of studying hard vs getting by, dressing nice vs sweats, -- these values shape social and emotional dev) -->school-related difficulties - NUMBER ONE REASON CHILDREN ARE REFERRED FOR CLINICAL HELP

3. The challenge of knowing who you are: Self-defvelopment in middle childhood: -- 3 changes in self-concept and 2 changes in self-esteem as discussed in lecture

3. *The challenge of knowing who you are: Self-defvelopment in middle childhood* -->acquire a more fully developed sense of self as a framework 3 CHANGES IN SELF CONCEPT (who you are): -as a 4 year old self concept focused on objects and things kid likes/owns but now... -->1. Emphasize traits and competencies in self - descriptions --use stable psychological dispositions (i.e.- "I am short tempered" or "I'm good at math"; kids can now recognize + and - attributes of themselves!) -->2. Begin to make social comparisons (judge their ability compared to others) -->3. Become better at reading messages received from others and at incorporating these into self descriptions (kids notice reputation) 2 CHANGES IN SELF-ESTEEM: -->1. *Becomes hierarchically structured*. Four separate self-esteems: *academic, social, physical, and appearance*. --Each becomes *more refined with age* due to: *Increasing cognitive abilities to organize and see complexity* AND *Getting feedback in different activities* -->2. *See changes in level of self-esteem* - *drop then rise* --early childhood saw high self esteem, then it goes down a little bit, then rises later as kid becomes more realistic in expectations

4. The challenge of peer relationships: --Nature of peer group - definition & characteristics; functions of peer group

4. *The challenge of peer relationships*: --> peers become more important than before and children spend an increasing amount of time with them NATURE OF PEER INTERACTIONS: -->Most peer interactions occur in *groups* What is a peer group? --> *Peer Group* = a group of 2 or more people of similar status who interact with each other and share norms and goals --relatively stable --members interact regularly --generally homogeneous in age, gender, and race --members share values FUNCTIONS OF PEER GROUPS: 1. *Offer sociability and sense of belonging* 2. *Help shape definition of self - help children develop their personal and interpersonal goals* 3. *Provide opportunities for learning and practicing skills* - *cooperation, competition, leadership, loyalty* (children who participated in FORMAL groups - church, Girl Scouts, travel sports ... enhanced social skills!)

5. The challenge of family relationships: --How parenting and discipline change in middle childhood; co-regulation

5. *The challenge of family relationships* (last psychosocial conflict in middle childhood yrs) -->Family relationships remain powerful influences in children's lives What is optimal parenting? -->Focus on *CO-REGULATION* = a form of supervision in which parents generally oversee while permitting children to make moment-by-moment decisions --"Don't laugh at me - Bullying" PSA video

Nature of four attachment classifications; -caregiving factors predicting secure and insecure attachment

ATTACHMENT CLASSIFICATIONS: 1. *Secure Attachment*: (60% of North American infants) - *easily comforted upon return/reunion* w parent; *active greeting* behavior. Parent = source of security and comfort 3 TYPES OF INSECURE ATTACHMENT- 2. *Avoidant Attachment*: (15%) - *avoidance at reunion*; child is not distressed when mom leaves, but does avoid her when she returns 3. *Resistant Attachment*: (10%) - *angry, resistant behavior at reunion*; often *cannot be easily comforted*, hits mom when she returns. Very distressed when mom leaves. 4. *Disorganized/disoriented attachment*: (15%) - lack an organized strategy to handle stress - *confused and contradictory behaviors*; reflects GREATEST INSECURITY WHAT FACTORS PREDICT SECURITY (SECURE) OF ATTACHMENT? -->*Many factors matter*: infant characteristics (temperament), family circumstances (finance, stress...), parental attachment history (relationship you had with your own parents..?) -->*DOMINANT force/predictor*: QUALITY of caregiving !!!! -->*Caregiving factors predicting secure attachment*: --prompt response to infant signals --expression of positive emotions and affection --tender and careful handling WHAT CAREGIVING FACTORS PREDICT INSECURE ATTACHEMNT? -->*General Factors*: In general, caregiver who ... --engages in less physical contact --handles infant awkwardly / harshly -behaves insensitively when meeting infant's needs -interacts in an angry or irritable manner ... is linked to insecure attachment

*Chapter 7* - Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood

Attachments, Fathers, and Preschool Thoughts

Brain development; handedness; heredity and hormones - text pp. 171-174

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT -brain increases from 70% of its adult weight to 90% between ages 2 and 6 -number of synapses is nearly double the adult value in some areas of the brain such as the prefrontal cortex -energy metabolism in the cerebral cortex peaks at around this age - 4 to 5 - synaptic growth and myelination require higher energy needs --*synaptic pruning* follows and by ages 8 to 10 energy consumption of most cortical regions diminishes to near adult levels -cognitive capaciteis increasingly localize and become interconnected neural system -rapid growth from early to middle childhood in prefrontal cortical areas devoted to executive function: inhibition, working memory, flexibility of thinking, and planning; left hem is more active 3-6 then levels off, but right hem increases steadily through early and middle childhood -Language skills expand at an astonishing pace in early childhood (left hem), spatial skills (right hem), such as giving directions, reading, or drawing, develop gradually over childhood and adolescence -differences in rate of Dev between hems suggest that they are continuing to lateralize - specialize in cog functions -cerebellum at rear and base of brain aids in balance and motor control of body movements ; fibers linking cerebellum to cerebral cortex grow and myelinate from birth through preschool years : gains in motor coordination, memory, planning, language -reticular formation, part of brain stem that maintains alertness and consciousness, generates synapses and myelinates from infancy into twenties; improved attention -inner brain structure called the amygdala plays a central role in processing novelty and emotional information; facial expressions, emotion and fear, connections form w prefrontal throughout childhood and adolescence; enhances memory for emotionally salient events ensuring vital for survival - stimuli that signify danger or safety -inner brain also has hippocampus, plays vital role in converting STM to LTM, and in images of space that help us find our way; rapid synapse formation and myelination in the second half of the first year, when recall memory and independent movement emerge, lateralize towards greater right side activation -corpus callosum a large bundle of fibers connecting the two hems; synapse production peaks between 3-6, then slower pace through adolescence HANDEDNESS -supports joint contribution of nature and nurture to brain lateralization -by 6 mo, infants display smoother, more efficient, movement when reaching w their right than left arm -- may contribute to *right handed bias* most children have by end of first yr -*Handedness* reflects the greater capacity of one side of the brain-the individuals *dominant cerebral hemisphere* - to carry out skilled motor action -most left handers have no developmental problems HEREDITY AND HORMONES -children's physical size and rate of growth are related to those of their parents -genes influence growth by controlling the body's production of hormones -pituitary gland releases two growth hormones: GH and TSH -Growth Hormone: necessary for development of almost all body tissues -Thyroid Stimulating Hormone: prompts the thyroid gland in the neck to release throne necessary for brain Dev and for GH to have its full impact on body size --infants w inadequate thyroxin must receive it at once or will be intellectually disabled

Diana Baumrind's four parenting styles - nature and characteristics

Based on the 3 dimensions (control, acceptance & involvement, and autonomy granting) there are *4 parenting styles*: 1. AUTHORITATIVE: -*HIGH acceptance, adaptive control techniques, appropriate autonomy granting* -MOST COMMON pattern of child-rearing around the world -*warm, nurturant, accepting* - listen to child's point of view -*HIGH degree of CONTROL - rules and standards clearly communicated to child - reasonable demands for maturity* -heavy use of *discussions and explanations* -demands from kids *emphasize competence, positive actions* (ex: asking to share, pour milk carefully, put away toys ... vs "Don't hit!") -gradual, *appropriate autonomy granting* -rational, democratic, *fair* parenting style 2. AUTHORITARIAN: -*HIGH control, LOW acceptance and autonomy granting* (not a lot of warmth, don't accept / give child freedom) -*conformity* and *obedience* valued over open communication - children *expected to accept adult's word without question* -HEAVY use of POWER - *assertive discipline* -NOT a democracy, "Do what I say" - no if, ands or buts or explanations (dictator) 3. PERMISSIVE: -*LOW control, HIGH acceptance and autonomy granting* -*nurturant, communicative, accepting, and affirmative* -*avoid imposing control* of any kind - *emphasize self-regulation* (over conformity to specific rules) -use *reasoning as discipline* when needed (*induction*) -->little punishment -parent = friend -kids do what they want and make own choices, parent places *little control* 4. UNINVOLVED: -*LOW control and acceptance, indifferent RE (in reference to): autonomy* --too much stress in the parent's own life causes them to ignore the child, makes sure they are safe but that's it -*emotionally uninvolved* -*undemanding and indifferent* - show *little commitment* to role as caregiver -*inconsistent* in setting standards and *expectations* -extreme: *neglect* -ex: parenting styles, Land of the Giants

Changes in thinking with Concrete Operational stage - New Terms: seriation, transitivity, decentration; limitations of concrete operational thought

CHANGES IN CHILDREN'S THINKING AND LEARNING DURING THE SCHOOL AGE YEARS: --*Development According to Piaget - The Concrete Operational Period* (ages 7-11) ... start at around 5 and end at about 12 - thinking changes! 1. *Thought becomes more logical, flexible, and organized* 2. *CONSERVATION as a critical achievement.* *Children now show DECENTRATION (ability to focus on several aspects of a problem at once and relate them) and REVERSIBILITY* 3. *See improvement in children's classification skills* - *can pass class inclusion problems* - *can now group objects into hierarchies of classes* (they like to collect and organize in this period; baseball cards, stamps) 4. *See developments in children's organizational skills* --> *SERIATION*: ability to order items along a quantitative dimension (order from tallest to shortest) --> *TRANSITIVITY*: ability to perform seriation mentally ---*Limitations of concrete operational thought*---: mental operations work poorly when applied to abstract ideas (can't see gray areas)

How friendships change from preschool years to middle childhood

CHANGING NATURE AND MEANING OF FRIENDSHIPS: (friendships in middle childhood) --> Become *more selective*. Friends tend to be very similar to self. --> Characteristics of friendship become *more complex and psychologically based* --mutual loyalty, intimacy, and reciprocity (telling secrets/trusting) --TRUST becomes a defining feature --> Friendships remain *fairly stable* over middle childhood

Four concerns with Piaget's methodologies and conclusions; updated perspectives; - term: theory-theory

CONCERNS WITH PIAGET'S CONCLUSIONS AND METHODOLOGIES: 1. *Focused too much on preschoolers' limitations; did NOT consider their FRAGILE COMPETENCE (understanding)* -some children may understand, but Piaget only focused on the obstacles 2. *May have relied too heavily on children's ability to give VERBAL explanations* (via structured interview) -just bc they can't explain verbally how something works, they have fragile understanding and expectations of how things work; different methods of understanding, just may not be able to verbally describe it! 3. *Tasks often contained UNFAMILIAR elements* -familiar tasks --> kids performed better, but his tasks were unfamiliar and kids had a harder time performing bc weren't used to the objects (dolls vs. smashed clay balls) 4. *Ambiguous QUESTION PHRASING; repeated questions* -repeating the questions trips people up and makes kids feel like they should change their answer (why are they asking again??) - repeating the question makes people change answers CONCLUSIONS ABOUT PIAGET'S PERSPECTIVE: -*Children do show rudiments of logical operations long before onset of concrete operational stage* (long before age 7) -*Competencies likely develop gradually* (NOT a sudden shift, rather things become more familiar as children learn the world slowly) --preschoolers are more successful in simplified tasks UPDATED PERSPECTIVES: -Piaget was *domain-general* (reasoned the same way across all domains; SAME theories) -*Current approach is domain specific:* --> CONSTRUCT NAIVE THEORIES that reflect in specific domains. Ground up, different theories --*Theory-Theory*: notion that *children naturally construct theories* to explain what they see and hear -Piaget was correct- kids are busy, active scientists, BUT he didn't have qualitative specific domains!

Approaches to defining intelligence; -general intelligence (g);

DEFINING INTELLIGENCE- --> *GENERAL INTELLIGENCE*: overall reasoning ability (g) -early theory (Spearman) -narrow? -affects ability to adapt to environment -called 'g'

Definition of attachment, attachment behaviors (what they look like)

DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACHMENT Def.: *Attachment* = the strong affectional tie that humans feel toward special people --relationship between infant and primary care giver, virtually all infants get attached to someone --> What do built-in attachment behaviors look like? -*SIGNALING* (e.g., crying, smiling... adaptive responses that infants use to keep caregiver close!) -*ORIENTING* (e.g., looking) -*ATTEMPTS AT PHYSICAL CONTACT*

3 changes in attention; memory strategies; metacognition;

DEVELOPMENTS ACCORDING TO INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORIES: --> *Changes in attention*: --ATTENTION CHANGES IN 3 WAYS--- -*more selective / controlled* (focus out irrelevant) -*more adaptable* (older kids can adjust attention to focus what they don't know for an exam as opposed to studying everything over and over) -*greater planfulness* (can decide what to do first, next, then... also seen in scanning magazines, waldo...) -->*Memory Strategies*: -Greater and more effective use of a more diverse range of memory strategies = the deliberate mental activities we use to store and retain information (clumping; rehearsal strategies) -->*Metacognition*: -improved ability to think about own thinking and knowledge = METACOGNITION -knowing what you know and knowing what you don't

Understanding infant-father attachment --> results of Cox et al. (1992) and Belsky (1996):

EVIDENCE FROM EARLY FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH 1. COX ET. ALL (1992): Nature of Caregiving? -predictions of infant-father attachment -38 married couples -Investigated parents' early caregiving attitudes and behaviors and child's behavior in strange situation -At 3 months old - interviewed parents separately - attitudes toward baby - amount of time spent with baby -At 3 months - videotaped play situation (15 min) - assessed interactions, affection, affect (+/- emotions) -Strange situation at 12-13 months (done w/ each mom and dad) -47% of infants were securely attached to their fathers, predicted by: ---degree of positive interactions (e.g., sensitivity, positive affect) ---attitudes about infant and parental role ---time with infant 2. BELSKY (1996): Distal Factors? (underlying factors, not directly affecting baby) -interested in how father's personality, marital relationship, and social context of parenting relate to attachment -tested 126 first born sons and dads (10 months) -->*Survey*: -3 dimensions of personality, infant temperament, marital quality, social support, work-family relations -videotaped in Strange Situation 3 months late -60% of infants securely attached to fathers (40% insecure) -->*Predictors*: extroverted and agreeable personality, positive marriage, more positive emotional spillover between work and family -infant temperament or neuroticism did NOT affect relationship with Dad -Distal factors not important for mother's relation to baby

Sequence of early gender typing - preverbal associative network, labels, rigid associations, activity and toy preferences, playmate preferences, 3 asymmetric trends; -special term: gender segregation

Early Gender Typing Components and Milestones 1. PREVERBAL ASSOCIATIVE NETWORK: *discriminating the sexes* -young children form this network to help them differentiate characteristics to male and female; no words yet, they hear voices, smell perfume, how he/she holds me, hair length etc... early on kids differentiate between male and female before they can speak 2. LABELING: *kids label own sex and that of other people* -at age 2 -categorize world with new labels 3. ASSOCIATIONS: (2.5 -3) preschoolers have gender stereotype associations, girls and boys agreed in a study w dolls, "which cleans?": girls like dolls and cooking/cleaning, boys like cars and are allowed to hit ppl; "pink is for girls" - kids make RIGID associations -*make associations (lots) between each sex and related activities, toys, jobs, items, attributes*; starts by 2.5/3 years -associations are initially *very rigid* (RULES) -*rigidity stems from persistent gender divisions in environment and cognitive immaturity* (children exaggerate stereotypes to cognitively learn, complexity later; kids see broad distinctions in the environment) -*do NOT yet realize that characteristics associated with sex do not determine sex* (ex: long hair) -*become a little more flexible by age 7-9* (but *associations start out simple and rigid*) 4. ACTIVITY AND TOY PREFERENCES: (play is very important with early preferences) -develop *strong preferences for toys and activities associated with own gender* -- see by 14-22 months (not yet 2, very early) -boys prefer trucks, girls prefer dolls and soft toys 5. PLAYMATE PREFERENCES: -children develop *preferences for same-gender playmates by age 3 - gender segregation is pervasive* -->*Gender Segregation*: tendency for young kids to prefer playing with their own gender and not with opposite sex --Gender segregation is pervasive, 3:1 by age 4, 11:1 by age 6 6. THREE ASYMMETRIC TRENDS IN GENDER DEVELOPMENT: SEX DIFFERENCES IN GENDER TYPING- -->*Boys are more rigid in their gender typing than girls*: -(gender is hierarchical, males are more dominant, females have little incentive to move up) -*(1)* boy quicker than girls to adopt gender-typed preferences and patterns of behavior -*(2)* boys more rigid in their stereotyping and show little flexibility (demonstrated in lab, box for boys and box for girls -- kids were told to sort activities, girls were more likely to put in the "both" box...) -*(3)* cross-gender behavior is tolerated more OF girls and BY girls (boys - people are harsher on them when they wanna wear a dress, but when girls wanna do boy things its more okay) -->*Patterns demonstrate hierarchical nature of gender* Study- 2,000 kids write essays, "if you were to wake up tomorrow the opposite sex, how would life change?" -girls though it would be better as boys, more confident, can be aggressive -boys thought it would be worse off as a girl, restricted, have to worry about appearance, makeup --all kids thought life would majorly change

Explaining individual and groups differences in IQ (text pages 253-256); -term: stereotype threat

Explaining individual and groups differences in IQ: ETHNIC AND SES GROUPS -Arthur Jensen said that heredity is largely responsible for these differences in IQ -->Nature v Nurture -kinship studies -researchers estimate that half of the differences in IQ among children can be traced to their genetic makeup -but heritability estimates underestimate environment --- GENE AND EXPERIENCES CONTRIBUTE TO INTELLIGENCE -black white IQ gap -adoption studies -generations -- new opportunities and experiences -Flynn Effect: IQs have increased steadily from one gen to the next -->Cultural Influences -test bias -Language and Communication Styles: sharp discontinuity between home and school communication practices likely contributes to lower IQ w low SES minority and lower school perf -Knowledge: prior knowledge, majority culture upbringing, vocab tested; opportunities and access; amount of time spent in school / classrooms -Stereotypes: STEREOTYPE THREAT- the fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype - can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance --undermines test taking -those AA who were aware of ethnic stereotypes ("blacks aren't smart") performed worse in verbal test condition than in non test condition, but whites performed same -Reducing cultural bias in testing: iq scores can underestimate the intelligence of children form ethnic minority groups -dynamic assessment

How parenting styles affect developmental outcomes - general issues, research findings, mediating factors

FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN EXAMINING HOW THESE STYLES AFFECT CHILDREN: -parents use *many styles* - may change as children grow (seldom use one style, depends on diff. # of kids too; affects how children act) -*cultural differences* complicate relationship (authoritarian parenting not the same in Japan - loving - v. European - harsh) -*bidirectional relationship* (different children may elicit different styles from parents and vice versa, diff styles affect kids differently) -outcomes differ by *age and gender* -MANY other factors that influence a child's behavior (other than parenting style!) CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PARENTING STYLE AND DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOMES: -->*Outcomes of AUTHORITATIVE parenting*: -related to *better psychological outcomes* -children are *lively, happy, self-confident, self-controlled* -associated with *good peer relationships* (parent respects kid --> kid respects peer) -associated with *good school success* (+ attitude towards work and autonomy) -good *task persistence* with this style (ability to finish a task) --WHY?: kids follow *fair control*; *parents as models of caring concern* -->*Outcomes of AUTHORITARIAN parenting*: -preschoolers who are *more anxious, withdrawn, and distrustful* -having *poorer peer relations and school adjustment* (boys are more violent, girls under confident?...) -->*Outcomes of PERMISSIVE parenting*: -children who are *immature, impulsive, rebellious* -*less persistence tasks*; *poor school achievement* (tend to give up!) -->*Outcomes of UNINVOLVED parenting*: -having *various degrees of development difficulties* ; depression, anger -being consistently *at risk for drug abuse and delinquency*

Socialization - 3 types of discipline and characteristics of each;

FAMILY SOCIALIZATION (what parents do to try to interact with the child): -*Socialization* = *process of absorbing the attitudes, values, and customs of a society* --trying to *encourage culturally acceptable behavior* (and discourage unacceptable behavior) --a general GOAL is *internalization* - so when the adult is not there, the kid still does the right thing DISCIPLINE IS A CENTRAL FEATURE OF SOCIALIZATION: THREE TYPES- 1. POWER ASSERTIVE: -*parent relies on on overwhelming power and control over child's fear of punishment* --**Techniques: threats, commands, withdrawal of privileges ("Don't come here or you'll be in big trouble"; parent takes hand away from hot thing) --*PHYSICAL Discipline*: (part of power assertive discipline) - <<corporal punishment>> -*common but controversial*; only brings along momentary compliance -seen to be ineffective in the long term b/c: -->children become fearful of their parents and avoid them -->models aggression -->can easily spiral into a cycle of abuse (56% of Americans agree that it is okay to spank kids, 90% did at least once ... common in the U.S.?) 2. LOVE WITHDRAWAL: -*parent relies on child's fear that they will lose parent's support, affection, and approval - involves NON PHYSICAL expressions of parent's anger or disapproval* -i.e. stern look, mom puts hands over hips, leaves room, shows disapproval in non physical ways! 3. INDUCTIVE REASONING (induction): -*use of reason and explanations to make child realize harmful consequences* (appeal to their *concern for other people*) -focus on consequences, "You know what it feels like to take away a toy from Susy ..." --> get them to empathize and understand -*effective bc it tells children HOW to behave* -*encourages empathy and promotes prosocial behavior*

4 steps in the development of attachment - Terms: separation anxiety, secure base, internal working model

FOUR PHASES OF DEVELOPMENT: - 1. PREATTACHMENT PHASE (birth to 6 weeks) -want humans close, but respond indiscriminately to them -infant cries to get some (any) human to come hold/take care of them 2. ATTACHMENT-IN-THE-MAKING PHASE (6 weeks to 6-8 months) -infant responds differently to familiar people but does not yet protest when separated from primary caregiver -they respond differently to special caregivers 3. CLEAR-CUT ATTACHMENT PHASE (6-8 months to 18 months - 2 years) -attachment to familiar caregiver is evident --> *Evidence*: *SEPARATION ANXIETY* = become upset at the departure of familiar caregiver (6 months - 15 months) --> *Evidence*: use of caregiver as *secure base* - can explore world and come back to caregiver for support; baby plays with others at the park and then comes back to mom 4. FORMATION OF A RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP (18 months to 2 years and on) -separation anxiety decreases; work on building a partnership (communicate when mom will get back to child ...) --> *INTERNAL WORKING MODEL*: inner representation of the parent-child bond -a set of expectations formed early in life about the availability of attachment figures -guide for all future close relationships -Bowlby -view of close relationships -age develops?? Film: Bowlby: -studied young thieves and early relationships between mom and child -effects of maternal deprivation -"attachment behavior" -Ainsworth: "Strange Situation"- most standardized way to categorize attachment behavior -Lorenz: ducks imprinting, sensitive period, attachment

Temperament - roles of environment and genetics (text pp. 154-155)

GENETICS -Idenital twins are more similar than fraternal twins across a wide range of temperamental and personality traits -heritability estimates suggest a moderate role in personality factors: about half of individual differences have been attributed to differences in genetic makeup ENVIRONMENT -persistent nutritional and emotional deprivation profoundly alter temperament, resulting in maladaptive emotional reactivity --HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT JOINTLY CONTRIBUTE TO TEMPERAMENT (experience) ETHNIC AND GENDER DIFFERENCES: -Japanese and Chinese babies are less active, irritable, vocal, more easily soothed when upset, and more attentive and compliant as 2 year olds than American babies BUT they are also more fearful, displaying more anxiety in an unfamiliar playroom and when interacting with a stranger --these variations may have genetic roots, but they are supported by cultural beliefs and practices, yielding GENE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATIONS -Japanese moms think the child should develop a dependency on their parents through close physical contact while American mothers encourage children towards autonomy and independence -- consistent with these beliefs, Asian mothers are more gentle and soothing with babies while Americans are more active and stimulating and verbal in approaches -also note that Japanese and Chinese parents discourage babies from showing emotion --> tranquility -Boys are more active and daring, less fearful, impulsive, and higher injury rates -Girls have effortful control, are cooperative, leads to better school performance and lower behavior problems --> though activities parents encourage (boys to be active, girls to seek help), and through more positive reactions when their child exhibits temperamental traits consistent with gender stereotypes DIFFERENT SUCSEPTIBILITY TO REARING EXPERIENCES -young children with a chromosome 7 gene containing a certain repetition of base pairs called short 5-HTTLPR, which increases risk of self regulation difficulties, display high susceptibility to effects of parenting quality: when exposed to maladaptive parenting fared worse off but when exposed to kind and supportive parenting they were exceedingly well adjusted; but for those without the genotype, parenting whether + or - has minimal impact on externalizing symptoms -Children w the gene, have high early plasticity ; bc kids wit this "susceptibility attribute" fare better when parenting is supportive, they are likely to benefit most from interventions aimed at promoting responsive child rearing SIBLINGS UNIQUE EXPERIENCES -Parents have a tendency to emphasize each child's unique qualities --> affects child rearing practices, contributing to parent's differential treatment of siblings -siblings also try to differentiate themselves form one another and have diff experiences with parents, teachers and peers that affect personality dev -both identical and fraternal twins tend to become increasingly DISSIMILAR in personality with age ! -*temperament and personalty can only be understood in terms of complex interdependencies between genetic and environmental factors*

*Chapter 9* - Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Gender Role development in early childhood

TERMS: gender typing; expressive & instrumental roles; gender identity; cisgender; transgender (plus text box on p. 224); intersex; gender-role stereotypes; gender-typed behavior

Gender Typing: What Develops- -*Shifting Landscape*: *recognition of gender diversity and transgender* individuals; science is not caught up yet, lack of research, more trans kids are shown in media today! -->*Gender Typing*: the process of *developing gender roles*, or gender-linked preferences and behaviors *valued by the larger society* -Females: *expressive role* - e.g., nurturant, sensitive -Males: *instrumental role* - e.g., assertive, competitive -->*Gender Identity*: the *knowledge that one is either a boy or girl*; the deep seeded internal sense of who you are; children have this by age 2 or 3 --Text definition: *image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine* -->*Cisgender*: gender identity ALIGNS with biological sex assigned at birth -->*Transgender*: felt gender identity DOES NOT ALIGN with biological sex assigned at birth (brain hormones throw off gender alignment - maybe?) -->*Intersex*: a body that *cannot be easily categorized as male or female* (genitals don't align with gender) -->*Text box on p. 224*: gender dysphoria -->*Gender role stereotypes*: -ideas about what males and females are supposed to be like -- *learned associations* (women cook, men like cars) -->*Gender-typed behavior*: -children's tendency to *favor same-gender activities* over those associated with the other gender -much of gender typing is well underway by the preschool period!

Multi-causal nature of gender role development; gender typing mechanisms emphasized by different theories (social cognitive, cognitive developmental, gender schema); -special term: gender constancy

HOW DOES THIS ALL HAPPEN SO FAST? --> *Gender typing is a persistent, omnipresent, full frontal assault enacted by several sources using a number of mechanisms* --multiple mechanisms outside and within, such as bio, cognition, peers, parents, media ... by 4 or 5 children are aware of these gender stereotypes and act them out EXPLAINING GENDER ROLE DEVELOPMENT - ROLE OF ENVIRONMENT: -->SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY: -modeling, *observational learning*, Bandura, monkey see monkey do -*differential reinforcement* of gender-appropriate behaviors and sanctioning of gender-inappropriate ones (Dad: "put down the doll" to son; or in class, music is playing so girls dance, but if a boy dances, his friends might look at him and he subtly stops) -differential reinforcement- parents teach children about gender development -daughter struggling with coat vs son, dad helps daughter but tells son "got it? good lets go." --OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (peers, older siblings, children mimic models of gender) -->COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY: -Kohlberg -as children acquire a DEEPER UNDERSTANDING of gender, they will want to act in ways consistent with the knowledge - *Self Socialization* for cognitive consistency --*Gender Constancy*: understanding the *permanence of one's sex* - believed to be reached by 5 or 6 (Kohlberg believed that this motivated kids to act, why girls seek out pink and dolls) --BUT children are gender-typed BEFORE they obtain gender constancy!! (gender constancy CAN'T drive behavior) -->GENDER SCHEMA THEORY: -an INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH -establishment of a basic gender identity motivates child to learn about gender -experiences and beliefs are organized into schemas used to interpret the world and guide behavior

Differences in school attitudes, expectations, and attributions between Japan/Taiwan & U.S. (lecture & text pp. 263-265)

IS ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT SOLELY ABOUT INTELLIGENCE? -->*Intelligence / native ability explains only some of the variability in academic achievement* -->*Performance is affected by situational factors* GROUP DIFFERENCES IN ACHIEVEMENT: CROSS CULTURAL COMPARISON IN MATH ACHIEVEMENT - *Introduction to research of Harold Stevenson and colleagues* (PISA, 2012) -spent 20+ years researching in over 64 schools -US is ranked in the middle / closer to the bottom of high performing achievement countries --Worked with more than *5,000 children and their parents in Minneapolis, Chicago, Taipei (Tawian), and Sendai (Japan)* --Children were *similar in aptitude* / *IQ when they entered school* --YET, *Taiwanese and Japanese students outperformed Americans* in *achievement tests*, especially math and science at EVERY GRADE level (Sendai and Taipei were above Chicago in every area!!) FINDINGS: CULTURAL DIFFERENCES 1. *Differences in the cultural valuing of academic achievement* -->Japan and Taiwan devote more resources to education (leads to teachers well trained, paid, and more successful; kids more willing to try new things) 2. *Differences in beliefs about keys to academic success* -->American parents and teachers - *native ability as key* -->Japanese and Taiwanese parents and teachers believe ALL children have potential to excel - *effort is key* 3. *Differences in the level of parent involvement in education* --Asian Parents Studied: -->have a formalized system of communication with teachers -->devote more hours to helping kids with homework (than US parents) -->hold higher standards for their children's academic performance - NOT easily satisfied ---Charts---: --student's beliefs about the most important factors for academic success: US said "good teachers" while Asian said "studying hard" more imp. --mothers in the US are much more satisfied with kids' academic performance than asian parents are --the percentage of students NOT satisfied with their academic performance: in the US about 30% but in Asian countries closer to 70% not satisfied 4. *Differences in time devoted to instruction* --Students in Japan and Taiwan: -->spend more hours in classroom (5.5 days/week in school, 50 days longer) -->devote more classroom time to academic activities with fewer interruptions (non math interruptions: US had 64% not engages but Japan had around 80% engaged in math at all times in class)

Differences in nature of father-infant and mother-infant interactions:

MATERNAL CORRELATES OF SPECIFIC ATTACHMENT CLASSIFICATION: -->*Avoidant*: *overstimulating, intrusive care* (caregiver always in face -- too much) -->*Resistant*: *inconsistent care*; *unpredictable* (leaves infant; sometimes harsh and scolding - sometimes affectionate and nice ??) -->*Disorganized/disoriented* (d/d): *mothers tend to have experienced loss*; *low emotional and uninvolved caregiving* --some mother have severe adjustment difficulties (e.g., history of depression) --may also be abusive or neglectful WHAT ABOUT DADS? INFANT-FATHER ATTACHMENT: -Why look at this differently/separately? --> origins of infant father attachment may lie in different types of interactions -*fathers spend less time with infants* (less care and responsibility, western culture trends) -*fathers spend more time in playful interaction*; dads as playmates, where as mom is for love and care Q1: Is strange situation the best assessment technique for fathers too? Q2: Is there a spillover effect from mom? (is it independent or just a spillover from mom??) --> *Data shows that attachment classifications for each dyad are related but independent, and are a result of the particular interactional history*

-Stanford-Binet Scale and its limitations

MEASURING INTELLIGENCES: IQ TESTS -->*STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE*: widely used IQ test ... not perfect -Started with Binet and Simon -Current versions measures 5 intellectual factors: --FACT-ORIENTED: *knowledge and quantitative reasoning* --*visual-spatial processing, working memory, basic information processing* STRENGTHS and LIMITATIONS: 1. *good predictor of school success* 2. *experience/cultural bias* (ask about situation that many people may not have encountered - immigration; middle class bias for facts) 3. *limited scope of tests* (designed to predict school success not... -->NOT designed to test overall intelligence in the world -->DO NOT sample all human abilities

General nature and purpose of Strange Situation (Ainsworth)

MEASURING THE SECURITY OF ATTACHMENT: A FOCUS ON THE STRANGE SITUATION --> What is the *Strange Situation*? -*An observational measure of the QUALITY of attachment between 1 and 2 years of age* -Involves short separations from and reunions with parent (researchers focused on the reunion part) -Reactions give cues about use of parent as secure base -*central issue*: effectiveness of parents' presence in soothing child upon return --it was studied by *Ainsworth* and is the most *standardized way to categorize attachment behavior* --when there was high quality care/day care, it lead to more secure attachment in the child

Obesity stigma; Latner & Stunkard (2003); current solutions and approaches toward obesity

OBESITY STIGMA: PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF CHILDHOOD OBESITY- -->*Negative Attributions (of obese ppl)*: -Lazy, lack of willpower, self-indulgent -Sloppy, less intelligent -Bad, villains (when seen in media fat people are usually the bad people) --Obese youth often LESS popular, socially isolated, teased --Ex: A Matter of Fat, Pt.2 film - *Latner and Stunkard* (2003) replication - US 5th and 6th graders, obese child was the least liked among 6 other options -->*Solutions and Approaches*: -Individual weight loss --> change obesogenic environment (family encourages weight loss) -*Concern*: focus on weight loss and BMI may be misguided and harmful -weight is an imperfect measure of health --need to consider third factors (e.g., physical activity to indicate health) --cholesterol and hypertension levels going down; life expectancy increasing -Restrictive diets do not work (weight loss in short run rarely is kept off in the long run) -May be increasing weight stigmatization (stigmatizing fat demotivates ppl., focusing on BMI as main factor) --weight stigma can lead to stress, weight gain; body preoccupation in everyone (bad) --> *NEW APPROACH: HEALTH AT EVERY SIZE (HAES)* -shifts focus from weight management to health promotion -does NOT view weight as an appropriate end goal -->*FOCUS*: -consuming healthful foods -honoring internal cues of hunger and satiety -engaging in enjoyable physical activity -body acceptance -reducing fat stigma

Impact of early attachment on later social and emotional development

OVERALL BENEFITS OF SECURE ATTACHMENT: -security of attachment predicts later social and emotional development (continuity of caregiving is important- nurture throughout childhood and life; quality care and sensitivity) -->Securely Attached Infants: -are more enthusiastic, persistent, and cooperative (more enthusiastic bc ppl have your back --> sociable infant and adult!) -are more curious, sociable and independent as preschoolers -are more effective in coping and problem solving -exhibit higher self-esteem in elementary school --> also predicts capacity for intimacy in adult relationships

3 general dimensions of parenting styles - Baumrind

PARENTING STYLES (general interaction styles with kids = different outcomes) - *3 general dimensions*: -Baumrind worked with 3rd graders, did home interviews, and studied them until 9 years old, 70s 1. CONTROL: *extent to which parents set firm rules and expect good behavior from their children* 2. ACCEPTANCE AND INVOLVEMENT: *warmth and responsiveness* (some parents were warm and involved while others were not) 3. NEW DIMENSION- AUTONOMY GRANTING: *how much allow child to make own decisions*

Different ways parents contribute to gender socialization; -special term: channeling

PARENTS' ROLE IN GENDER TYPING (parents socialize children, have different expectations for boys and girls): -parents influence kids in 4 ways... 1. OWN GENDER STEREOTYPES AND EXPECTATIONS GUIDE PERCEPTION AND RESPONSES TO THEIR KIDS: -Expectations for boys: strong -Expectations for girls: pretty, soft 2. DIFFERENTIAL REINFROCEMENT/DIFFERENTIAL TREATEMENT: -parents treat boys and girls differently -*direct verbal comments* about expectations (girls appearance, or parents say "that's not lady like") -*differentially reinforce activities* (labs, 20-24 months, daughters reinforced for dancing, asking for help, playing w dolls, but discouraged for aggressive behavior while boys were discouraged for playing with dolls) -*treat and supervise children differently* (play with girls softly and more fragile, boys tough it out) 3. *CHANNELING*---: process by which parents indirectly encourage the adoption of gender roles by the experiences they provide (chores assigned, toys encouraged - diff opportunities for diff kids; toys channel and shape confidence and comfort zone, not just play - new comfort and skills over time) --toys, activities encouraged, chores - provide different opportunities --boy's toys/activities encourage independence and originality (math, skills competition, action) - action figures --girl's toys/activities encourage nurturance, verbal skills, and cooperation - my little ponies 4. MODELING: -learn by watching -who cooks at home? -reaction to bug in house?

5 sociometric categories of peer acceptance; behavioral characteristics of each type

PEER ACCEPTANCE AND SOCIOMETRIC STATUS: -Peer acceptance is largely influenced by *LIKEABILITY* ; one sided perspective that is often not reciprocal --> Likeability is assessed via *SOCIOMETRICS* = self report measures that ask peers to evaluate one another's likeability - who like most (LM), like least (LL) ... (kids have 3 votes) 5 DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE (PEER CLASSIFICATIONS): -->*Popular*: many positive votes (HIGH LM, FEW LL) -->*Rejected*: actively disliked (HIGH LL, FEW LM) -->*Controversial*: many positive and negative votes (HIGH LL, HIGH LM) -->*Neglected*: seldom chosen (FEW LL, FEW LM) -->*Average*: (about 1/3) no extreme scores *BEHAVIORAL CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT CATEGORIES*: --> Peer acceptance is a powerful predictor of current and later psychological adjustment *Popular Children* -->popular-prosocial: -both well - liked and admired -very good interpersonal skills -sensitive, friendly, cooperative, kind, confident -->popular-antisocial: -socially skilled, but belligerent or mean - *Controversial Children* -disruptive, but engage in positive, prosocial acts -often have good sense of humor (class clowns) --blend of + and - behavior in class *Neglected Children* -usually uninvolved, approach peers less, appear shy -usually well adjusted. have average social skills (ppl just don't know this bc they don't talk to them)

Differences between 2 types of rejected children; negative consequences of rejected status

PEER REJECTION: REJECTED KIDS - 2 TYPES -->*Characteristics of rejected-aggressive children*: (larger subgroup) -high rates of conflict, hostility, and inattentive and impulsive behavior -deficient in social understanding (they *assume* people do things to be mean to them, with *hostile intent*; be sarcastic, may tease other kids and say "haha he likes it!") -->*Characteristics of rejected-withdrawn children*: -passive, socially awkward, timid (social fearfulness) -negative expectations of how peers will treat them - low self esteem -at risk for abuse by bullies NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OF REJECTED STATUS/PEER REJECTION: -*Short Term*: poor school attitudes and performance -*Long Term*: delinquency, school drop-out, and possibly psychopathology (e.g., *depression*) -- this is most common in rejected-aggressive kids!

Peer influences on gender typing; Maccoby (and Jacklin) two cultures - nature of girls' and boys' groups - concerns of Barrie Thorne - definition of borderwork and 4 examples of it

PEER'S ROLE IN GENDER TYPING: --> *Differential Reinforcement*: PEERS are typically known to be HEAVY GENDER REINFORCERS; *teasing* -same mechanism -ex: ridiculing, criticizing -peer pressure starts at 21-25 months old Exploring the dynamics of gender segregation (kids spending time in boys groups vs girls groups): --Two Cultures Theory *TWO CULTURES/SEPARATE WORLDS APPROACH - MACCOBY (AND JACKLIN)* - 1. NATURE OF BOYS' GROUPS: *large, competitive, sports* 2. NATURE OF GIRLS' GROUPS: *small, cooperative, family themes* -->*Argument*: Groups do different things, learn and practice different skills, develop different interaction styles BARRIE THORNE'S EVALUATION OF "SEPARATE WOLRDS" APPROACH (critiques): -approach is *overly simplistic* and *NOT as accurate* -focuses on differences and *ignores similarities* -wary of *"big man bias"* = focusing on behaviors that fit expectations of group. (ignore the boys off to the side playing with rocks, only focus on main boys playing comp. basketball) -*ignores that gender segregation is far from total* THORNE'S NOTION OF BORDERWORK: -->*Borderwork* = things that children do that CROSS yet STRENGTHEN gender boundaries (boys and girls together, interaction of genders yet separate...) -->*Four Examples of borderwork*: a) CONTESTS (e.g., boys against the girls, spelling competitions) b) CROSS-SEX CHASING (nah nah you can't get me!) c) RITUALS OF POLLUTION (e.g., cooties) d) INVASIONS (disrupting the play pf other sex group)

Piaget's pre-operational stage and principle achievements; definition of operations, conservation

PRESCHOOL PERIOD: EARLY CHILDHOOD COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (tooth fairy and Santa period, ages *2-6*) -the preschool stage is QUALITATIVELY different than other life stages ... Understanding Piaget's Pre-Operational Period (2nd stage): --> *Preoperational*: Lack sophisticated *operations* = mental actions that obey logical rules WHAT ARE THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE PREOPERATIONAL PERIOD? --> *Principle Achievement*: developing capacity to represent the external world internally through the use of SYMBOLS (words, pics, language) - symbols free up the world for children, not just discovering the world with their senses and hands anymore --> Frees children from boundaries of here and now --> Growth in pretend play (dragons, unicorns, don't need to directly interact with blocks --> (age 4) Emerging awareness of own and others' mental processes = *theory of mind* (kids are aware that we act on beliefs, they understand why others may be sad/feel the way they do; empathize) -->BUT, *lack* of CONSERVATION seen as a fundamental problem --*Conservation*: knowledge that basic physical dimensions (such as numbers, mass, and sex) remain the same despite superficial changes in appearance (if you have conservation you know that the liquid in the flatter glass and the taller glass is the same when poured from one to the other!) -According to Piaget, at about age 7 kids HAVE conservation and overcome all limitations!!

Obesity - definitions; environmental forces contributing to rising rates

Physical Development: A Focus on Childhood Obesity --OBESITY LEVELS -->*Obesity*: -body mass index = BMI = weight (kg)/height^2 (cm) -ADULTS: *overweight* = *BMI of 25 - 29.9*; *obese* = *BMI > 30* -CHILDREN: *BMI ≥ 95th age-sex specific percentile - obese* -CHILDREN: *BMI in 85th - 95th age-sex percentile - overweight* -->*Increasing prevalence of obesity across the nation*: -obesity has increased rapidly among children, youth, and adults in the U.S. -69% of U.S. adults are ether overweight or obese -17% of children and teens 6-19 are obese, 32% overweight -prevalence of being overweight in U.S. for children 6-11 increased 490% from 1974 to 2008 -increases found in ALL regions of the country, urban/rural, both sexes, all ethnic groups, rich and poor IMPORTANT ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES CONTRIBUTING TO RISING RATES/WEIGHTS: (FAAT) -->*F*: FOOD PRODUCERS AND FAST FOOD INDUSTRY -proliferation of fast food restaurants -soda and sugary foods in schools -super-sizing of portions (we at more when we are given more, overrides natural fullness; bigger portions in the U.S., double calories from 20 yrs ago in same items) --portion sizes in Paris are 25% less than those in Philadelphia --portion sizes have increased over the past 20 years (Pennsylvania 9lb burger) -->*A*: ADVERTISING FOR FOOD -food industry spends $40 + billion a year -children view about 30,000 commercials each year, more than half of which are for foods (greasy foods, sodas) -->*A*: ACTIVITY REDUCTION IN SCHOOLS -reduction in physical education (PE) programs -drop in % of students participating in a daily PE program (1969- 60%, 1999- 20%) -->*T*: TELEVISION VIEWING -screen activities

*Chapter 10* - Emotional and Social Development in Middle Childhood

Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood -kids grow around 2-3 inches per year and gain 5lbs, slower growth period -fast rising obesity rates! ... due to genetics AND environment (diet) -middle childhood = ages 6-11

Taylor et al. FINDINGS

RESULTS: --> *More frequent corporal punishment (at age 3) greatly increased odds of child having higher aggression at age 5* --> *More frequent use of CP was significantly associated with increased maternal parenting risks* THEORETICAL MECHANISM: -->Authors say that their findings seem to support the Social Learning Approach to understanding the cycle of violence. -->The child learns to be aggressive by being treated directly with aggression --> CORRELATIONAL STUDY, CANNOT ASSERT CAUSATION!!! PROS AND CONS OF STUDY: *Pros*: Huge sample Relatively representative Longitudinal Controlled for other confounding variables *Cons*: Can't infer causation Child behavior before age 3? Self-report Fathers? (role not considered)

Hormonal influences on gender typing - old & recent findings on CAH girls

ROLE OF BIOLOGY IN GENDER TYPING- HORMONAL INFLUENCES: -->*Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) girls - disorder and treatment*: -Disorder: *received high levels of androgens in utero* -Born with fully or partially *masculinized genitalia* -Treatment: *often corrective surgery and cortisone (steroid) therapy* FINDINGS FROM *EARLY* RESEARCH BY EHRHARDT ET AT. (LATE 60s and EARLY 70S): -interviewed parents and girls -reported that these girls were often tomboys and exhibited preferences for male activities (preferred pants over dresses) ... can't just assume this is biology though - MULTIPLE forces lead to gender typing! -->ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS TO INITIAL FINDINGS: -*cortisone treatment* (causes these differences) -*differential treatment* by parents BEFORE or AFTER corrective surgery -girls' *awareness of unique status* (I have boy parts ... so I do more boy things) -used interview data only? - *parental biases* (internal bias) FINDINGS FROM *NEWER* RESEARCH ON CAH GIRLS: --more rigorous method, not just talking to the girls and parents!! -*Observed behavior of these girls in relation to their female relatives (CONTROLS)* -Girls were 3 to 8 -->*FINDINGS*: -CAH girls played MORE with BOYS' toys and expressed a greater preference for boys' activities and boy playmates than the control girls -*Rough play*: NO DIFFERENCE (just like relatives in rough play) -Suggest *possible role of early androgen exposure on early preferences* -Still CANNOT ASSUME this is entirely biology!!! Treatment by parents?? Cortisone?? (other factors...)

-concerns about negative side effects of physical discipline from lecture, text pp. 214-216

Repeated harsh punishment has wide-ranging undesirable side effects: -models aggression -induces a chronic sense of being personally threatened --prompts children to focus on own distress and not be sympathetic to others -causes children to avoid the punitive parent, who as a result, has little opportunity to teach desirable behavior -by stopping misbehaviors temporarily, it offers immediate relief to adults who may then punish more often -- can spiral into abuse and serous behavior issues -childrens whose parents used CP are more accepting of it - may transfer to next gen LINK BETWEEN PHYSICAL PUNISHMENT AND LATER CHILD AGGRESSION !!

Bullying - definition, rates, characteristics of bullies, factors leading to bullying (lecture & text box p. 280)

SCHOOL BULLYING: Definitions and Prevalence: -->*Bullying* = instances of intentionally negative actions being directed at a specific person or group of people repeatedly and over time -Estimated that 15-30% of children are bullied and 10-20% bully -MANY FORMS: verbal, physical, psychological, electronic (cyber) CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPICAL BULLY: -Highly aggressive to be noncompliant across several domains and settings - antisocial rule breaking -Try to dominate others -Have little capacity for empathy FAMILY FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH AGGRESSIVE CHILDREN: -Parental hostility and lack of warmth; physical abuse -Use of power - assertive discipline in an erratic fashion -Lack of parental monitoring -Exposure to marital conflict or marital violence -text box p. 280: --*peer victimization*: certain children become targets of verbal and physical attacks or other forms of abuse -about 20% are bullies and 25% repeatedly victimized -about 20-40% of youths have experienced cyberbullying -high status bullies often target already peer rejected children -20-30% of onlookers ENCOURAGE bullies -victims have history of resistant attachment -close friend helps -best way to reduce bullying - promote prosocial attitudes and behaviors

*Chapter 8* - Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood

SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESCHOOLER (ages 2-6) -kids learn to do things on their own, show initiative, ride a bike ... children work to develop initiative!

Stability of temperament, findings of NYLS;

STABILITY OF TEMPERAMENT -how stable are the attributes of each temperament category? GENERAL FINDINGS: -only moderately stable from one age group period to the next; it can be modified by experience -least stable using infant assessments (before age 3); after age 3 assessments are better predictor or future temperament style EXAMPLES: -NYLS- 70% of children classified as difficult based on early behavior developed serious behavior problems -Novosad and Thoman (1999)- followed 55 children from ages 4 to 10, found correlations from .58 to .71 across the 9 dimensions (strong +)

Nature of early self-concept and self-esteem

Self Development: --> See foundations of *self concept* --> See emergence of *self-esteem* --> SELF CONCEPT = *the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is* -Children NOT born with self concept, but develops as we mature (*not present at birth*) -Initially based on external factors, very concrete (factors like physical appearance, possessions, skills, preferences, emotions) -- NO GLOBAL PERSONALITY TRAITS AT THIS TIME --Ex: 4 year old might describe himself as "I am strong, I like orange, I have a doll..." (physical objects and characteristics of personality are the child's self concept at this age) -*Cumulative*: children build on to early notions --> SELF-ESTEEM = *an aspect of self-concept that involves judgments about one's own worth* - (ranks are important judgement / development) -Preschoolers rate own abilities as extremely high - RENOWNED OPTIMISTS (they think that they are so good at stuff, can't compare to others' abilities); ex: child watching olympics "I can run like that!" -*Optimism is protective* (helps kids master new skills and contribute to initiative)

Different types of preschool play: parallel, associative, cooperative, sociodramatic

Spend the day in play. Different types of play. ALL TYPES CO-EXIST (in the preschool period). -Erikson believed play is very important a this age, and children spend lots of time in play 1. PARALLEL PLAY: *near another child, but does not try to influence others (ex: playing w/ puzzles side by side)* 2. ASSOCIATIVE PLAY: *children engage in separate activities, but exchange toys and comments (ex: sharing markers while playing)* 3. COOPERATIVE PLAY: *children oriented toward a common goal (e.g., hide-and-seek, treasure hunt, duck duck goose)* -kids take on *specialized roles* -->MAKE-BELEIVE or SOCIODRAMATIC PLAY: *joint make believe (pirates), kids work together --*promotes cognitive development*; more advanced *memory and language* --allows children to *explore emotions and fears*

role of TV on obesity

TELEVISION VIEWING AND OBESITY: -->*General findings about its role and contributions*: -American children spend approx. 3-4 hours each day watching tv (1500 hours/yr, vs 900 hrs/yr spent in school) -Argued that 25% of recent increase in obesity among adolescents may be attributable to increases in tv viewing and other screen time -Studies reveal a clear and significant, positive association between tv viewing and obesity -->*Mechanisms less clear. Why tv and obesity are linked? Several possibilities*: -Passivity: TV displaces physical activity -Increased consumption of foods while watching (25% of daily calories believed to be consumed in front of tv) -Poor food habits and choices encouraged by advertising

Temperament - definition - three categories developed by Thomas and Chess

TEMPERAMENT AND DEVELOPMENT: Def: *Temperament* = -refers to *early appearing, relatively stable individual differences in reactivity and self regulation* -*biologically - based* core -style of *approach and response* to the environment -relatively stable across time and situations --reactivity refers to quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor activity --self-regulation refers to strategies that modify that reactivity THOMAS AND CHESS -New York Longitudinal Study (NYLS): interviewed moms, followed 141 children from infancy into adulthood -Temperament was somewhat predictive of psychological adjustment -Parenting practices could modify children's emotional styles --9 dimensions yield 3 temperament classifications ... TEMPERAMENT CLASSIFICATIONS 1. EASY CHILD: (40%) -generally cheerful and predictable -regular routines, adaptable to new experiences, easy to parent 2. DIFFICULT CHILD: (10%) -often irritable and unpredictable -slow to accept new experiences, cry a lot, angry and violent reactions -may nap for different amounts of time, not consistent 3. SLOW-TO-WARM-UP CHILD: (15%) -moody, inactive, low-key reactions to environment -slow to adjust to environment / new experiences OTHER 35% OF CHILDREN: -did not fit any of these patterns -show blends of styles

Vygotsky's perspectives on learning; private speech; scaffolding (text pp. 186-188)

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: -children soon begin to converse with themselves the same way they converse with others; enhances thinking and behavior control PRIVATE SPEECH -egocentric speech: young children have difficulty taking the perspective of others; "wheres the red piece? now a blue one. try here."; "talk for self" they express thoughts in whatever form they occur even if listener doesn't understand ; this poor speech declines as egocentrism declines -DISAGREED W PIAGET -*language helps children think about their mental activities and select course of action for all higher cog processes; children speak to themselves for self-guidance* -as they get older self directed speech becomes internalized inner speech -*children's self directed speech is now called PRIVATE SPEECH, instead of egocentric speech* -- used when tasks are appropriately challenging -with age , private speech goes underground -- whispers and silent lip movements -CHILDREN WHO FREELY USE PRIVATE SPEECH DURING CHALLENGING ACTIVITY ARE MROE ATTENTIVE AND INVOLVED AND PERFORM BETTER THAN THEIR LESS TALKATIVE AGEMATES -->ZPD: range of tasks too hard for child alone but possible w adults help SCAFFOLDING = adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance -private speech used more in presence of others -make believe play is a unique ZPD -pretending is rich in private speech -*guided participation*: a broader concept than scaffolding. it refers to shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication --Rogoff (accounts for childrens' diverse learning habits and allows for culture variation) Vygotsky does not address motor, perceptual, attention, memory, and problem solving skills to contribute to higher cognitive processes -- Piaget paid far more attention to basic development of basic cognitive processes

Piaget's 8 limitations of preschool thought; --> Special terms: egocentrism, animistic thinking, perception-bound reasoning, centration, reversibility, identity constancy, transductive reasoning, hierarchical classification (tested via class inclusion problem)

WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS OF PRESCHOOL THOUGHT, ACCORDING TO PIAGET? 1. EGOCENTRISM: -*inability to distinguish the symbolic viewpoints of others from one's own* -self centered, you think that everyone feels the same way as you do, "I like candy, therefore everyone does!" - can't consider other viewpoints --> assessed via *three mountains problem* = visual perspective-taking task --> responsible for ANIMISTIC THINKING = *belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities* 2. REASONING IS PERCEPTION BOUND: -*difficulty making appearance - reality distinctions*, Ex: kid is given 2 similar objects, one is a painted sponge (fake rock) and one is a real rock - when asked "what is this really, a rock or a sponge/ what does it look like?" --> fewer than 40% can give two different answers, if it is a sponge then it looks like a sponge! -fooled by appearance of things, easily distracted 3. Thinking characterized by CENTRATION: -*focusing on one aspect of a stimulus to the neglect of other important features* (Ex: size of liquid or rows of pennies, they focus on one thing and not the other - think the amounts are different but aren't, can't account for other changes) 4. Trouble with REVERSIBILITY: -*ability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem, then reverse direction, returning to the starting point* -Ex: "What is 2+1?" --> child says 3, but then ask "What is 1+2?" --> child cannot do this) 5. TENDENCY TO FOCUS ON STATES RATHER THAN TRANSFORMATIONS: -difficulty thinking about previous states that got it here, rather only focus on current/final state - water example 6. Not yet attained IDENTITY CONSTANCY = *realization that some qualitative characteristics of individuals are permanent, despite changes in outward appearance (cat mask on dog - kid thinks it is a cat now, dresses on male barbies - kid thinks its a female now) -shape constancy: two balls of play dough, smash one down, kid thinks the smashed one is bigger now 7. Exhibit TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING = *reasoning from one particular event to another particular event, whether or not there is a logical causal relationship* -Ex: kid realizes baby can't talk bc he doesn't have teeth after seeing grandpa without teeth; pouring milk in the ground --> cow will grow? -Divorce: "dad left bc I didn't pick up the toys yesterday" ... kid associates things w/ time 8. Difficulty with HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION: -*classify objects based on one characteristic, don't recognize that objects can belong to classes within classes* (multiple groups) -"more yellow flowers or flowers?" child says "yellow flowers" --> hierarchy ... the yellow flowers are also part of the general category of flowers, so there are more yellow than red, BUT more flowers total than only yellow ones -- *class inclusions* task measured the child's mastery of hierarchical classification: Class Inclusion was IMPROVED by changing the wording of the question to conform to standard English use

challenges in assessing discipline style effectiveness

WHY IS IT DIFFICULT TO JUDGE WHICH DISCIPLINE TYPE IS EFFECTIVE AND WHAT IS NOT? --> MEDIATING FACTORS: -use and effectiveness of strategies is *age dependent* (toddlers respond to "Stop" comments, but older children respond better to suggestions" -effectiveness is affected by *child's temperament* (quiet and gentle vs loud strategies - work diff for diff temps) -*consistency is essential* (build a routine; how often you do it - hard to judge effectiveness) -discipline occurs in the context of parent - child relations (love, fear ...)

Psychosocial conflict of preschooler - initiative (definition) vs. guilt

Who is the preschooler? Developmental tasks and goals: -->DEVELOPMENTAL TASK (*Erikson*) = *INITIATIVE VS. GUILT* -Initiative vs Guilt is the *psychosocial conflict* that a child faces during preschools years ages 2-6, early childhood -*Initiative* = ability to act on your own and initiate things independently --Being spirited, enterprising, ambitious -Resolved *positively* when ADULTS ACCEPT AND ENCOURAGE EFFORTS - *child develops a sense of self as capable of initiative* -Resolved *negatively* when ADULTS REPEATEDLY RIDICULE, RESTRICT, AND CRITICIZE EFFORTS - *child develops overly strict conscience, guilt* (blames them selves for failing) -Ex: clip from childhood series- 5 yr olds find a cave, they go in the dark with an adult who guides them (dependence) ... they are scared of the dark but they trust the adult

--2 challenges of intelligence =

defining it and measuring it!!

- moral development (pp. 274-277)

in group favoritism and outgroup prejudice

cognitive self-regulation (text p. 249)

school age children have difficulty putting what they know about thinking into action *cognitive self regulation*: the process of continuously monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes and redirecting unsuccessful efforts -develops gradually ex: Lizzie knows that she should group items when memorizing and reread a complicated paragraph to make sure she understands ... but she does not always engage in these activities

Nature of ethological theory of attachment

views the infant's emotional tie to its mother as an evolved response that promotes *survival*